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May 30, 2017

Flooding in Sri Lanka, new observations concerning Jupiter, and the meaning of Memorial Day are some of our subjects this Tuesday, as we kick off our last week of the season. We're visiting Arlington National Cemetery on an American day of remembrance, and we're looking at what a recent study suggests about social media use.

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May 31, 2017

An upcoming vote in the United Kingdom is grabbing international headlines more than a week before it takes place. Several American states are teaming up to address an epidemic of opioid abuse, as children increasingly pay the price for their parents' addiction. And China is planning to build a massive, underwater observation system in disputed territory.

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A terrorist attack in Afghanistan brings us to a discussion about the security challenges that the war-torn country faces. A missile defense test in the U.S. leads into an explanation of the message being sent to an overseas adversary. And a planned deep-space mission requires technological preparations to endure incredible heat and radiation.

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the Paris accord, the U.S. plans to leave it, and the controversy surrounding the decision. We're also looking at how a program in Florida aims to prevent the exploitation of farm workers. And what better way to start our summer hiatus than with a trip to the beach?

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June 2, 2017

On our last show of the season, we're explaining the Paris accord, we're looking at an effort to protect farm workers, and we're taking a trip to the beach. Transcript and Newsquiz

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May 8, 2017

French voters elect a new president, dozens of kidnapped Nigerian schoolgirls are freed, U.S. malls struggle to stay open, and we report on a new CNN Hero. Transcript

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May 1, 2017

A U.S. president's rally, a U.S. correspondents' dinner, and a U.S.-organized march begin this show, followed by reports on violent weather and a new CNN Hero. Transcript

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April 24, 2017

France moves toward electing a new leader, Russia unveils a military base in the Arctic, we report on Earth Day, and we introduce the nominators of CNN Heroes. Transcript

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April 12, 2017

American and Russian tensions over Syria, a U.S. state's plan to offer free college tuition, and the health benefits of unplugging are all featured today. Transcript

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April 10, 2017

Parts of Africa and Europe are struck by terrorist attacks, the U.S. military targets a Syrian airbase, and a CNN Hero helps students with hearing loss. Transcript

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This is the first marker for Q4

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March 30, 2017

Featured this Thursday: U.S. troops in the Middle East, the debate over "sanctuary cities," and one engineer's quest for a concert hall with perfect sound. Transcript

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March 27, 2017

A new leader is chosen in Hong Kong, a GOP health reform effort falls short, a moon race may be launching, and a CNN Hero gives refuge from Chicago violence. Transcript

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March 22, 2017

Changes for U.S.-bound flights, changes to a GOP health care plan, preparedness changes in Japanese schools, and changes for Mexico's poor are all featured. Transcript

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March 17, 2017

The latest hold on a U.S. immigration order, historic footage of nuclear tests, hiking near a lava lake, and a CNN Hero are all featured this Friday. Transcript and Newsquiz

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March 7, 2017

Today's topics: a revised immigration order in the U.S., an explanation of how North Korea's weapons program is accelerating, and some history of the Iditarod. Transcript

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March 9, 2017

Today, we explain how THAAD systems work, how students are sounding off against modern-day slavery, and how social media usage has been linked to loneliness. Transcript

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March 6, 2017

The National People's Congress gathers in China, some students receive a lesson in forced labor, and a tech expert details what can be learned from "likes." Transcript

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March 2, 2017

Now playing: The science behind tornadoes, an outbreak of bird flu in humans, efforts to fight modern-day slavery, and the development of self-driving racecars. Transcript

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February 15, 2017

The U.S. national security adviser resigns, we examine the relationship between North Korea and China, and we look at a new weapon in the fight against malaria.

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February 14, 2017

Erosion near a California dam leads to mass evacuations, part of Kentucky sees a spike in heroin overdoses, and pilot whales become stranded in New Zealand.

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Featured today: disputed islands in the East China Sea and South China Sea, a historic vote in the U.S. Senate, and the hype of virtual reality technology. Transcript

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February 13, 2017

A North Korean missile test, a U.S. appeals court ruling, an effort to protect great white sharks, and a program to care for tiger cubs are today's topics. Transcript

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February 3, 2017

A missile launch deepens tensions between Iran and the U.S., we examine earthquakes in depth, and we show you how tackle football isn't just a sport for men. Transcript and Newsquiz

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February 1, 2017

The close relationship between the U.S. and the U.K., the replacement of the acting U.S. attorney general, and a plan to remove "space junk" are today's topics. Transcript

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CNN10 - January 31

Featured today: the significance of NATO, an attack on a Canadian mosque, relief for California's drought, and the new tech that's changing an old-school sport. Transcript

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CNN10 - January 27

One foreign leader arrives in the U.S. while another cancels his trip, one holiday triggers a massive migration, and one superlative mountain might've shrunk. Transcript and Newsquiz

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CNN10 - January 26

Today's topics on CNN 10 include Israeli settlements in the West Bank, major changes to U.S. immigration policy, and a new high note for the Dow. Transcript

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CNN 10 - January 23

This Monday's special edition of CNN 10 reports on the inauguration of U.S. President Donald Trump and brings you an overview of related weekend events. Transcript

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MY BIRTHDAY!!!

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CNN 10 - January 18

The search for Malaysian Airlines Flight 370 is suspended, U.S. troops are on the move in Eastern Europe, and we take a historic look at inaugural traditions. Transcript

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Today, we're featuring the legacy of Martin Luther King Jr., the process of "pollution-proofing" a home, and the end of an era for a famous American circus. Transcript

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I most likely wont care once its realy time, so ill just add it now. Martin Luthur Ling Jr. speach:

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I most likely wont care once its realy time, so ill just add it now. Martin Luthur Ling Jr. speach:

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I am happy to join with you today in what will go down in history as the greatest demonstration for freedom in the history of our nation.

Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity.

But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languished in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land. And so we've come here today to dramatize a shameful condition.

In a sense we've come to our nation's capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the "unalienable Rights" of "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note, insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which has come back marked "insufficient funds."

But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. And so, we've come to cash this check, a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice.

We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of Now. This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God's children.

It would be fatal for the nation to overlook the urgency of the moment. This sweltering summer of the Negro's legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and equality. Nineteen sixty-three is not an end, but a beginning. And those who hope that the Negro needed to blow off steam and will now be content will have a rude awakening if the nation returns to business as usual. And there will be neither rest nor tranquility in America until the Negro is granted his citizenship rights. The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.

But there is something that I must say to my people, who stand on the warm threshold which leads into the palace of justice: In the process of gaining our rightful place, we must not be guilty of wrongful deeds. Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred. We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate into physical violence. Again and again, we must rise to the majestic heights of meeting physical force with soul force.

The marvelous new militancy which has engulfed the Negro community must not lead us to a distrust of all white people, for many of our white brothers, as evidenced by their presence here today, have come to realize that their destiny is tied up with our destiny. And they have come to realize that their freedom is inextricably bound to our freedom.

We cannot walk alone.

And as we walk, we must make the pledge that we shall always march ahead.

We cannot turn back.

There are those who are asking the devotees of civil rights, "When will you be satisfied?" We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the unspeakable horrors of police brutality. We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. *We cannot be satisfied as long as the negro's basic mobility is from a smaller ghetto to a larger one. We can never be satisfied as long as our children are stripped of their self-hood and robbed of their dignity by signs stating: "For Whites Only."* We cannot be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote. No, no, we are not satisfied, and we will not be satisfied until "justice rolls down like waters, and righteousness like a mighty stream."¹

I am not unmindful that some of you have come here out of great trials and tribulations. Some of you have come fresh from narrow jail cells. And some of you have come from areas where your quest -- quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality. You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive. Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities, knowing that somehow this situation can and will be changed.

Let us not wallow in the valley of despair, I say to you today, my friends.

And so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream.

I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal."

I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.

I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice.

I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.

I have a dream today!

I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with its governor having his lips dripping with the words of "interposition" and "nullification" -- one day right there in Alabama little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers.

I have a dream today!

I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, and every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight; "and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed and all flesh shall see it together."2

This is our hope, and this is the faith that I go back to the South with.

With this faith, we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith, we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith, we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day.

And this will be the day -- this will be the day when all of God's children will be able to sing with new meaning:

My country 'tis of thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing.

Land where my fathers died, land of the Pilgrim's pride,

From every mountainside, let freedom ring!

And if America is to be a great nation, this must become true.

And so let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire.

Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York.

Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania.

Let freedom ring from the snow-capped Rockies of Colorado.

Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California.

But not only that:

Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia.

Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee.

Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi.

From every mountainside, let freedom ring.

And when this happens, and when we allow freedom ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to speed up that day when all of God's children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual:

Free at last! Free at last!

Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!3

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CNN 10 - January 13

Storms ease California's drought but bring flooding, Britain approves a controversial tunnel under Stonehenge, and we look back at U.S. inauguration speeches. Transcript and Newsquiz

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a nother rap

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the picture is not there, but its still a rap, so it doesnt matter

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CNN is not working. wont load. stuck with an article. But this was the description.
CNN 10 - January 11

Featured this Wednesday on CNN 10: the struggles of Venezuela's economy, the effects of coral bleaching, and the rise and fall of Yahoo Internet company. Transcript

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CNN 10 is an on-demand digital news show ideal for explanation seekers on the go or in the classroom.

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CNN 10 - January 9

U.S. intelligence concerning Russia, wicked winter weather concerning the U.S., and mixed signs concerning the economy are three of today's topics on CNN 10. Transcript

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CNN 10 - January 6

Today on CNN 10: air pollution in China, some forces that drive Russia's leader, vanishing bees, and the history of why a ball is dropped on New Year's Eve. Newsquiz and Transcript

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i forgot about the puns. :(

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CNN 10 - January 5

Welcome to our inaugural production of CNN 10! Today, we're explaining global tensions, a type of echo chamber, and what it's like to be a freshman in Congress. Click for Transcript

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CNN IS BACK!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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its actually january 4 but i just felt like saying it

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It is almost time. january 4 2017. YAY :D

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It is almost time. january 4 2017. YAY :D

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NO CNN NEWS UNTIL JANUARY 5 2017!!!!!!!!!!!!!!11 :(

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stuff is happening somewere.

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now all the puns have the word pun in it. i cry for this.

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December 16, 2016

Our last show of 2016 details an evacuation in Aleppo, the potential threat posed by North Korea, and a recently announced hack of the Yahoo technology company.

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December 15, 2016

Today, we're examining the challenges faced by Turkey, the interest rate hike by the Fed, a dinosaur discovery, and new uses for motion-capture cameras.

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December 9, 2016

Today, we're covering the passing of U.S. astronaut John Glenn, the importance of the Syrian city of Aleppo, and the scientific potential for swarm technology.

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December 8, 2016

Today's topics include an earthquake in Indonesia, the Pacific Ring of Fire, the history of the Cold War, the Zika virus, and a unique soccer training device.

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December 7, 2016

This December 7, we're bringing you the memories of a Pearl Harbor Attack survivor, and we're examining how bacteria could become a common source of light.

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December 6, 2016

Results come in from an Italian vote, we look at the complex relationship between China and Taiwan, and we explain how a dangerous type of cyberattack works.

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December 5, 2016

Italians vote on whether to change their Constitution, smog grounds flights and travelers in part of China, and we examine the extensive preps of pro Santas.

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AWESOME NEW DRONES!!!

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Standard & Poor 's Financial Services LLC

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Star Wars drones battle mid-air at 35mph

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Propel is releasing a line of limited-edition Star Wars themed drones, built specifically for laser battling.

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December 2, 2016

The U.N. announces new sanctions against North Korea, Carrier announces it's keeping jobs in Indiana, and football promoters hope to score touchdowns in China.

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;д; why puns he continue with the puns?

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December 1, 2016

U.S. Marines take part in training exercises near Norway's border with Russia, and we look at the incoming U.S. Senate with regard to potential filibusters.

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are you kidding me. THE PUNS AGAIN!!! WHYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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November 30, 2016

A plane crash in Colombia, a look at wildfires in Tennessee, a protest over the U.S. minimum wage, and a potential space weapon are all covered today.

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It's an action figure fanatic's dream: A real-life transformer is up for auction in Abu Dhabi, but you'll need at least $600,000 to make a bid.

Antimon is a BMW 3-series car that transforms into a robot in 30 seconds. It's the work of 12 engineers and 4 technicians from Turkey, who spent 11 months putting their creation together.

"We want to show our power all over the world," said Turgat Alpagot, sales and marketing director for Letrons, the Turkish startup behind the transformer. "We think if we do something like this it'll get great exposure all over the world."

Alpagot says he's already received bids for Antimon at this week's Big Boys Toys exhibition in the UAE capital. The highest bidder can take Antimon home at the end of the exhibition on Saturday.

Related: Meet the man who spent $9 million on a license plate

Bids are starting at $600,000 for a real-life transformer

The car isn't licensed for the road, and you can't drive it. But it can be moved by remote control at speeds up to 20 kilometers(12.4 miles)per hour. In its standing position, the robot can move its arms, fingers and head.

Letrons hopes Antimon will be the first in a series of 12 transformers. The rest are in the research and development stage.

Alpagot says the company has received interests from theme parks and shows looking to rent Antimon.

What's next? The creators are seeking funding from private investors to develop smaller transformers that are more affordable and can be driven on the road.

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IT JUST LOOKS SO AWESOME!!!

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Engineers in turkey are making a real life transforming car. It is from the BMW company (my favorite)

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Standard & Poor 's Financial Services LLC

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Engineers in Turkey are auctioning off a real-life transforming car that would make even Transformers director Michael Bay jealous.

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There are plenty of electric cars on the market right now.

But none of them stand out quite like the new UK1909 vehicle from Morgan Motor.

The kooky three-wheeled vehicle is the niche British automaker's first foray into the electric-powered market after 107 years of business. The car is reminiscent of the company's first model, another three-wheeler that debuted in 1909.

The focus of this car is fun and excitement, and not Tesla-style practicality.

CNNMoney got exclusive access to drive and film the new car near the company's headquarters in Malvern, which is an hour's drive west from William Shakespeare's birthplace, Stratford-upon-Avon.

The topless sports car is remarkably loud for an electric vehicle and produces a satisfying "vroom" that's sure to thrill attention-seeking drivers. (Bystanders were suitably agog during CNNMoney's test drive.)

It's not the most powerful car, with just 70 horsepower. Its range is also relatively small at 150 miles per charge, which is about half that of a Tesla Model S.

Morgan Motor launched its first electric car this month at the London department store, Selfridges.

The small, family-owned automaker is only producing 19 UK1909s and selling them exclusively at the London department store Selfridges. The price -- £52,500 ($65,300) -- isn't far off what a Tesla Model S goes for in the U.K.

Despite the limited production run, Morgan insists that electric cars will be a key part of its future.

Morgan is investing £6 million ($7.5 million) in electric technology and plans to eventually produce larger four-wheel electric models.

The family-owned Morgan Motor is known for making cars that look like they've driven straight out of a 'Downton Abbey' episode.

It will also use the UK1909 frame -- with different trim and colors -- to make a second electric car, the EV3. Morgan plans to sell 50 EV3s per year, a significant commitment for a company that produces only 850 hand-built cars a year.

"We won't necessarily make a large return on selling [UK1909 and] EV3 vehicles. But in doing this campaign we are exploring what it means to produce these cars," said Morgan's head of design, Jonathan Wells.

"It's a nice way of us gathering momentum as we explore [electric technology] much more significantly further down the line," he said.

Each UK1909 electric car will be hand-crafted at the Morgan headquarters in Malvern, U.K.

Selfridges, which collaborated on the UK1909 design, is promoting the car's launch by selling a variety of driving accessories to the 19 buyers, including goggles and a scarf crafted by British luxury brand Alexander McQueen.

British department store Selfridges is selling a range of accessories to drivers who buy the UK1909 electric car.

Morgan is also selling a kids version of the UK1909, which is on display at Selfridges. It's priced as £7,300 ($9,100).

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November 28, 2016

Reaction to the death of Cuban leader Fidel Castro, a push to recount votes in several U.S. states, and the reinvention of the wheel are all featured today.

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Engineers have made a new, improved, and sturdy wheel. unlike most other wheels, this one does not bounce.

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This article is about the planet. For other uses, see Saturn (disambiguation).Saturn Astronomical symbol for SaturnSaturn during Equinox.jpgSaturn in natural color, photographed byCassini in July 2008, approaching equinox. The little white dot in the bottom left corner is Titan.DesignationsPronunciation	Listeni/ˈsætərn/[1]Adjectives	Saturnian, CronianOrbital characteristics[2]Epoch J2000.0Aphelion	10.086 AU(1,509 Gm)Perihelion	9.024 AU(1,350 Gm)Semi-major axis9.554909 AU(1,429.39 Gm)[2]Eccentricity	0.05555Orbital period29.4571 yr10,759.22 d24,491.07 Saturnian solar days[3]Synodic period378.09 days[4]Average orbital speed9.69 km/s[4]Mean anomaly317.020°Inclination	2.485240° to ecliptic5.51° to Sun's equator0.93° to invariable plane[5]Longitude of ascending node113.665°Argument of perihelion339.392°Known satellites	62 with formal designations; innumerable additional moonlets.[4]Physical characteristicsMean radius58,232±6 km[6][a]Equatorial radius60,268±4 km[6][a]9.4492 EarthsPolar radius54,364±10 km[6][a]8.5521 EarthsFlattening	0.09796±0.00018Surface area4.27×1010 km2[a][7]83.703 EarthsVolume	8.2713×1014 km3[4][a]763.59 EarthsMass	5.6836×1026 kg[4]95.159 EarthsMean density0.687 g/cm3[4][a](less than water)Surface gravity10.44 m/s²[4][a]1.065 gMoment of inertia factor0.210[8]Escape velocity35.5 km/s[4][a]Sidereal rotation period10.55 hours[9](10 hr 33 min)Equatorial rotation velocity9.87 km/s[a]35,500 km/hAxial tilt26.73° (to orbit)[4]North pole right ascension2h 42m 21s40.589°[6]North pole declination83.537°[6]Albedo	0.342 (Bond)0.47 (geometric)[4]Surface temp.	min	mean	max1 bar level		134 K (−139°C)[4]	0.1 bar		84 K[4]	Apparent magnitude+1.47 to −0.24[10]Angular diameter14.5″ to 20.1″[4](excludes rings)Atmosphere[4]Scale height59.5 kmComposition by volume	by volume:≈ 96%	hydrogen (H2)≈ 3%	helium (He)≈ 0.4%	methane (CH4)≈ 0.01%	ammonia (NH3)≈ 0.01%	hydrogen deuteride (HD)0.0007%	ethane (C2H6)Ices:ammonia (NH3)water (H2O)ammonium hydrosulfide (NH4SH)Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System, after Jupiter. It is a gas giant with an average radius about nine times that of Earth.[11][12] Although only one-eighth the average density of Earth, with its larger volume Saturn is just over 95 times more massive.[13][14][15] Saturn is named after the Roman god of agriculture; its astronomical symbol (♄) represents the god's sickle.Saturn's interior is probably composed of a core of iron–nickel and rock (silicon and oxygen compounds). This core is surrounded by a deep layer of metallic hydrogen, an intermediate layer of liquid hydrogen and liquid helium, and finally outside the Frenkel line a gaseous outer layer.[16] Saturn has a pale yellow hue due to ammonia crystals in its upper atmosphere. Electrical current within the metallic hydrogen layer is thought to give rise to Saturn's planetary magnetic field, which is weaker than Earth's, but has a magnetic moment 580 times that of Earth due to Saturn's larger size. Saturn's magnetic field strength is around one-twentieth of Jupiter's.[17] The outer atmosphere is generally bland and lacking in contrast, although long-lived features can appear. Wind speeds on Saturn can reach 1,800 km/h (500 m/s), higher than on Jupiter, but not as high as those on Neptune.[18]Saturn has a prominent ring system that consists of nine continuous main rings and three discontinuous arcs and that is composed mostly of ice particles with a smaller amount of rocky debris and dust. Sixty-two[19] moons are known to orbit Saturn, of which fifty-three are officially named. This does not include the hundreds of moonlets comprising the rings. Titan, Saturn's largest moon, and the second-largest in the Solar System, is larger than the planet Mercury, although less massive, and is the only moon in the Solar System to have a substantial atmosphere.[20]Contents  [hide] 1	Physical characteristics1.1	Internal structure1.2	Atmosphere1.3	Magnetosphere2	Orbit and rotation3	Natural satellites3.1	Planetary rings4	History of observation and exploration4.1	Ancient observations4.2	European observations (17th–19th centuries)4.3	Modern NASA and ESA probes5	Observation6	In culture7	See also8	Notes9	References10	Further reading11	External linksPhysical characteristicsComposite image roughly comparing the sizes of Saturn and EarthSaturn is a gas giant because it is predominantly composed of hydrogen and helium ('gas'). It lacks a definite surface, though it may have a solid core.[21] Saturn's rotation causes it to have the shape of an oblate spheroid; that is, it is flattened at the poles and bulges at its equator. Its equatorial and polar radii differ by almost 10%: 60,268 km versus 54,364 km, respectively.[4] Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune, the other giant planets in the Solar System, are also oblate but to a lesser extent. Saturn is the only planet of the Solar System that is less dense than water—about 30% less.[22] Although Saturn's core is considerably denser than water, the average specific density of the planet is 0.69 g/cm3 due to the atmosphere. Jupiter has 318 times the Earth's mass,[23] while Saturn is 95 times the mass of the Earth.[4] Together, Jupiter and Saturn hold 92% of the total planetary mass in the Solar System.[24]On 8 January 2015, NASA reported determining the center of the planet Saturn and its family of moons to within 4 km (2.5 mi).[25]Internal structureDiagram of Saturn, to scale.Despite consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium, most of Saturn's mass is not in the gas phase, because hydrogen becomes a non-ideal liquid when the density is above 0.01 g/cm3, which is reached at a radius containing 99.9% of Saturn's mass. The temperature, pressure, and density inside Saturn all rise steadily toward the core, which causes hydrogen to transition into a metal in the deeper layers.[24]Standard planetary models suggest that the interior of Saturn is similar to that of Jupiter, having a small rocky core surrounded by hydrogen and helium with trace amounts of various volatiles.[26] This core is similar in composition to the Earth, but more dense. Examination of Saturn's gravitational moment, in combination with physical models of the interior, allowed French astronomers Didier Saumon and Tristan Guillot to place constraints on the mass of Saturn's core. In 2004, they estimated that the core must be 9–22 times the mass of the Earth,[27][28] which corresponds to a diameter of about 25,000 km.[29] This is surrounded by a thicker liquid metallic hydrogen layer, followed by a liquid layer of helium-saturated molecular hydrogen that gradually transitions to a gas with increasing altitude. The outermost layer spans 1,000 km and consists of gas.[30][31][32]Saturn has a hot interior, reaching 11,700 °C at its core, and it radiates 2.5 times more energy into space than it receives from the Sun. Jupiter's thermal energy is generated by the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism of slow gravitational compression, but this alone may not be sufficient to explain heat production for Saturn, because it is less massive. An alternative or additional mechanism may be generation of heat through the "raining out" of droplets of helium deep in Saturn's interior. As the droplets descend through the lower-density hydrogen, the process releases heat by friction and leaves Saturn's outer layers depleted of helium.[33][34] These descending droplets may have accumulated into a helium shell surrounding the core.[26]AtmosphereMethane bands circle Saturn (rel 1 February 2016)The outer atmosphere of Saturn contains 96.3% molecular hydrogen and 3.25% helium by volume.[35] The proportion of helium is significantly deficient compared to the abundance of this element in the Sun.[26] The quantity of elements heavier than helium is not known precisely, but the proportions are assumed to match the primordial abundances from the formation of the Solar System. The total mass of these heavier elements is estimated to be 19–31 times the mass of the Earth, with a significant fraction located in Saturn's core region.[36]Trace amounts of ammonia, acetylene, ethane, propane, phosphine and methane have been detected in Saturn's atmosphere.[37][38][39] The upper clouds are composed of ammonia crystals, while the lower level clouds appear to consist of either ammonium hydrosulfide (NH4SH) or water.[40] Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun causes methane photolysis in the upper atmosphere, leading to a series of hydrocarbon chemical reactions with the resulting products being carried downward by eddies and diffusion. This photochemical cycle is modulated by Saturn's annual seasonal cycle.[39]Cloud layersA global storm girdles the planet in 2011. The head of the storm (bright area) passes the tail circling around the left limb.Saturn's atmosphere exhibits a banded pattern similar to Jupiter's, but Saturn's bands are much fainter and are much wider near the equator. The nomenclature used to describe these bands is the same as on Jupiter. Saturn's finer cloud patterns were not observed until the flybys of the Voyager spacecraft during the 1980s. Since then, Earth-based telescopy has improved to the point where regular observations can be made.[41]The composition of the clouds varies with depth and increasing pressure. In the upper cloud layers, with the temperature in the range 100–160 K and pressures extending between 0.5–2 bar, the clouds consist of ammonia ice. Water ice clouds begin at a level where the pressure is about 2.5 bar and extend down to 9.5 bar, where temperatures range from 185–270 K. Intermixed in this layer is a band of ammonium hydrosulfide ice, lying in the pressure range 3–6 bar with temperatures of 290–235 K. Finally, the lower layers, where pressures are between 10–20 bar and temperatures are 270–330 K, contains a region of water droplets with ammonia in aqueous solution.[42]Saturn's usually bland atmosphere occasionally exhibits long-lived ovals and other features common on Jupiter. In 1990, the Hubble Space Telescope imaged an enormous white cloud near Saturn's equator that was not present during the Voyager encounters and in 1994, another, smaller storm was observed. The 1990 storm was an example of a Great White Spot, a unique but short-lived phenomenon that occurs once every Saturnian year, roughly every 30 Earth years, around the time of the northern hemisphere's summer solstice.[43] Previous Great White Spots were observed in 1876, 1903, 1933 and 1960, with the 1933 storm being the most famous. If the periodicity is maintained, another storm will occur in about 2020.[44]The winds on Saturn are the second fastest among the Solar System's planets, after Neptune's. Voyager data indicate peak easterly winds of 500 m/s (1800 km/h).[45] In images from the Cassini spacecraft during 2007, Saturn's northern hemisphere displayed a bright blue hue, similar to Uranus. The color was most likely caused by Rayleigh scattering.[46] Thermography has shown that Saturn's south pole has a warm polar vortex, the only known example of such a phenomenon in the Solar System.[47] Whereas temperatures on Saturn are normally −185 °C, temperatures on the vortex often reach as high as −122 °C, suspected to be the warmest spot on Saturn.[47]North pole hexagonal cloud patternSaturn – North polar hexagon and vortex as well as rings (2 April 2014)Main article: Saturn's hexagonA persisting hexagonal wave pattern around the north polar vortex in the atmosphere at about 78°N was first noted in the Voyager images.[48][49][50] The sides of the hexagon are each about 13,800 km (8,600 mi) long, which is longer than the diameter of the Earth.[51] The entire structure rotates with a period of 10h 39m 24s (the same period as that of the planet's radio emissions) which is assumed to be equal to the period of rotation of Saturn's interior.[52] The hexagonal feature does not shift in longitude like the other clouds in the visible atmosphere.[53] The pattern's origin is a matter of much speculation. Most scientists think it is a standing wave pattern in the atmosphere. Polygonal shapes have been replicated in the laboratory through differential rotation of fluids.[54][55]South pole vortexA storm at Saturn's south poleHST imaging of the south polar region indicates the presence of a jet stream, but no strong polar vortex nor any hexagonal standing wave.[56] NASA reported in November 2006 that Cassini had observed a "hurricane-like" storm locked to the south pole that had a clearly defined eyewall.[57][58] Eyewall clouds had not previously been seen on any planet other than Earth. For example, images from the Galileo spacecraft did not show an eyewall in the Great Red Spot of Jupiter.[59]The south pole storm may have been present for billions of years.[60] This vortex is comparable to the size of Earth, and it has winds of 550 km/h.[60]Other featuresCassini has observed a series of cloud features nicknamed "String of Pearls" found in northern latitudes. These features are cloud clearings that reside in deeper cloud layers.[61]MagnetosphereMain article: Magnetosphere of SaturnPolar aurorae on SaturnAuroral lights at Saturn’s north pole.[62]Saturn has an intrinsic magnetic field that has a simple, symmetric shape – a magnetic dipole. Its strength at the equator – 0.2 gauss (20 µT) – is approximately one twentieth of that of the field around Jupiter and slightly weaker than Earth's magnetic field.[17] As a result, Saturn's magnetosphere is much smaller than Jupiter's.[63] When Voyager 2 entered the magnetosphere, the solar wind pressure was high and the magnetosphere extended only 19 Saturn radii, or 1.1 million km (712,000 mi),[64] although it enlarged within several hours, and remained so for about three days.[65] Most probably, the magnetic field is generated similarly to that of Jupiter – by currents in the liquid metallic-hydrogen layer called a metallic-hydrogen dynamo.[63] This magnetosphere is efficient at deflecting the solar wind particles from the Sun. The moon Titan orbits within the outer part of Saturn's magnetosphere and contributes plasma from the ionized particles in Titan's outer atmosphere.[17] Saturn's magnetosphere, like Earth's, produces aurorae.[66]Orbit and rotationThe average distance between Saturn and the Sun is over 1.4 billion kilometres (9 AU). With an average orbital speed of 9.69 km/s,[4] it takes Saturn 10,759 Earth days (or about  29 1⁄2 years),[67] to finish one revolution around the Sun.[4] The elliptical orbit of Saturn is inclined 2.48° relative to the orbital plane of the Earth.[4] The perihelion and aphelion distances are, respectively, 9.022 and 10.053 AU, on average.[68] The visible features on Saturn rotate at different rates depending on latitude and multiple rotation periods have been assigned to various regions (as in Jupiter's case).Astronomers use three different systems for specifying the rotation rate of Saturn. System I has a period of 10 hr 14 min 00 sec (844.3°/d) and encompasses the Equatorial Zone, the South Equatorial Belt and the North Equatorial Belt. The polar regions are considered to have rotation rates similar to System I. All other Saturnian latitudes, excluding the north and south polar regions, are indicated as System II and have been assigned a rotation period of 10 hr 38 min 25.4 sec (810.76°/d). System III refers to Saturn's internal rotation rate. Based on radio emissions from the planet in the period of the Voyager flybys, it has been assigned a rotation period of 10 hr 39 min 22.4 sec (810.8°/d). Because it is close to System II, it has largely superseded it.[69]A precise value for the rotation period of the interior remains elusive. While approaching Saturn in 2004, Cassini found that the radio rotation period of Saturn had increased appreciably, to approximately 10 hr 45 min 45 sec (± 36 sec).[70][71] The latest estimate of Saturn's rotation (as an indicated rotation rate for Saturn as a whole) based on a compilation of various measurements from the Cassini, Voyager and Pioneer probes was reported in September 2007 is 10 hr 32 min 35 sec.[72]In March 2007, it was found that the variation of radio emissions from the planet did not match Saturn's rotation rate. This variance may be caused by geyser activity on Saturn's moon Enceladus. The water vapor emitted into Saturn's orbit by this activity becomes charged and creates a drag upon Saturn's magnetic field, slowing its rotation slightly relative to the rotation of the planet.[73][74][75]Natural satellitesMain article: Moons of SaturnA montage of Saturn and its principal moons (Dione, Tethys, Mimas, Enceladus, Rhea and Titan; Iapetus not shown). This famous image was created from photographs taken in November 1980 by the Voyager 1 spacecraft.Saturn has 62 known moons, 53 of which have formal names.[76][77] In addition, there is evidence of dozens to hundreds of moonlets with diameters of 40–500 meters in Saturn's rings,[78] which are not considered to be true moons. Titan, the largest moon, comprises more than 90% of the mass in orbit around Saturn, including the rings.[79] Saturn's second-largest moon, Rhea, may have a tenuous ring system of its own,[80] along with a tenuous atmosphere.[81][82][83][84]Possible beginning of a new moon (white dot) of Saturn (image taken by Cassini on 15 April 2013).Many of the other moons are small: 34 are less than 10 km in diameter and another 14 between 10 and 50 km in diameter.[85] Traditionally, most of Saturn's moons have been named after Titans of Greek mythology. Titan is the only satellite in the Solar System with a major atmosphere,[86][87] in which a complex organic chemistry occurs. It is the only satellite with hydrocarbon lakes.[88][89]On 6 June 2013, scientists at the IAA-CSIC reported the detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the upper atmosphere of Titan, a possible precursor for life.[90] On 23 June 2014, NASA claimed to have strong evidence that nitrogen in the atmosphere of Titan came from materials in the Oort cloud, associated with comets, and not from the materials that formed Saturn in earlier times.[91]Saturn's moon Enceladus, which seems similar in chemical makeup to comets,[92] has often been regarded as a potential habitat for microbial life.[93][94][95][96] Evidence of this possibility includes the satellite's salt-rich particles having an "ocean-like" composition that indicates most of Enceladus's expelled ice comes from the evaporation of liquid salt water.[97][98][99]In April 2014, NASA scientists reported the possible beginning of a new moon, within the A Ring, of the planet Saturn, which was imaged by Cassini on 15 April 2013.[100]Planetary ringsMain article: Rings of SaturnThe rings of Saturn (imaged here by Cassini in 2007) are the most massive and conspicuous in the Solar System.[31]False-color UV image of Saturn's outer B and A rings; dirtier ringlets in the Cassini Division and Encke Gap show up red.Saturn is probably best known for the system of planetary rings that makes it visually unique.[31] The rings extend from 6,630 km to 120,700 km outward from Saturn's equator, average approximately 20 meters in thickness and are composed of 93% water ice with traces of tholin impurities and 7% amorphous carbon.[101] The particles that make up the rings range in size from specks of dust up to 10 m.[102] While the other gas giants also have ring systems, Saturn's is the largest and most visible.There are two main hypotheses regarding the origin of the rings. One hypothesis is that the rings are remnants of a destroyed moon of Saturn. The second hypothesis is that the rings are left over from the original nebular material from which Saturn formed. Some ice in the E ring comes from the moon Enceladus's geysers.[103] [104][105]In the past, astronomers once thought the rings formed alongside the planet when it formed billions of years ago.[106] Instead, the age of these planetary rings is probably some hundreds of millions of years.[107]Beyond the main rings at a distance of 12 million km from the planet is the sparse Phoebe ring, which is tilted at an angle of 27° to the other rings and, like Phoebe, orbits in retrograde fashion.[108]Some of the moons of Saturn, including Pandora and Prometheus, act as shepherd moons to confine the rings and prevent them from spreading out.[109] Pan and Atlas cause weak, linear density waves in Saturn's rings that have yielded more reliable calculations of their masses.[110]History of observation and explorationMain article: Exploration of SaturnThere have been three main phases in the observation and exploration of Saturn. The first era was ancient observations (such as with the naked eye), before the invention of the modern telescopes. Starting in the 17th century progressively more advanced telescopic observations from Earth have been made. The other type is visitation by spacecraft, either by orbiting or flyby. In the 21st century observations continue from the Earth (or Earth-orbiting observatories) and from the Cassini orbiter at Saturn.Ancient observationsSee also: Saturn (mythology)Saturn has been known since prehistoric times.[111] In ancient times, it was the most distant of the five known planets in the Solar System (excluding Earth) and thus a major character in various mythologies. Babylonian astronomers systematically observed and recorded the movements of Saturn.[112] In ancient Roman mythology, the god Saturnus, from which the planet takes its name, was the god of agriculture.[113] The Romans considered Saturnus the equivalent of the Greek god Cronus.[113] The Greeks had made the outermost planet sacred to Cronus,[114] and the Romans followed suit. (In modern Greek, the planet retains its ancient name Cronus—Κρόνος: Kronos.)[115]The Greek scientist Ptolemy based his calculations of Saturn's orbit on observations he made while it was in opposition.[116] In Hindu astrology, there are nine astrological objects, known as Navagrahas. Saturn, one of them is known as "Shani" and judges everyone based on the good and bad deeds performed in life.[113][116] Ancient Chinese and Japanese culture designated the planet Saturn as the "earth star" (土星). This was based on Five Elements which were traditionally used to classify natural elements.[117][118][119]In ancient Hebrew, Saturn is called 'Shabbathai'.[120] Its angel is Cassiel. Its intelligence or beneficial spirit is Agiel (layga) and its spirit (darker aspect) is Zazel (lzaz). In Ottoman Turkish, Urdu and Malay, its name is 'Zuhal', derived from Arabic زحل.European observations (17th–19th centuries)Robert Hooke noted the shadows (a and b) cast by both the globe and the rings on each other in this drawing of Saturn in 1666.Saturn's rings require at least a 15-mm-diameter telescope[121] to resolve and thus were not known to exist until Galileo first saw them in 1610.[122][123] He thought of them as two moons on Saturn's sides.[124][125] It was not until Christiaan Huygens used greater telescopic magnification that this notion was refuted. Huygens discovered Saturn's moon Titan; Giovanni Domenico Cassini later discovered four other moons: Iapetus, Rhea, Tethys and Dione. In 1675, Cassini discovered the gap now known as the Cassini Division.[126]No further discoveries of significance were made until 1789 when William Herschel discovered two further moons, Mimas and Enceladus. The irregularly shaped satellite Hyperion, which has a resonance with Titan, was discovered in 1848 by a British team.[127]In 1899 William Henry Pickering discovered Phoebe, a highly irregular satellite that does not rotate synchronously with Saturn as the larger moons do.[127] Phoebe was the first such satellite found and it takes more than a year to orbit Saturn in a retrograde orbit. During the early 20th century, research on Titan led to the confirmation in 1944 that it had a thick atmosphere – a feature unique among the Solar System's moons.[128]Modern NASA and ESA probesPioneer 11 flybyPioneer 11 image of SaturnPioneer 11 carried out the first flyby of Saturn in September 1979, when it passed within 20,000 km of the planet's cloud tops. Images were taken of the planet and a few of its moons, although their resolution was too low to discern surface detail. The spacecraft also studied Saturn's rings, revealing the thin F-ring and the fact that dark gaps in the rings are bright when viewed at high phase angle (towards the Sun), meaning that they contain fine light-scattering material. In addition, Pioneer 11 measured the temperature of Titan.[129]Voyager flybysIn November 1980, the Voyager 1 probe visited the Saturn system. It sent back the first high-resolution images of the planet, its rings and satellites. Surface features of various moons were seen for the first time. Voyager 1 performed a close flyby of Titan, increasing knowledge of the atmosphere of the moon. It proved that Titan's atmosphere is impenetrable in visible wavelengths, therefore no surface details were seen. The flyby changed the spacecraft's trajectory out from the plane of the Solar System.[130]Almost a year later, in August 1981, Voyager 2 continued the study of the Saturn system. More close-up images of Saturn's moons were acquired, as well as evidence of changes in the atmosphere and the rings. Unfortunately, during the flyby, the probe's turnable camera platform stuck for a couple of days and some planned imaging was lost. Saturn's gravity was used to direct the spacecraft's trajectory towards Uranus.[130]The probes discovered and confirmed several new satellites orbiting near or within the planet's rings, as well as the small Maxwell Gap (a gap within the C Ring) and Keeler gap (a 42 km wide gap in the A Ring).Cassini–Huygens spacecraftOn 1 July 2004, the Cassini–Huygens space probe performed the SOI (Saturn Orbit Insertion) maneuver and entered orbit around Saturn. Before the SOI, Cassini had already studied the system extensively. In June 2004, it had conducted a close flyby of Phoebe, sending back high-resolution images and data.Cassini's Titan flyby radio-signal studies (artist's concept)Cassini's flyby of Saturn's largest moon, Titan, has captured radar images of large lakes and their coastlines with numerous islands and mountains. The orbiter completed two Titan flybys before releasing the Huygens probe on 25 December 2004. Huygens descended onto the surface of Titan on 14 January 2005, sending a flood of data during the atmospheric descent and after the landing.[131] Cassini has since conducted multiple flybys of Titan and other icy satellites.Photograph of Earth and the Moon by Cassini, visible in the bottom-right.Animation of Saturn's north polar vortex seen in infrared lightSince early 2005, scientists have been tracking lightning on Saturn. The power of the lightning is approximately 1,000 times that of lightning on Earth.[132]In 2006, NASA reported that Cassini had found evidence of liquid water reservoirs that erupt in geysers on Saturn's moon Enceladus. Images had shown jets of icy particles being emitted into orbit around Saturn from vents in the moon's south polar region. According to Andrew Ingersoll, California Institute of Technology, "Other moons in the Solar System have liquid-water oceans covered by kilometers of icy crust. What's different here is that pockets of liquid water may be no more than tens of meters below the surface."[133] Over 100 geysers have been identified on Enceladus.[134] In May 2011, NASA scientists at an Enceladus Focus Group Conference reported that Enceladus "is emerging as the most habitable spot beyond Earth in the Solar System for life as we know it".[135][136]Cassini photographs have led to other significant discoveries. They have revealed a previously undiscovered planetary ring, outside the brighter main rings of Saturn and inside the G and E rings. The source of this ring is hypothesized to be the crashing of a meteoroid off Janus and Epimetheus.[137] In July 2006, Cassini images provided evidence of hydrocarbon lakes near Titan's north pole, the presence of which were confirmed in January 2007. In March 2007, additional images near Titan's north pole revealed hydrocarbon seas, the largest of which is almost the size of the Caspian Sea.[138] In October 2006, the probe detected an 8,000 km diameter cyclone-like storm with an eyewall at Saturn's south pole.[139]At Enceladus's south pole geysers spray water from many locations along the tiger stripes.[134]From 2004 to 2 November 2009, the probe discovered and confirmed eight new satellites. Its primary mission ended in 2008 when the spacecraft had completed 74 orbits around the planet. The probe's mission was extended to September 2010 and then extended again to 2017, to study a full period of Saturn's seasons.[140]In April 2013 Cassini sent back images of a hurricane at the planet's north pole 20 times larger than those found on Earth, with winds faster than 530 km/h.[141]On 19 July 2013, "The Day the Earth Smiled", Cassini was pointed towards Earth to capture an image of the Earth and the Moon (and, as well, Venus and Mars) as part of a natural light, multi-image portrait of the entire Saturn system. It was the first time NASA informed the people of Earth that a long-distance photo was being taken in advance.[142]ObservationAmateur telescopic view of SaturnSimulated appearance of Saturn as seen from Earth at opposition, 2001-2029Saturn is the most distant of the five planets easily visible to the naked eye from Earth, the other four being Mercury, Venus, Mars and Jupiter. (Uranus and occasionally 4 Vesta are visible to the naked eye in dark skies.) Saturn appears to the naked eye in the night sky as a bright, yellowish point of light with an apparent magnitude of usually between +1 and 0. It takes approximately 29.5 years for the planet to complete an entire circuit of the ecliptic against the background constellations of the zodiac. Most people will require an optical aid (very large binoculars or a small telescope) that magnifies at least 30 times to achieve an image of Saturn's rings, in which clear resolution is present.[31][121] Twice every Saturnian year (roughly every 15 Earth years), the rings briefly disappear from view, due to the way in which they are angled and because they are so thin.[143] Such a "disappearance" will next occur in 2025, but Saturn will be too close to the Sun for any ring-crossing observation to be possible.[144]Saturn and its rings are best seen when the planet is at, or near, opposition, the configuration of a planet when it is at an elongation of 180°, and thus appears opposite the Sun in the sky. A Saturnian opposition occurs every year—approximately every 378 days—and results in the planet appearing at its brightest. However, both the Earth and Saturn orbit the Sun on eccentric orbits, which means their distances from the Sun vary over time, and therefore so do their distances from each other, hence varying the brightness of Saturn from one opposition to the other. Also, Saturn appears brighter when the rings are angled such that they are more visible. For example, during the opposition of 17 December 2002, Saturn appeared at its brightest due to a favorable orientation of its rings relative to the Earth,[145] even though Saturn was closer to the Earth and Sun in late 2003.[145]Saturn eclipses the Sun, as seen from Cassini. The rings are clearly visible, including the F Ring.Also, from time to time Saturn is occulted by the Moon (that is, the Moon covers up Saturn in the sky). As with all the planets in the Solar System, occultations of Saturn occur in “seasons”. Saturnian occultations will take place 12 or more times over a 12-month period, followed by about a five-year period in which no such activity is registered.[146] Australian astronomy experts Hill and Horner explain the seasonal nature of Saturnian occultations:This is the result of the fact that the moon’s orbit around the Earth is tilted to the orbit of the Earth around the Sun – and so most of the time, the moon will pass above or below Saturn in the sky, and no occultation will occur. It is only when Saturn lies near the point that the moon’s orbit crosses the “plane of the ecliptic” that occultations can happen – and then they occur every time the moon swings by, until Saturn moves away from the crossing point.[146]

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This article is about the planet. For other uses, see Saturn (disambiguation).Saturn Astronomical symbol for SaturnSaturn during Equinox.jpgSaturn in natural color, photographed byCassini in July 2008, approaching equinox. The little white dot in the bottom left corner is Titan.DesignationsPronunciation	Listeni/ˈsætərn/[1]Adjectives	Saturnian, CronianOrbital characteristics[2]Epoch J2000.0Aphelion	10.086 AU(1,509 Gm)Perihelion	9.024 AU(1,350 Gm)Semi-major axis9.554909 AU(1,429.39 Gm)[2]Eccentricity	0.05555Orbital period29.4571 yr10,759.22 d24,491.07 Saturnian solar days[3]Synodic period378.09 days[4]Average orbital speed9.69 km/s[4]Mean anomaly317.020°Inclination	2.485240° to ecliptic5.51° to Sun's equator0.93° to invariable plane[5]Longitude of ascending node113.665°Argument of perihelion339.392°Known satellites	62 with formal designations; innumerable additional moonlets.[4]Physical characteristicsMean radius58,232±6 km[6][a]Equatorial radius60,268±4 km[6][a]9.4492 EarthsPolar radius54,364±10 km[6][a]8.5521 EarthsFlattening	0.09796±0.00018Surface area4.27×1010 km2[a][7]83.703 EarthsVolume	8.2713×1014 km3[4][a]763.59 EarthsMass	5.6836×1026 kg[4]95.159 EarthsMean density0.687 g/cm3[4][a](less than water)Surface gravity10.44 m/s²[4][a]1.065 gMoment of inertia factor0.210[8]Escape velocity35.5 km/s[4][a]Sidereal rotation period10.55 hours[9](10 hr 33 min)Equatorial rotation velocity9.87 km/s[a]35,500 km/hAxial tilt26.73° (to orbit)[4]North pole right ascension2h 42m 21s40.589°[6]North pole declination83.537°[6]Albedo	0.342 (Bond)0.47 (geometric)[4]Surface temp.	min	mean	max1 bar level		134 K (−139°C)[4]	0.1 bar		84 K[4]	Apparent magnitude+1.47 to −0.24[10]Angular diameter14.5″ to 20.1″[4](excludes rings)Atmosphere[4]Scale height59.5 kmComposition by volume	by volume:≈ 96%	hydrogen (H2)≈ 3%	helium (He)≈ 0.4%	methane (CH4)≈ 0.01%	ammonia (NH3)≈ 0.01%	hydrogen deuteride (HD)0.0007%	ethane (C2H6)Ices:ammonia (NH3)water (H2O)ammonium hydrosulfide (NH4SH)Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System, after Jupiter. It is a gas giant with an average radius about nine times that of Earth.[11][12] Although only one-eighth the average density of Earth, with its larger volume Saturn is just over 95 times more massive.[13][14][15] Saturn is named after the Roman god of agriculture; its astronomical symbol (♄) represents the god's sickle.Saturn's interior is probably composed of a core of iron–nickel and rock (silicon and oxygen compounds). This core is surrounded by a deep layer of metallic hydrogen, an intermediate layer of liquid hydrogen and liquid helium, and finally outside the Frenkel line a gaseous outer layer.[16] Saturn has a pale yellow hue due to ammonia crystals in its upper atmosphere. Electrical current within the metallic hydrogen layer is thought to give rise to Saturn's planetary magnetic field, which is weaker than Earth's, but has a magnetic moment 580 times that of Earth due to Saturn's larger size. Saturn's magnetic field strength is around one-twentieth of Jupiter's.[17] The outer atmosphere is generally bland and lacking in contrast, although long-lived features can appear. Wind speeds on Saturn can reach 1,800 km/h (500 m/s), higher than on Jupiter, but not as high as those on Neptune.[18]Saturn has a prominent ring system that consists of nine continuous main rings and three discontinuous arcs and that is composed mostly of ice particles with a smaller amount of rocky debris and dust. Sixty-two[19] moons are known to orbit Saturn, of which fifty-three are officially named. This does not include the hundreds of moonlets comprising the rings. Titan, Saturn's largest moon, and the second-largest in the Solar System, is larger than the planet Mercury, although less massive, and is the only moon in the Solar System to have a substantial atmosphere.[20]Contents  [hide] 1	Physical characteristics1.1	Internal structure1.2	Atmosphere1.3	Magnetosphere2	Orbit and rotation3	Natural satellites3.1	Planetary rings4	History of observation and exploration4.1	Ancient observations4.2	European observations (17th–19th centuries)4.3	Modern NASA and ESA probes5	Observation6	In culture7	See also8	Notes9	References10	Further reading11	External linksPhysical characteristicsComposite image roughly comparing the sizes of Saturn and EarthSaturn is a gas giant because it is predominantly composed of hydrogen and helium ('gas'). It lacks a definite surface, though it may have a solid core.[21] Saturn's rotation causes it to have the shape of an oblate spheroid; that is, it is flattened at the poles and bulges at its equator. Its equatorial and polar radii differ by almost 10%: 60,268 km versus 54,364 km, respectively.[4] Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune, the other giant planets in the Solar System, are also oblate but to a lesser extent. Saturn is the only planet of the Solar System that is less dense than water—about 30% less.[22] Although Saturn's core is considerably denser than water, the average specific density of the planet is 0.69 g/cm3 due to the atmosphere. Jupiter has 318 times the Earth's mass,[23] while Saturn is 95 times the mass of the Earth.[4] Together, Jupiter and Saturn hold 92% of the total planetary mass in the Solar System.[24]On 8 January 2015, NASA reported determining the center of the planet Saturn and its family of moons to within 4 km (2.5 mi).[25]Internal structureDiagram of Saturn, to scale.Despite consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium, most of Saturn's mass is not in the gas phase, because hydrogen becomes a non-ideal liquid when the density is above 0.01 g/cm3, which is reached at a radius containing 99.9% of Saturn's mass. The temperature, pressure, and density inside Saturn all rise steadily toward the core, which causes hydrogen to transition into a metal in the deeper layers.[24]Standard planetary models suggest that the interior of Saturn is similar to that of Jupiter, having a small rocky core surrounded by hydrogen and helium with trace amounts of various volatiles.[26] This core is similar in composition to the Earth, but more dense. Examination of Saturn's gravitational moment, in combination with physical models of the interior, allowed French astronomers Didier Saumon and Tristan Guillot to place constraints on the mass of Saturn's core. In 2004, they estimated that the core must be 9–22 times the mass of the Earth,[27][28] which corresponds to a diameter of about 25,000 km.[29] This is surrounded by a thicker liquid metallic hydrogen layer, followed by a liquid layer of helium-saturated molecular hydrogen that gradually transitions to a gas with increasing altitude. The outermost layer spans 1,000 km and consists of gas.[30][31][32]Saturn has a hot interior, reaching 11,700 °C at its core, and it radiates 2.5 times more energy into space than it receives from the Sun. Jupiter's thermal energy is generated by the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism of slow gravitational compression, but this alone may not be sufficient to explain heat production for Saturn, because it is less massive. An alternative or additional mechanism may be generation of heat through the "raining out" of droplets of helium deep in Saturn's interior. As the droplets descend through the lower-density hydrogen, the process releases heat by friction and leaves Saturn's outer layers depleted of helium.[33][34] These descending droplets may have accumulated into a helium shell surrounding the core.[26]AtmosphereMethane bands circle Saturn (rel 1 February 2016)The outer atmosphere of Saturn contains 96.3% molecular hydrogen and 3.25% helium by volume.[35] The proportion of helium is significantly deficient compared to the abundance of this element in the Sun.[26] The quantity of elements heavier than helium is not known precisely, but the proportions are assumed to match the primordial abundances from the formation of the Solar System. The total mass of these heavier elements is estimated to be 19–31 times the mass of the Earth, with a significant fraction located in Saturn's core region.[36]Trace amounts of ammonia, acetylene, ethane, propane, phosphine and methane have been detected in Saturn's atmosphere.[37][38][39] The upper clouds are composed of ammonia crystals, while the lower level clouds appear to consist of either ammonium hydrosulfide (NH4SH) or water.[40] Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun causes methane photolysis in the upper atmosphere, leading to a series of hydrocarbon chemical reactions with the resulting products being carried downward by eddies and diffusion. This photochemical cycle is modulated by Saturn's annual seasonal cycle.[39]Cloud layersA global storm girdles the planet in 2011. The head of the storm (bright area) passes the tail circling around the left limb.Saturn's atmosphere exhibits a banded pattern similar to Jupiter's, but Saturn's bands are much fainter and are much wider near the equator. The nomenclature used to describe these bands is the same as on Jupiter. Saturn's finer cloud patterns were not observed until the flybys of the Voyager spacecraft during the 1980s. Since then, Earth-based telescopy has improved to the point where regular observations can be made.[41]The composition of the clouds varies with depth and increasing pressure. In the upper cloud layers, with the temperature in the range 100–160 K and pressures extending between 0.5–2 bar, the clouds consist of ammonia ice. Water ice clouds begin at a level where the pressure is about 2.5 bar and extend down to 9.5 bar, where temperatures range from 185–270 K. Intermixed in this layer is a band of ammonium hydrosulfide ice, lying in the pressure range 3–6 bar with temperatures of 290–235 K. Finally, the lower layers, where pressures are between 10–20 bar and temperatures are 270–330 K, contains a region of water droplets with ammonia in aqueous solution.[42]Saturn's usually bland atmosphere occasionally exhibits long-lived ovals and other features common on Jupiter. In 1990, the Hubble Space Telescope imaged an enormous white cloud near Saturn's equator that was not present during the Voyager encounters and in 1994, another, smaller storm was observed. The 1990 storm was an example of a Great White Spot, a unique but short-lived phenomenon that occurs once every Saturnian year, roughly every 30 Earth years, around the time of the northern hemisphere's summer solstice.[43] Previous Great White Spots were observed in 1876, 1903, 1933 and 1960, with the 1933 storm being the most famous. If the periodicity is maintained, another storm will occur in about 2020.[44]The winds on Saturn are the second fastest among the Solar System's planets, after Neptune's. Voyager data indicate peak easterly winds of 500 m/s (1800 km/h).[45] In images from the Cassini spacecraft during 2007, Saturn's northern hemisphere displayed a bright blue hue, similar to Uranus. The color was most likely caused by Rayleigh scattering.[46] Thermography has shown that Saturn's south pole has a warm polar vortex, the only known example of such a phenomenon in the Solar System.[47] Whereas temperatures on Saturn are normally −185 °C, temperatures on the vortex often reach as high as −122 °C, suspected to be the warmest spot on Saturn.[47]North pole hexagonal cloud patternSaturn – North polar hexagon and vortex as well as rings (2 April 2014)Main article: Saturn's hexagonA persisting hexagonal wave pattern around the north polar vortex in the atmosphere at about 78°N was first noted in the Voyager images.[48][49][50] The sides of the hexagon are each about 13,800 km (8,600 mi) long, which is longer than the diameter of the Earth.[51] The entire structure rotates with a period of 10h 39m 24s (the same period as that of the planet's radio emissions) which is assumed to be equal to the period of rotation of Saturn's interior.[52] The hexagonal feature does not shift in longitude like the other clouds in the visible atmosphere.[53] The pattern's origin is a matter of much speculation. Most scientists think it is a standing wave pattern in the atmosphere. Polygonal shapes have been replicated in the laboratory through differential rotation of fluids.[54][55]South pole vortexA storm at Saturn's south poleHST imaging of the south polar region indicates the presence of a jet stream, but no strong polar vortex nor any hexagonal standing wave.[56] NASA reported in November 2006 that Cassini had observed a "hurricane-like" storm locked to the south pole that had a clearly defined eyewall.[57][58] Eyewall clouds had not previously been seen on any planet other than Earth. For example, images from the Galileo spacecraft did not show an eyewall in the Great Red Spot of Jupiter.[59]The south pole storm may have been present for billions of years.[60] This vortex is comparable to the size of Earth, and it has winds of 550 km/h.[60]Other featuresCassini has observed a series of cloud features nicknamed "String of Pearls" found in northern latitudes. These features are cloud clearings that reside in deeper cloud layers.[61]MagnetosphereMain article: Magnetosphere of SaturnPolar aurorae on SaturnAuroral lights at Saturn’s north pole.[62]Saturn has an intrinsic magnetic field that has a simple, symmetric shape – a magnetic dipole. Its strength at the equator – 0.2 gauss (20 µT) – is approximately one twentieth of that of the field around Jupiter and slightly weaker than Earth's magnetic field.[17] As a result, Saturn's magnetosphere is much smaller than Jupiter's.[63] When Voyager 2 entered the magnetosphere, the solar wind pressure was high and the magnetosphere extended only 19 Saturn radii, or 1.1 million km (712,000 mi),[64] although it enlarged within several hours, and remained so for about three days.[65] Most probably, the magnetic field is generated similarly to that of Jupiter – by currents in the liquid metallic-hydrogen layer called a metallic-hydrogen dynamo.[63] This magnetosphere is efficient at deflecting the solar wind particles from the Sun. The moon Titan orbits within the outer part of Saturn's magnetosphere and contributes plasma from the ionized particles in Titan's outer atmosphere.[17] Saturn's magnetosphere, like Earth's, produces aurorae.[66]Orbit and rotationThe average distance between Saturn and the Sun is over 1.4 billion kilometres (9 AU). With an average orbital speed of 9.69 km/s,[4] it takes Saturn 10,759 Earth days (or about  29 1⁄2 years),[67] to finish one revolution around the Sun.[4] The elliptical orbit of Saturn is inclined 2.48° relative to the orbital plane of the Earth.[4] The perihelion and aphelion distances are, respectively, 9.022 and 10.053 AU, on average.[68] The visible features on Saturn rotate at different rates depending on latitude and multiple rotation periods have been assigned to various regions (as in Jupiter's case).Astronomers use three different systems for specifying the rotation rate of Saturn. System I has a period of 10 hr 14 min 00 sec (844.3°/d) and encompasses the Equatorial Zone, the South Equatorial Belt and the North Equatorial Belt. The polar regions are considered to have rotation rates similar to System I. All other Saturnian latitudes, excluding the north and south polar regions, are indicated as System II and have been assigned a rotation period of 10 hr 38 min 25.4 sec (810.76°/d). System III refers to Saturn's internal rotation rate. Based on radio emissions from the planet in the period of the Voyager flybys, it has been assigned a rotation period of 10 hr 39 min 22.4 sec (810.8°/d). Because it is close to System II, it has largely superseded it.[69]A precise value for the rotation period of the interior remains elusive. While approaching Saturn in 2004, Cassini found that the radio rotation period of Saturn had increased appreciably, to approximately 10 hr 45 min 45 sec (± 36 sec).[70][71] The latest estimate of Saturn's rotation (as an indicated rotation rate for Saturn as a whole) based on a compilation of various measurements from the Cassini, Voyager and Pioneer probes was reported in September 2007 is 10 hr 32 min 35 sec.[72]In March 2007, it was found that the variation of radio emissions from the planet did not match Saturn's rotation rate. This variance may be caused by geyser activity on Saturn's moon Enceladus. The water vapor emitted into Saturn's orbit by this activity becomes charged and creates a drag upon Saturn's magnetic field, slowing its rotation slightly relative to the rotation of the planet.[73][74][75]Natural satellitesMain article: Moons of SaturnA montage of Saturn and its principal moons (Dione, Tethys, Mimas, Enceladus, Rhea and Titan; Iapetus not shown). This famous image was created from photographs taken in November 1980 by the Voyager 1 spacecraft.Saturn has 62 known moons, 53 of which have formal names.[76][77] In addition, there is evidence of dozens to hundreds of moonlets with diameters of 40–500 meters in Saturn's rings,[78] which are not considered to be true moons. Titan, the largest moon, comprises more than 90% of the mass in orbit around Saturn, including the rings.[79] Saturn's second-largest moon, Rhea, may have a tenuous ring system of its own,[80] along with a tenuous atmosphere.[81][82][83][84]Possible beginning of a new moon (white dot) of Saturn (image taken by Cassini on 15 April 2013).Many of the other moons are small: 34 are less than 10 km in diameter and another 14 between 10 and 50 km in diameter.[85] Traditionally, most of Saturn's moons have been named after Titans of Greek mythology. Titan is the only satellite in the Solar System with a major atmosphere,[86][87] in which a complex organic chemistry occurs. It is the only satellite with hydrocarbon lakes.[88][89]On 6 June 2013, scientists at the IAA-CSIC reported the detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the upper atmosphere of Titan, a possible precursor for life.[90] On 23 June 2014, NASA claimed to have strong evidence that nitrogen in the atmosphere of Titan came from materials in the Oort cloud, associated with comets, and not from the materials that formed Saturn in earlier times.[91]Saturn's moon Enceladus, which seems similar in chemical makeup to comets,[92] has often been regarded as a potential habitat for microbial life.[93][94][95][96] Evidence of this possibility includes the satellite's salt-rich particles having an "ocean-like" composition that indicates most of Enceladus's expelled ice comes from the evaporation of liquid salt water.[97][98][99]In April 2014, NASA scientists reported the possible beginning of a new moon, within the A Ring, of the planet Saturn, which was imaged by Cassini on 15 April 2013.[100]Planetary ringsMain article: Rings of SaturnThe rings of Saturn (imaged here by Cassini in 2007) are the most massive and conspicuous in the Solar System.[31]False-color UV image of Saturn's outer B and A rings; dirtier ringlets in the Cassini Division and Encke Gap show up red.Saturn is probably best known for the system of planetary rings that makes it visually unique.[31] The rings extend from 6,630 km to 120,700 km outward from Saturn's equator, average approximately 20 meters in thickness and are composed of 93% water ice with traces of tholin impurities and 7% amorphous carbon.[101] The particles that make up the rings range in size from specks of dust up to 10 m.[102] While the other gas giants also have ring systems, Saturn's is the largest and most visible.There are two main hypotheses regarding the origin of the rings. One hypothesis is that the rings are remnants of a destroyed moon of Saturn. The second hypothesis is that the rings are left over from the original nebular material from which Saturn formed. Some ice in the E ring comes from the moon Enceladus's geysers.[103] [104][105]In the past, astronomers once thought the rings formed alongside the planet when it formed billions of years ago.[106] Instead, the age of these planetary rings is probably some hundreds of millions of years.[107]Beyond the main rings at a distance of 12 million km from the planet is the sparse Phoebe ring, which is tilted at an angle of 27° to the other rings and, like Phoebe, orbits in retrograde fashion.[108]Some of the moons of Saturn, including Pandora and Prometheus, act as shepherd moons to confine the rings and prevent them from spreading out.[109] Pan and Atlas cause weak, linear density waves in Saturn's rings that have yielded more reliable calculations of their masses.[110]History of observation and explorationMain article: Exploration of SaturnThere have been three main phases in the observation and exploration of Saturn. The first era was ancient observations (such as with the naked eye), before the invention of the modern telescopes. Starting in the 17th century progressively more advanced telescopic observations from Earth have been made. The other type is visitation by spacecraft, either by orbiting or flyby. In the 21st century observations continue from the Earth (or Earth-orbiting observatories) and from the Cassini orbiter at Saturn.Ancient observationsSee also: Saturn (mythology)Saturn has been known since prehistoric times.[111] In ancient times, it was the most distant of the five known planets in the Solar System (excluding Earth) and thus a major character in various mythologies. Babylonian astronomers systematically observed and recorded the movements of Saturn.[112] In ancient Roman mythology, the god Saturnus, from which the planet takes its name, was the god of agriculture.[113] The Romans considered Saturnus the equivalent of the Greek god Cronus.[113] The Greeks had made the outermost planet sacred to Cronus,[114] and the Romans followed suit. (In modern Greek, the planet retains its ancient name Cronus—Κρόνος: Kronos.)[115]The Greek scientist Ptolemy based his calculations of Saturn's orbit on observations he made while it was in opposition.[116] In Hindu astrology, there are nine astrological objects, known as Navagrahas. Saturn, one of them is known as "Shani" and judges everyone based on the good and bad deeds performed in life.[113][116] Ancient Chinese and Japanese culture designated the planet Saturn as the "earth star" (土星). This was based on Five Elements which were traditionally used to classify natural elements.[117][118][119]In ancient Hebrew, Saturn is called 'Shabbathai'.[120] Its angel is Cassiel. Its intelligence or beneficial spirit is Agiel (layga) and its spirit (darker aspect) is Zazel (lzaz). In Ottoman Turkish, Urdu and Malay, its name is 'Zuhal', derived from Arabic زحل.European observations (17th–19th centuries)Robert Hooke noted the shadows (a and b) cast by both the globe and the rings on each other in this drawing of Saturn in 1666.Saturn's rings require at least a 15-mm-diameter telescope[121] to resolve and thus were not known to exist until Galileo first saw them in 1610.[122][123] He thought of them as two moons on Saturn's sides.[124][125] It was not until Christiaan Huygens used greater telescopic magnification that this notion was refuted. Huygens discovered Saturn's moon Titan; Giovanni Domenico Cassini later discovered four other moons: Iapetus, Rhea, Tethys and Dione. In 1675, Cassini discovered the gap now known as the Cassini Division.[126]No further discoveries of significance were made until 1789 when William Herschel discovered two further moons, Mimas and Enceladus. The irregularly shaped satellite Hyperion, which has a resonance with Titan, was discovered in 1848 by a British team.[127]In 1899 William Henry Pickering discovered Phoebe, a highly irregular satellite that does not rotate synchronously with Saturn as the larger moons do.[127] Phoebe was the first such satellite found and it takes more than a year to orbit Saturn in a retrograde orbit. During the early 20th century, research on Titan led to the confirmation in 1944 that it had a thick atmosphere – a feature unique among the Solar System's moons.[128]Modern NASA and ESA probesPioneer 11 flybyPioneer 11 image of SaturnPioneer 11 carried out the first flyby of Saturn in September 1979, when it passed within 20,000 km of the planet's cloud tops. Images were taken of the planet and a few of its moons, although their resolution was too low to discern surface detail. The spacecraft also studied Saturn's rings, revealing the thin F-ring and the fact that dark gaps in the rings are bright when viewed at high phase angle (towards the Sun), meaning that they contain fine light-scattering material. In addition, Pioneer 11 measured the temperature of Titan.[129]Voyager flybysIn November 1980, the Voyager 1 probe visited the Saturn system. It sent back the first high-resolution images of the planet, its rings and satellites. Surface features of various moons were seen for the first time. Voyager 1 performed a close flyby of Titan, increasing knowledge of the atmosphere of the moon. It proved that Titan's atmosphere is impenetrable in visible wavelengths, therefore no surface details were seen. The flyby changed the spacecraft's trajectory out from the plane of the Solar System.[130]Almost a year later, in August 1981, Voyager 2 continued the study of the Saturn system. More close-up images of Saturn's moons were acquired, as well as evidence of changes in the atmosphere and the rings. Unfortunately, during the flyby, the probe's turnable camera platform stuck for a couple of days and some planned imaging was lost. Saturn's gravity was used to direct the spacecraft's trajectory towards Uranus.[130]The probes discovered and confirmed several new satellites orbiting near or within the planet's rings, as well as the small Maxwell Gap (a gap within the C Ring) and Keeler gap (a 42 km wide gap in the A Ring).Cassini–Huygens spacecraftOn 1 July 2004, the Cassini–Huygens space probe performed the SOI (Saturn Orbit Insertion) maneuver and entered orbit around Saturn. Before the SOI, Cassini had already studied the system extensively. In June 2004, it had conducted a close flyby of Phoebe, sending back high-resolution images and data.Cassini's Titan flyby radio-signal studies (artist's concept)Cassini's flyby of Saturn's largest moon, Titan, has captured radar images of large lakes and their coastlines with numerous islands and mountains. The orbiter completed two Titan flybys before releasing the Huygens probe on 25 December 2004. Huygens descended onto the surface of Titan on 14 January 2005, sending a flood of data during the atmospheric descent and after the landing.[131] Cassini has since conducted multiple flybys of Titan and other icy satellites.Photograph of Earth and the Moon by Cassini, visible in the bottom-right.Animation of Saturn's north polar vortex seen in infrared lightSince early 2005, scientists have been tracking lightning on Saturn. The power of the lightning is approximately 1,000 times that of lightning on Earth.[132]In 2006, NASA reported that Cassini had found evidence of liquid water reservoirs that erupt in geysers on Saturn's moon Enceladus. Images had shown jets of icy particles being emitted into orbit around Saturn from vents in the moon's south polar region. According to Andrew Ingersoll, California Institute of Technology, "Other moons in the Solar System have liquid-water oceans covered by kilometers of icy crust. What's different here is that pockets of liquid water may be no more than tens of meters below the surface."[133] Over 100 geysers have been identified on Enceladus.[134] In May 2011, NASA scientists at an Enceladus Focus Group Conference reported that Enceladus "is emerging as the most habitable spot beyond Earth in the Solar System for life as we know it".[135][136]Cassini photographs have led to other significant discoveries. They have revealed a previously undiscovered planetary ring, outside the brighter main rings of Saturn and inside the G and E rings. The source of this ring is hypothesized to be the crashing of a meteoroid off Janus and Epimetheus.[137] In July 2006, Cassini images provided evidence of hydrocarbon lakes near Titan's north pole, the presence of which were confirmed in January 2007. In March 2007, additional images near Titan's north pole revealed hydrocarbon seas, the largest of which is almost the size of the Caspian Sea.[138] In October 2006, the probe detected an 8,000 km diameter cyclone-like storm with an eyewall at Saturn's south pole.[139]At Enceladus's south pole geysers spray water from many locations along the tiger stripes.[134]From 2004 to 2 November 2009, the probe discovered and confirmed eight new satellites. Its primary mission ended in 2008 when the spacecraft had completed 74 orbits around the planet. The probe's mission was extended to September 2010 and then extended again to 2017, to study a full period of Saturn's seasons.[140]In April 2013 Cassini sent back images of a hurricane at the planet's north pole 20 times larger than those found on Earth, with winds faster than 530 km/h.[141]On 19 July 2013, "The Day the Earth Smiled", Cassini was pointed towards Earth to capture an image of the Earth and the Moon (and, as well, Venus and Mars) as part of a natural light, multi-image portrait of the entire Saturn system. It was the first time NASA informed the people of Earth that a long-distance photo was being taken in advance.[142]ObservationAmateur telescopic view of SaturnSimulated appearance of Saturn as seen from Earth at opposition, 2001-2029Saturn is the most distant of the five planets easily visible to the naked eye from Earth, the other four being Mercury, Venus, Mars and Jupiter. (Uranus and occasionally 4 Vesta are visible to the naked eye in dark skies.) Saturn appears to the naked eye in the night sky as a bright, yellowish point of light with an apparent magnitude of usually between +1 and 0. It takes approximately 29.5 years for the planet to complete an entire circuit of the ecliptic against the background constellations of the zodiac. Most people will require an optical aid (very large binoculars or a small telescope) that magnifies at least 30 times to achieve an image of Saturn's rings, in which clear resolution is present.[31][121] Twice every Saturnian year (roughly every 15 Earth years), the rings briefly disappear from view, due to the way in which they are angled and because they are so thin.[143] Such a "disappearance" will next occur in 2025, but Saturn will be too close to the Sun for any ring-crossing observation to be possible.[144]Saturn and its rings are best seen when the planet is at, or near, opposition, the configuration of a planet when it is at an elongation of 180°, and thus appears opposite the Sun in the sky. A Saturnian opposition occurs every year—approximately every 378 days—and results in the planet appearing at its brightest. However, both the Earth and Saturn orbit the Sun on eccentric orbits, which means their distances from the Sun vary over time, and therefore so do their distances from each other, hence varying the brightness of Saturn from one opposition to the other. Also, Saturn appears brighter when the rings are angled such that they are more visible. For example, during the opposition of 17 December 2002, Saturn appeared at its brightest due to a favorable orientation of its rings relative to the Earth,[145] even though Saturn was closer to the Earth and Sun in late 2003.[145]Saturn eclipses the Sun, as seen from Cassini. The rings are clearly visible, including the F Ring.Also, from time to time Saturn is occulted by the Moon (that is, the Moon covers up Saturn in the sky). As with all the planets in the Solar System, occultations of Saturn occur in “seasons”. Saturnian occultations will take place 12 or more times over a 12-month period, followed by about a five-year period in which no such activity is registered.[146] Australian astronomy experts Hill and Horner explain the seasonal nature of Saturnian occultations:This is the result of the fact that the moon’s orbit around the Earth is tilted to the orbit of the Earth around the Sun – and so most of the time, the moon will pass above or below Saturn in the sky, and no occultation will occur. It is only when Saturn lies near the point that the moon’s orbit crosses the “plane of the ecliptic” that occultations can happen – and then they occur every time the moon swings by, until Saturn moves away from the crossing point.[146]

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November 22, 2016

On our last show before Thanksgiving: Tensions rise between China and Hong Kong, we examine the plight of Iraq's Christians, and the Dead Sea shrinks further.

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There's a lot to praise about the new MacBook Pro laptop.

To start, it's lighter, thinner and Apple's most powerful portable computer to date. And that's already translated to sales: Pre-orders have been far greater than any other professional-grade Apple laptop to date, the company told CNNMoney.

It's also the first update to the line in four years. People have clearly been waiting for the upgrade.

While the product comes with a series of additions -- not to mention a few controversial port removals -- the main new feature worth discussing is the Touch Bar.

The MacBook Pro

In lieu of the function keys typically housed above a standard keyboard, there's now a long vertical touch display. This means you can control a range of things just by using your fingertips. We're talking about everything from scrolling through emoji options and text color to easily calling up photos you want to edit to tweaking brightness and sound.

Related: See Apple's new MacBook Pro in :90

There's even a spot dedicated to TouchID, where you can log into the laptop or use Apple Pay to make an online purchase.

The updated line isn't cheap, though: a 13-inch MacBook Pro with the TouchBar costs $1,799, while the 15-inch version with the Touch Bar runs $2,399. You can also buy the 13-inch MacBook Pro without the Touch Bar for much less ($1,499).

The Touch Bar on the MacBook Pro

When the MacBook Pro was announced last month, it was unclear if the new bells and whistles were worth the extra money. Is it a gimmick or an actual step forward?

While the feature is useful, one thing is clear: It's part of a greater evolution toward a more touch-centric space. "Gimmick" isn't the right word, but neither is "revolutionary." It is, however, a solid step in the right direction and unquestionably fun to play around with.

Here's a closer look at what to expect:

Touch Bar

To start, it's important to explore why Apple has taken this approach: After all, why not just go all in on a touchscreen display like Microsoft's (MSFT, Tech30) Surface Book?

Apple (AAPL, Tech30) said it was adamant about keeping the screen touch-free. Considering people use the keyboard as the primary place to do work, it wants the display to remain a space dedicated to the eyes.

The Touch Bar displays a series of emoji when typing in various apps.

Apple refers to the Touch Bar as a musical instrument of sorts, allowing you to slide and add effects to enhance performance. The feature, which illuminates when you touch it, is all about maximizing functionality. There's a lot packed into just a sliver, but it never feels crowded.

When accessing it outside of a Mac app, it serves up what you might typically find on the keyboard, such as volume and brightness tools, the escape key and access to Siri.

Related: How Pixar saved Steve Jobs and Apple

But the real sweet spot happens when you go into the Mac apps. It's deeply integrated into apps like system controls, Photos, Siri and Safari. For example, you can scroll through all the tabs you have open on the Safari browser by sliding a finger on the Touch Bar.

If you compose a message in the Mail app, the Touch Bar will highlight emoji auto-completion: By typing "birthday," it will suggest confetti or a balloon.

The Touch Bar is also compatible with other third-party programs, like Skype and Microsoft Office, password manager 1Password and Photoshop (coming soon).

TouchID

TouchID, which already serves as the security gateway to the iPhone, is now available on the MacBook Pro. It's easy to program your finger -- any of your five digits will do -- through the dedicated button, located to the right of the Touch Bar. You can program up to three different fingerprints, catering to families who share one device.

TouchID also supports Apple Pay, which means online shopping is now dangerously easy. When visiting a retailer's site that supports Apple Pay -- Lululemon, Etsy and Adidas are a few early partners -- you can tap to buy whatever is in your cart.

Beyond the bells and whistles

Beyond the Touch Bar and TouchID, the device comes with an incredibly crisp retina display. The casing of the body is a stunner too -- and now available in space gray, in addition to silver.

The larger version weighs in at just four pounds; the smaller version is naturally less (three pounds). Performance is fluid, thanks to double the processing power of previous models. You can go in and out of programs in what seems like a heartbeat.

Related: Apple delays its AirPods launch

Both the 13-inch and 15-inch models pack four fast-speed Thunderbolt 3.0 ports (USB-C) and headphone jacks, despite Apple's controversial decision to remove it on the iPhone 7. There's also more space around the trackpad to provide a bigger canvas for working.

But the devices forgo an SD card slot, as well as USB and HDMI ports. This means even the latest iPhone can't plug into the MacBook Pro without an adapter -- a move that's already sparked consumer complaints.

Apple argues USB-C ports are the future, but it makes living in the now awfully difficult. Following the backlash, Apple dropped the price on dongles to make adapting to the requirement a little less costly.

The takeaway

Overall, the latest version of the MacBook Pro is all about the Touch Bar. Is the novel concept reason enough to purchase the new MacBook Pro? No. But it's a sweet bonus to arguably the best performing laptop on the market.

If you're debating whether the extra $300 for the Touch Bar and TouchID is worth it, it depends what kind of user you are. Sure, both features are handy, but they're more of a bonus than a necessity. The pricier model will also give you a faster processor and two more Thunderbolt ports (a plus if you need to connect to more displays).

Then again, if these qualifications aren't appealing and you're not doing a ton of intensive work, such as video or photo editing, you're probably better off with a cheaper MacBook Air.

Either way, the Touch Bar alone offers a glimpse at Apple's interpretation of the future of computing -- a small but exciting step forward.

The new MacBook Pro computers start shipping later this week.

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November 21, 2016

The growing problem of "fake news," the landslides occurring in New Zealand, America's newest weather satellite, and Black Friday sales are all explored today.

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they really need to hire a new host. hat hates puns. WHAT HAPPENED TO CARL AZUS THAT MADE HIM WANT TO SUDDENLY TELL TONS OF PUNS ?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!?!

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CNN Student News - 11/18/16

In the U.S. Congress, some things change; some stay the same. Japan's leader meets with the U.S. president-elect, and we explain the history of NAFTA.

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| ಠ Д ಠ | <WILL THE PUNS EVER END?!?!?!>

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November 17, 2016

Featured today: catastrophe in the Syrian city of Aleppo, reports on blood pressure and air quality, a call for noisier cars, and the history of the keyboard.

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EARLY RELEASE!!!!!

XD     \( ﾟ ᗜ ﾟ )/     ツ

how is this possible... is it...

MAGIC   (∩・◡・)⊃━☆ﾟ.*

but then there is full day on friday...ಠ_ಠ

NO SCHOOL ON SATURDAY OR SUNDAY!!!!   \( ﾟ ᗜ ﾟ )/

then there is school again. i say this as a tear slowly rolls down my face.

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This is a random padlet. this padlet needs to be full.

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This is a random padlet. this padlet needs to be full.

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oops... i was supposed to write down here first...

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THE PUNS ARE NOT ENDING!!!

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November 16, 2016

President Obama begins his last overseas trip while in office, we take an in-depth look America's longest-ever war, and movie theaters hope 4-D fills seats.

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Something about this tree always seems to make me cry. Its probably because last time i saw it, i got my head stuck in one of its branches… But it also reminds me of my childhood growing up (then again, there was that time when i found out i will never have my growth spurt) But nothing in parenthesis ever matter. What matters is if this tree lives or dies. I vote lives. Even though it gives me bad memories. BUT IT ALSO GIVES ME GOOD ONES!!!!!!!!! THIS IS THE BEST TREE EVER!!!!!!!!!! Anywho… i found this tree in a desert. That tells me something. It should not be there. But also, that it will never stop believing in having a growth spurt. That is something i didnt do that i should have done. That is why i never had mine. ONE DAY, I WISH TO BE AS GOOD AS THAT TREE (and stand still for the rest of my life) AND LIVE A VERY EXCITING LIFE! There is nothing bad that i can say about this tree (except for the things that i already said). I am Canyon Baker, and i approve this speech.

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the puns wont end will they...

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A CNN reporter in Iraq survives being trapped in a battle, a sudden currency switch causes problems in India, and the U.S. president-elect builds his team.

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A major earthquake strikes New Zealand, an international loan could bring some relief to Egypt's economy, and a drought fuels wildfires in Appalachia. Also, the amount of dangers have increased recently due to inflation in the prices and major storms.

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Democrats and Republicans deliver speeches calling for unity, and international leaders and markets react to the U.S. election.

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This U.S. Election Day, join us for explanations on the candidates' potential paths to victory, the limits on free speech at polling venues, and the challenges of a presidential transition. We're also covering massive protests in South Korea and a celestial sighting that occurs less than once in a blue moon.

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Watch today's show for U.S. presidential election results, part of President-Elect Donald Trump's speech, and an explainer on how CNN makes projections.

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too many ending puns...

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The U.S. presidential candidates make their final push, early voting results make the election hard to predict, and we explain the switch to Standard Time.

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A complication in the "Brexit," a possible clue in an aviator's mysterious disappearance, and an electoral map examination are all featured this Friday!

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Today, we explain the U.S. Electoral College and how the Supreme Court chooses its cases. Also covered: migrant camps in Paris and wind turbines in the U.S.

also, the end had too many puns...

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Today, we're explaining an investigation concerning the FBI and a U.S. presidential candidate, and we're examining a standoff over the Dakota Access Pipeline.

Yesterday

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The Grand Canyon (Hopi: Ongtupqa;[2] Yavapai: Wi:kaʼi:la, Navajo: Tsékooh Hatsoh, Spanish: Gran Cañón) is a steep-sidedcanyon carved by the Colorado River in the state of Arizona in the United States. It is contained within and managed by Grand Canyon National Park, the Kaibab National Forest, Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument, the Hualapai Tribal Nation, theHavasupai people and the Navajo Nation. President Theodore Roosevelt was a major proponent of preservation of the Grand Canyon area, and visited it on numerous occasions to hunt and enjoy the scenery.

The Grand Canyon is 277 miles (446 km) long, up to 18 miles (29 km) wide and attains a depth of over a mile (6,093 feet or 1,857 meters).[3] Nearly two billion years of Earth's geological history have been exposed as the Colorado River and its tributaries cut their channels through layer after layer of rock while the Colorado Plateau was uplifted.[4] While some aspects about the history of incision of the canyon are debated by geologists,[5] several recent studies support the hypothesis that the Colorado River established its course through the area about 5 to 6 million years ago.[1][6][7] Since that time, the Colorado River has driven the down-cutting of the tributaries and retreat of the cliffs, simultaneously deepening and widening the canyon.

For thousands of years, the area has been continuously inhabited by Native Americans, who built settlements within the canyon and its many caves. The Pueblo people considered the Grand Canyon a holy site, and made pilgrimages to it.[8] The first European known to have viewed the Grand Canyon was García López de Cárdenas from Spain, who arrived in 1540.[9]

The Grand Canyon is a river valley in the Colorado Plateau that exposes uplifted Proterozoic and Paleozoic strata, and is also one of the 19 distinct physiographic sections of the Colorado Plateau province. It is not the deepest canyon in the world (Kali Gandaki Gorge in Nepalis much deeper). However, the Grand Canyon is known for its visually overwhelming size and its intricate and colorful landscape. Geologically, it is significant because of the thick sequence of ancient rocks that are well preserved and exposed in the walls of the canyon. These rock layers record much of the early geologic history of the North American continent.

Uplift associated with mountain formation later moved these sediments thousands of feet upward and created the Colorado Plateau. The higher elevation has also resulted in greater precipitation in the Colorado River drainage area, but not enough to change the Grand Canyon area from being semi-arid. The uplift of the Colorado Plateau is uneven, and the Kaibab Plateau that Grand Canyon bisects is over a one thousand feet (300 m) higher at the North Rim (about 1,000 ft or 300 m) than at the South Rim. Almost all runoff from the North Rim (which also gets more rain and snow) flows toward the Grand Canyon, while much of the runoff on the plateau behind the South Rim flows away from the canyon (following the general tilt). The result is deeper and longer tributary washes and canyons on the north side and shorter and steeper side canyons on the south side.

Temperatures on the North Rim are generally lower than those on the South Rim because of the greater elevation (averaging 8,000 feet or 2,400 metres above sea level).[10] Heavy rains are common on both rims during the summer months. Access to the North Rim via the primary route leading to the canyon (State Route 67) is limited during the winter season due to road closures.[11]

The Grand Canyon is part of the Colorado River basin which has developed over the past 40 million years. A recent study places the origins of the canyon beginning about 17 million years ago. Previous estimates had placed the age of the canyon at 5–6 million years.[12] The study, which was published in the journal Science in 2008, used uranium-lead dating to analyze calcite deposits found on the walls of nine caves throughout the canyon.[13] There is a substantial amount of controversy because this research suggests such a substantial departure from prior widely supported scientific consensus.[14] In December 2012, a study published in the journal Science claimed new tests had suggested the Grand Canyon could be as old as 70 million years.[15] However, this study has been criticized by those who support the "young canyon" age of around six million years as "[an] attempt to push the interpretation of their new data to their limits without consideration of the whole range of other geologic data sets."[12]

The canyon is the result of erosion which exposes one of the most complete geologic columns on the planet.

The major geologic exposures in the Grand Canyon range in age from the 2-billion-year-old Vishnu Schist at the bottom of the Inner Gorge to the 230-million-year-old Kaibab Limestone on the Rim. There is a gap of about a billion years between the 500-million-year-old stratum and the level below it, which dates to about 1.5 billion years ago. This large unconformityindicates a long period for which no deposits are present.

Many of the formations were deposited in warm shallow seas, near-shore environments (such as beaches), and swamps as the seashore repeatedly advanced and retreated over the edge of a proto-North America. Major exceptions include the Permian Coconino Sandstone, which contains abundant geological evidence of aeolian sand dune deposition. Several parts of the Supai Group also were deposited in non–marine environments.

The great depth of the Grand Canyon and especially the height of its strata (most of which formed below sea level) can be attributed to 5–10 thousand feet (1,500 to 3,000 m) of uplift of the Colorado Plateau, starting about 65 million years ago (during the Laramide Orogeny). This uplift has steepened the stream gradient of the Colorado River and its tributaries, which in turn has increased their speed and thus their ability to cut through rock (see the elevation summary of the Colorado River for present conditions).

Weather conditions during the ice ages also increased the amount of water in the Colorado River drainage system. The

ancestral Colorado River responded by cutting its channel faster and deeper.

The base level and course of the Colorado River (or its ancestral equivalent) changed 5.3 million years ago when the Gulf of California opened and lowered the river's base level (its lowest point). This increased the rate of erosion and cut nearly all of the Grand Canyon's current depth by 1.2 million years ago. The terraced walls of the canyon were created by differential erosion.[16]

Between 100,000 and 3 million years ago, volcanic activity deposited ash and lava over the area which at times completely obstructed the river. These volcanic rocks are the youngest in the canyon.

this could all be a lie because i got it from the wiki...

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(づ ◕ ᴥ ◕ )づ

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The majority of the video is about isis in Iraq, and other people trying to survive the disaster