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Choose the correct option:
1. What happens during the Antarctic winter?

There is complete darkness

It snows every day

All of the animals leave

2. Antarctica has a high albedo. What does this mean?

Antarctica is white in colour so a lot of energy from the Sun is reflected back into space

There are lots of plants and animals that live there

There are lots of blizzards there

3. How do icebergs form?

From the sea freezing

From glaciers

From snow falling onto the cold sea

4. How have scientists in Antarctica been able to study the climate of the past?

By looking at old records

By ice core analysis

Through old books and paintings

5. Why are scientists concerned about the thinning of the ice sheets in Antarctica?

Because the melting of ice sheets could cause sea levels to rise

Because the melting of ice sheets could make penguins extinct

Because the melting of ice sheets could mean that scientists in Antarctica have nowhere to live

6. What does the ozone layer do?

Keeps the earth cool

Forms clouds

Stops the harmful rays from the sun

7. Which chemicals have been linked with ozone depletion?

Oxygen

Carbon Dioxide

CFCs

8. Where is the area of damaged ozone?

It moves

Over the Antarctic

Over the UK

9. Which of the following words could describe Antarctica?

Rainforest

Desert

Savannah

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Antarctica is one of the coldest places on Earth with ninety-nine percent of it covered by an ice sheet. Scientists worry about the ice melting due to environmental issues such as climate change.

Antarctican climate

Antarctica can be called a desert because of the low levels of precipitation. Antarctica has the coldest land temperature recorded on the Earth of -89.2°C. The average annual temperature is around -50°C.

The precipitation in Antarctica is mainly snow. In coastal regions about 200 mm can fall annually. In mountainous regions and on the East Antarctica plateau the amount is less than 50 mm annually. This is not as high as other desert regions because it is so cold, so the snow gradually builds up year after year. There are also strong winds, with recordings of up to 200 mph being made.

Why is it so cold and dry?

The angle of the Sun is low in the sky. This means the energy from the Sun spreads out over a large area.

The area has 24 hours of darkness for some of the winter. Therefore, there is no sunlight for long periods of time.

The surface of Antarctica has a high albedo. This means that a lot of the energy received from the Sun is reflected back into space.

The high altitude of the land. Temperatures decrease approximately 1°C for every 100 m increase in height.

Cold air cannot hold as much water vapour as warm air, so precipitation is less likely.

Oceans store heat so they often create milder temperatures and increased rainfall. However, as Antarctica is such a large land mass, only the very edges of the continent experience this effect.

The ice in Antarctica
The ice in Antarctica is on average 2.5 km thick. Nearly 99 per cent of Antarctica is covered by an ice sheet. The ice sheet moves by gravity downhill. A few mountain peaks may be seen above the ice sheet. These are called Nunataks.

How icebergs are formed:

Glaciers are formed within the ice sheet.

As these glaciers move, the ice within them cracks, creating large crevasses.

When the glacier flows into the sea, an ice shelf is formed.

The ice shelf floats on the water. The largest ice shelf in Antarctica is the Ross Ice Shelf.

If the blocks of ice break free from the glacier, a process called 'calving' forms icebergs.

Glossary
albedo
A measure of how much sunlight a surface reflects.

atmosphere
The layers of gases that surround the Earth. The important gases in the atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide.

chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
An organic compound.

crevasse
Deep crack in a glacier or ice sheet.

glacier
A slow-moving ice mass, formed over a long period from compacted snow.

ice sheet
A large, permanent area of ice which could expand in most directions.

ice shelf
An area of ice which extends beyond land and floats over water.

iceberg
A large mass of ice that floats on the sea.

ozone layer
A layer of gas in the atmosphere that protects the Earth from harmful radiation from the Sun.

precipitation
Moisture that falls from the air to the ground. Includes rain, snow, hail, sleet, drizzle, fog and mist.

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Human factors increasing global warming 

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Human factors increasing global warming 

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Some human activities increase the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere:

Burning fossil fuels, eg coal, gas and oil - these release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Deforestation - trees absorb carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. If they are cut down, there will be higher amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Dumping waste in landfill - when the waste decomposes it produces methane.

Agriculture - agricultural practices lead to the release of nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere.

Greenhouse gases = are produced naturally and trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere like a blanket.

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Earthquakes are caused by the movement of the Earth's plates.

What causes an earthquake?
An earthquake is the shaking and vibration of the Earth's crust due to movement of the Earth's plates (plate tectonics). Earthquakes can happen along any type of plate boundary.

Earthquakes occur when tension is released from inside the crust. Plates do not always move smoothly alongside each other and sometimes get stuck. When this happens pressure builds up. When this pressure is eventually released, an earthquake tends to occur.The point inside the crust where the pressure is released is called the focus. The point on the Earth's surface above the focus is called the epicentre.
Earthquake energy is released in seismic waves. These waves spread out from the focus. The waves are felt most strongly at the epicentre, becoming less strong as they travel further away. The most severe damage caused by an earthquake will happen close to the epicentre.
BBC.COM
IGCSE

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Is climate change happening?
The global climate has been changing since time began and will continue to change into the future. The Earth's temperature has fluctuated in the last few hundred years. However, since around 1950 there has been a dramatic increase in global temperatures. This increase is known as global warming

Climate change in the past

The Earth's average temperature has changed over the last 500,000 years. There have been times when it has been warmer than it is at present (interglacial phases) and times when it has been cooler (glacial phases), when there have been ice ages.

Evidence of global warming
Evidence has shown that the Earth’s temperature is rising, and that an increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is responsible. This will continue to create a number of negative and positive effects.

1. Thermometer readings

On-going temperature recordings using thermometers have shown a clear warming of the Earth's temperature over the past few decades. By using this data, scientists have seen an average combined land and ocean surface temperature increase of 0.85°C since the end of the 19th century. In the northern hemisphere, the period between 1983 and 2012 was the warmest 30-year period of the last 1,400 years.

The degree to which the climate warms in the future will depend on natural climate variability and the level of greenhouse gas emissions. If greenhouse gas emissions continue, average global temperatures will rise. However, some regions such as the Arctic will warm faster than others.

2. Glacier retreat

Over the past 50 to 100 years, photographic evidence has shown that the world's glaciers have been melting, which has caused them to retreat. The melting of glaciers around the world has been observed since the late 1800s. The rise in global temperatures is causing glaciers to disappear and is increasing the melting of sea-ice in the Arctic. Artic sea-ice is disappearing at a rate of 10 per cent every decade.

3. Early spring

In recent years there have been signs of a seasonal shift in many regions of the world. In the UK spring arrives earlier and winters tend to be less severe. These seasonal changes affect the nesting and migration patterns of wildlife.

5. Rising sea levels

Between 1901 and 2010, average global sea levels rose by 0.19 metres.

Key words 😊
climate change
The long-term alteration of weather patterns.

desalination
The removal of salt from water. This is an energy-intensive process. Also known as desalinisation.

desertification
The spread of desert conditions in arid regions due to human activities, drought or climate change.

glacier
A mass of snow and ice which moves slowly under the weight of gravity

global warming
The rise in the average temperature of the Earth's surface.

greenhouse effect
The retention of heat in the atmosphere caused by the build-up of greenhouse gases.

greenhouse gas
The gases responsible for global warming - carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons).

honeypot site
A popular visitor attraction or area, where large numbers of people visit.

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Plate boundaries and their interactions

The Earth's crust is broken up into pieces called plates. Heat rising and falling inside the mantle creates convection currents. The convection currents move the plates.

The movement of the plates, and the activity inside the Earth, is called plate tectonics.

Plate tectonics cause earthquakes and volcanoes. The point where two plates meet is called a plate boundary.

☆ The movement of the plates creates three types of tectonic boundaries:

1. convergent, where plates move into one another.
2. divergent, where plates move apart.
3. transform, where plates move sideways in relation to each other.

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Global water supply and consumption are unequal. Water supplies need to be managed and there are strategies that can achieve this. Water sustainability is a global concern.

Global water supply

Different countries have different amounts of water. Generally speaking:

Countries along the Equator have enough water. Warm, moist air rises here, which causes high levels of rainfall.

Countries to the north of the Equator (at a latitude of approximately 30°) have physical water scarcity. This is when there isn’t enough rainfall. Cooler, dry air falls here and so it is very arid.

Countries to the south of the Equator (at a latitude of approximately 30°) experience some water scarcity. This is less severe than in the north because countries in the south tend to span greater latitudes, eg Australia has both desert and rainforest and so water can be transferred.

Countries with the highest latitudes (those that are furthest away from the Equator) have enough rainfall to provide plenty of fresh water.

Exceptions to this rule exist in countries with high population densities, eg the UK, or countries where poverty causes economic water scarcity, eg Nigeria.

Reasons for increasing water consumption

Water consumption has been rising globally over time. There are two main reasons for this:

Rising population

Everyone needs water in order to survive. Water makes up at least 60% of a person’s bodyweight and it is needed for all bodily functions. People also use water for hygiene, cooking and cleaning. The population of the world is increasing, but there is only a fixed amount of fresh water available for us to use.

Economic development

As countries develop, their water use increases. People in wealthier nations have water delivered into their homes via pipeline. Modern appliances, such as dishwashers and washing machines, use a lot of water. Commercial agriculture, industry and tourism in high income countries (HICs) consume vast quantities of water too. The water footprint of HICs is much higher than low income countries (LICs). As more countries develop, the demands on water will increase.

Key words
aquifer

Naturally occurring underground water stores.

ecosystem
A community of animals, plants and microorganisms, together with the habitat where they live.

Equator
The line around the centre of the Earth, parallel to the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.

high income country (HIC)
A country with a gross national income per capita above US $12,735 (according to the World Bank) such as the Netherlands and the UK.

hygiene
Cleanliness.

infrastructure
The basic structures needed for an area to function, for example roads and communications.

latitude
Imaginary lines around the Earth running parallel to the equator. These are measured in degrees north or south of the equator.

low income country (LIC)
Based on the World Bank's income classifications, a LIC has a gross national income (GNI per capita) of $1,045 or lower.

physical water scarcity

A lack of available water for everyone.

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Non-renewable energy
All life on earth is sustained by energy from the sun. Plants and animals can store energy and some of this energy remains with them when they die. It is the remains of these ancient animals and plants that make up fossil fuels.

Fossil fuels are non-renewable because they will run out one day. Burning fossil fuels generates greenhouse gases and relying on them for energy generation is unsustainable. Hence the need to find more renewable, sustainable ways of generating energy.

Renewable or infinite energy resources are sources of power that quickly replenish themselves and can be used again and again.

☆ Some resources can be thought of as both renewable and non-renewable.

Wood can be used for fuel and is renewable if trees are replanted.

Biomass, which is material from living things, can be renewable if plants are replanted.

Types of fuel

1. Coal (fossil fuel)

Where it is from?
Formed from fossilised plants and consists of carbon with organic and inorganic compounds. It is mined from seams of coal found between layers of rock in the earth.
Advantages
Coal is a ready-made fuel which is cheap to mine and convert to electricity – it lasts longer than oil or gas.
Disadvantages
When burned, coal gives off atmospheric pollutants, including greenhouse gases.

2. Oil (fossil fuel)
Where it is from?
Carbon-based liquid formed from fossilised animals. Lakes of oil are found between seams of rock in the earth.
Advantages
Oil is a ready-made fuel which is cheap to extract and convert into energy. It is used in industry and transport.
Disadvantages
When burned, oil gives off atmospheric pollutants, including greenhouse gases. There is a limited supply of oil.

3. Natural gas (fossil fuel)
Where it is from?
Methane and other gases trapped between seams of rock under the earth are released through pipes sunk into the ground.
Advantages
Gas is a ready-made fuel and relatively cheap. It is used in houses for heating and cooking and is a slightly cleaner fuel than coal and oil.
Disadvantages
When burned, it gives off atmospheric pollutants, including greenhouse gases. There is a limited supply of gas.

4. Nuclear
Where it is from?
Radioactive minerals such as uranium are mined. Electricity is generated from the energy that is released when atoms from these mineral split.
Advantages
A small amount of radioactive material produces a lot of energy, it’s relatively cheap and can last a long time. It doesn’t give off pollutants.
Disadvantages
Nuclear reactors are expensive to run and nuclear waste is highly toxic. Leakage of nuclear materials can have a devastating impact on people and the environment.

5. Biomass
Where it is from?
It is generated from decaying plant or animal waste, or organic material and can be burned to provide energy.
Advantages
It is a cheap and readily available source of energy. If crops are replaced, it can be a long-term, sustainable energy source.
Disadvantages
When burned, it gives off atmospheric pollutants, including greenhouse gases.

6. Wood
Where ot is from?
Obtained from felling trees, burned to generate heat and light.
Advantages
A cheap and readily available source of energy. If trees are replaced, wood burning can be a long term sustainable energy source.
Disadvantages
When burned, it gives off atmospheric pollutants, including greenhouse gases.

How long will fossil fuels last?
Estimates from international organisations suggest that if the world's demand for energy from fossil fuels continues at the present rate that oil and gas reserves may run out within some of our lifetimes. Coal is expected to last longer.

Fossil fuel: Oil
Time left: 50 years

Fossil fuel: Natural gas
Time left: 70 years

Fossil fuel: Coal
Time left: 250 years

Key words:
fossil fuel
Natural, finite fuel formed from the remains of living organisms, eg oil, coal and natural gas.

greenhouse gas
The gases responsible for global warming - carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons).

non-renewable
A resource that cannot be replaced when it is used up, such as oil, natural gas or coal.

renewable
Energy sources that are replenished and not exhausted, eg solar power.

unsustainable
Resources which cannot be used forever and cannot be replaced or recycled after they are used. The use of fossil fuels is unsustainable, for example.

Watch this video👇👇

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Renewable Energy Sources - Types of Energy for Kids

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Advantages of using fossil fuels

At the moment, fossil fuels are relatively cheap and easy to obtain. This may not always be the case.

Much of our infrastructure is designed to run using fossil fuels.

Disadvantages of using fossil fuels

Fossil fuels are non-renewable energy resources. Their supply is limited and they will eventually run out whereas fuels such as wood can be renewed endlessly.

Coal and oil release sulfur dioxide gas when they burn, which causes breathing problems for living creatures and contributes to acid rain.

Fossil fuels release carbon dioxide when they burn, which adds to the greenhouse effect and increases global warming. Of the three fossil fuels, for a given amount of energy released, coal produces the most carbon dioxide and natural gas produces the least.

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Volcanoes

Shield volcanoes are low with sloping sides and built of very thin lava and have gentle eruptions.
Strato-volcanoes can be quite dangerous and pose a threat to nearby communities. Strato-volcanoes have layers of ash and lava and have a violent eruptions and spewing superhot ash and gas at high speed.
Moreover, the difference is the viscosity of the lava. The viscosity of a liquid is a measure of its stiffness, or resistence to flow.
Low-viscosity lavas flow easily, erupt non-violently, and form gently-sloping shield volcanoes.
High-viscosity lavas do not flow easily. Pressure builds up within the magma chamber and eruptions are explosive and violent. High-viscosity lavas form steep-sided stratovolcanoes.
☆ Shield volcanoes have low viscosity lavas.
☆ Strato volcanoes have high viscosity lavas.

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The Ring of Fire, also referred to as the Circum-Pacific Belt, is a path along the Pacific Ocean characterized by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. The majority of Earth’s volcanoes and earthquakes take place along the Ring of Fire.

National Geographic

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Geography
Draw an annotated diagram showing the structure of the Earth. Add labels showing the crust, mantle and outer and inner cores.

You homework must be submitted on Sunday 31th/ January

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Electricity can be generated from fossil fuels and nuclear power. These energy resources are non-renewable. All energy resources have advantages and disadvantages.

Fossil fuels include coal, oil and natural gas. They were formed from the remains of living organisms millions of years ago and they release heat energy when they are burned. They are non-renewable. They have chemical energy stored within them.

About three-quarters of the electricity generated in the UK comes from power stations fuelled by fossil fuels. This diagram shows an energy transfer diagram for the generation of electricity from a fossil fuel such as coal.

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Volcano: is a rupture in the Earth's crust where molten lava, hot ash, and gases from below the Earth's crust escape into the air.

Volcanoes are often described in terms of how active they are:
▪Active: still erupting quite frequently.
▪Dormant: not cutrently erupting but could do so in the future.
▪ Extinct: highly unlikely to erupt again.

The two main types of volcano are:
1. Shield volcanoes
2. Strato-volcanoes

This video is made by National Geographic

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Quotes from the different young people around the world
A. "We use a lot of energy but then oil is very cheap here. Today we went to the indoor ski center - it's a strange sight to see in the desert but we're very proud of it. It's hot so the air conditioning is on and the sprinklers are working to keep the flowers growing in the garden. I can get cold drinks from the chiller in the fridge or turn on the fans if it gets too uncomfortable"
Ali, Dubai

B. " We live in fairly poor part of rich country. We don't have a lot of money and our energy supply is really expensive. We have a gas stove for cooking and everything else runs on electricity. My father has a small moped to get around on and, apart from that, the television is the only other major user of energy that we have"
Birgit, Germany

C. "Mum says we need the big car to get all the sports equipment in for my tennis and my brother's football. At home we've got it all - music players, PCs, tea makers and rice boilers and all sorts. I know it's bad it uses so much electricity but I don't know what I'd do without it all"
Mei Lin, China

D. " We've been very lucky that my father's business has done well. We can afford loads of things he couldn't when he was a boy. Now we have a car, television and computer games and music players and a really nicely equipped kitchen. My mother loves the dishwashet - she says it has made things so much easier"
Imran, Pakistan

HOMEWORK✏🗒

1. Who do you think uses the most energy?

2. Draw a table with two columns marked NECESSARY and UNNECESSARY. Read through all the items used by the young people quoted and write them down under the column you think is correct.

3. Take a look at your own life. 👀

Complete an energy audit, listing all the things you use on a daily basis that require some kind of energy source.

How many of them would you be able to live without?

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Where does our energy come from?
Energy sources are what give you the power for most of the thing you use on a daily basis. Without these sources of energy you would not have television, cell phones, computers, hot water, electricity or gas to cook with. Most energy sources originally come from the sun. Coal, oil and natural gas (which give us 88 per cent of the total energy used worldwide) come from solar energy which has been captured and stored over a very long time. They are being used up very quickly. The amount of energy people use around the world is not the same. In your country the levels of consumption ( how much energy you use) may be pretty low. In other places power is being used up at an incredibly high rate for many different purposes.

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Measuring the power and strength of an earthquake

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Measuring the power and strength of an earthquake

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The power of an earthquake is measured using a seismometer detects the vibrations caused by an earthquake. It plots these vibrations on a seismograph.

The strength, or magnitude, of an earthquake is measured using the Richter scale. The Richter scale is numbered 0-10 with 10 being the greatest strength or magnitude.

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A natural function of the Earth's atmosphere is to keep in some of the heat that is lost from the Earth. This is known as the greenhouse effect.

1. The atmosphere allows the heat from the Sun (short-wave radiation) to pass through to heat the Earth's surface.

2. The Earth's surface then gives off heat (long-wave radiation).

3. This heat is trapped by greenhouse gases (eg methane, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide), which radiate the heat back towards Earth.

4. This process heats up the Earth.

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Renewable energy sources quickly replenish themselves and can be used again and again. For this reason they are sometimes called infinite energy resources.

Types of energy
1. Solar
Where it is from?
Energy from sunlight is captured in solar panels and converted into electricity.
Advantages
Potentially infinite energy supply. Single dwellings can have own electricity supply.
Disadvantaged
Manufacture and implementation of solar panels can be costly.

2. Wind
Where it is from?
Wind turbines (modern windmills) turn wind energy into electricity.
Advantaged
Can be found singularly, but usually many together in wind farms. Wind is a potentially infinite energy supply.
Disadvantages
Manufacture and implementation of wind farms can be costly. Some local people object to on-shore wind farms, arguing that it spoils the countryside.

3. Geothermal
Where it is from?
In volcanic regions it is possible to use the natural heat of the earth. Cold water is pumped under ground and comes out as steam. Steam can be used for heating or to power turbines creating electricity.
Advantages
Potentially infinite energy supply. Used successfully in some countries, such as New Zealand and Iceland.
Disadvantages
Can be expensive to set up and only works in areas of volcanic activity. Geothermal and volcanic activity might calm down, leaving power stations redundant. Dangerous elements found underground must be disposed of carefully.

4. Hydrological or Hydroelectric Power (HEP)
Where it is from?
Energy harnessed from the movement of water through rivers, lakes and dams.
Advantages
Creates water reserves as well as energy supplies.
Disadvantages
Costly to build. Can cause the flooding of surrounding communities and landscapes. Dams have major ecological impacts on local hydrology.

5. Biomass
Where it is from?
It is generated from decaying plant or animal waste, or organic material and can be burned to provide energy.
Advantages
It is a cheap and readily available source of energy. If crops are replaced, it can be a long-term, sustainable energy source.
Disadvantages
When burned, it gives off atmospheric pollutants, including greenhouse gases.

Exam tip

Make sure you know what types of energy are renewable and non-renewable. It is important to remember that biomass and wood are only renewable if the trees and crops are replanted. Many people fall into the trap of thinking that bio means renewable - it doesn't!

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Renewable Energy 101 | National Geographic

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A volcano is an opening in the structure of the surface of the Earth from which hot magma flows out.

Volcanoes have long shafts that go all the way down through the Earth’s first layer, the crust, to magma in between the crust and the mantle (the Earth’s second layer). It’s so hot there that rocks melt into liquid! This is called magma.

The structural features of a volcano
Vent: It's an opening from which hot magma flow out to the surface of the Earth.
Crater: It's a bowl shaped like opening or a mouth of a volcano.
Magma chamber: It's here that the hot magma is stored beneath a volcano.
Magma: It's the hot molten fluid, which comes out to the surface during a volcanic eruption.
Lava: when molten magma reaches the surface of the Earth, it's known as Lava.

☆ Many volcanoes are mountains, made up of layers of lava and ash.

Data Bank
▪The largest active volcano in the world is Mauna Loa, on the Hawaiian islands.
▪Ash from volcanoes is very good for growing things. It adds nutrients to the soil.
▪Most volcanoes can be found in countries that have coastlines on the Pacific Ocean – this is called the Ring of Fire.
▪Some volcanoes are underwater!
▪The largest volcano in Europe is Mount Etna in Sicily (Italy).