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mean of 2600mm to 3600mm of precipitation each year

periodic flooding due to snowmelt and runoff

the alpine zone is above the tree line that separates it from the montane zone, but below the glacier zone

thin atmosphere, low oxygen

flowers, grass, shrubs, snow fleas, brown bears, alpine ibex, antelopes, vultures, salamanders, spiders, scorpions, butterflies, snails, trouts, and more

relatively windy

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shrubland plant community

Mediterranean climate (mild wet winters and hot dry summers)

comes from the Spanish word chaparro, meaning "place of the scrub oak"

hummingbirds, thrashers, roadrunners, jays, toads, lizards, snails, bats frogs, condors, kangaroo rats, etc.

experience cyclical wildfires which occur usually 30 years apart at minimum

some plants are serotinous (delayed germination) and only germinate when prompted by fire

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high moisture content

very humid

occur around the tropics

serve as carbon sinks

different levels of ecosystem according to elevation of plant life (understory, forest floor, canopy, emergent layer)

high levels of transpiration

incredibly high biodiversity and biomass

there are no dry seasons and it rains constantly, with at least 60mm of rain every month

coatis, boas, leopards, dart frogs, macaws, monkeys, kinkajous, sloths

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occur most commonly in high Northern latitudes in Russia and Canada for example

average winter temperatures: –18°F

in the summer, the temperature rises at most, to around 54°F

in the summer, the upper layer of permafrost melts and makes the ground soggy

bogs, rivers, streams and lakes form

plants grow and reproduce with the bare minimum of moisture and soil

very windy

the subsoil is permafrost

very low biodiversity worldwide

caribou, lemmings, arctic hares, zero poikilotherms (cold blooded animals)

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grasslands are biomes dominated by grass, shrubs and legumes

wildfires grazing and drought maintain the stability of these biomes

rich invertebrate fauna live above ground and within the soul

plains bison, plovers, ferrets, horses, wildebeest, rhinoceroses, cheetahs, tigers, elephants, anteaters, and more

temperate grasslands have extreme temperature shifts daily, such is the case for the Great Plains in the U.S, where a record 24 temp change from 44°F to -56°F was observed

graminoids (grasses) are essential to the health of the biome

provide ample food source, microhabitats, hiding places, and prevent extreme soil erosion

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the Southern Ocean is the fifth of the five major ocean basins

because there is little land obstructing the wind, waves can reach astonishing heights and winds can reach remarkable speeds

the antarctic circumpolar current is the world's longest current despite the Southern Ocean being the second smallest ocean

antarctic bottom water is formed here

super cold, super salty water that is formed under sea ice and essential for the climatic regulation of the Earth

lots of upwelling occurs here when bottom water meets with warmer subantarctic water

high nutrient upwelling results in blooms of phytoplankton and subsequent zooplankton

large scale upwelling is common here

because Antarctica is just one large continuous coastline, then the upwelling that occurs here is technically considered coastal

sea temperatures can vary from around 28°F to 50°F

there is a great diversity of life in the Southern Ocean as a result of the great deal of upwelling that occurs here

animals:

patagonian toothfish, antarctic toothfish, weddell seals, rockhopper penguins, blue whales, fur seals, colossal squids, icefish, albatrosses, leopard seals, crabeater seals, ross sealssea cucumbers, pelagic gastropods, krill, and much more

the antarctic silverfish is the only truly pelagic fish in the Southern Ocean

plants:

none

algal protists could be considered "plants" in a very informal sense because they do photosynthesize, but other than that there are no macrophytes nor are their halophytes in the Southern Ocean

keystone species: krill

anthropogenic threats:

global climate change

threatens the formation of sea ice and antarctic bottom water

whaling

overfishing of toothfish

overfishing of krill, the keystone species of the S.O for oil supplements

climatograph not available

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deserts are often formed by the rain shadow phenomenon

a mountain range blocks precipitation from reaching land on one side of the range

because of the lack of plant life, the earth is subject to denudation, or the loss of the uppermost layers of the soil

deserts are shaped by erosion and weathering processes

temperatures and conditions vary dramatically between day and night

occasionally there will be downpours of rain that can shatter super hot rocks

eroded by dust storms; grains of sand and other particles striking the rocks erodes it very fast

temperatures vary greatly amongst different desert ecosystems, partly because of the fact that there are hot dry deserts and freezing cold deserts (which are still dry)

some deserts receive less than one inch of rain per year

deserts can exist in freezing cold arid places too "cold deserts" like in the Antarctic continent

dust storms occur much more frequently than sand storms, contrary to popular belief

only 20% of desert is sand

very low biomass

plant life limited by rainfall

sparsely distributed plant life

most desert plants are xerophytes: plants with adaptations to survive in low liquid water areas

acacias, mesquite, lichen, cacti etc

animals adapted to live in extremely arid areas are called xerocoles

jerobas, kangaroo rats, sandgrouse, coursers, antelopes, arctic weasels, dik-diks, oryx, large amounts of reptiles, and in the Gobi Desert, the snow leopard

occasionally there will be amphibians, although this is rare as amphibians require tons of moisture usually

if there is a desert amphibian, it spends a lot of its time aestivating in deep underground burrows during the hottest months

scorpions, spiders, tadpole shrimp, fairy shrimp, beetles, ants, millipedes, termites and more

tortoises, dingoes and vultures are all examples of potential desert keystone species

anthropogenic threats

mining for minerals

warfare disturbing wildlife

destruction of desert habitat to create farmland

over-extraction of water from desert aquifers

climatograph

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usually seen in transition zones between grasslands/deserts and forest

mixed woodland-grassland biome

unlike other similar biomes, the savanna is characterized by widely spaced trees

no closed canopy formed

can occur in Australia, Africa, North America, and even India

depending on the continent, animal life differs

zebras, lions, cassowaries, antelope, giraffes, rabbits, groundhogs, etc

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typically found in mid-latitude regions

dominated by trees who shed their leaves with the seasons, hence the name deciduous

generally moderate climates

have a winter season

year round precipitation

deer, foxes, hares, squirrels, and more

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This particular set of coordinates was chosen because these are the approximate coordinates of a system of hydrothermal vents known as the Rainbow Vent Field.

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hydrothermal vents are of the most spectacular and beautiful biomes on this planet (subjective)

hydrothermal vent communities are incredibly unique in that they do not get their energy from the sun

instead, hydrothermal vent communities get their energy from primary producers that use chemosynthesis to derive chemical energy from Hydrogen Sulfide

primary producers: chemoautotrophic bacteria (and archaea)

these bacteria can be free living or symbiotic with the many different organisms living here

found wherever there is deep ocean volcanic activity, i.e, oceanic divergent plate boundaries where sea floor spreading occurs, causing the eruption of magma and the subsequent formation of mid-ocean ridges

The Galapagos Rift, Mid Atlantic Ridge and East Pacific Rise are prominent examples of places where hydrothermal vents are common

often, oceanographers and scientists refer to these communities as desert oases, as their biodiversity is very high, and their biomass rivals that of shallow water coral reefs

the majority of the sea floor is relatively low in biomass (abyssal plains)

compared to the surrounding seafloor, hydrothermal vents have a density of organisms that is on average, 10,000 to 100,000 times greater

hydrothermal vents spew out superheated seawater that can reach up to 867°F!

also, because of the extreme pressure, water can exist as both as a liquid or as a supercritical fluid, meaning it can behave like a gas and a liquid; it can flow through porous surfaces just like a gas would

hydrothermal vents don't all look like fissures, many form tall chimney shapes formed from the buildup of dissolved minerals

they can get tens of meters tall before falling over

black smokers and white smokers are common names given to the two main kinds of hydrothermal vents, evidently categorized by the color of their plumes

black smokers are found on the seafloor, most frequently at depths of 2500 to 3000 meters

emit mostly sulfur based chemicals and minerals, that form a black precipitate when in contact with the freezing cold ocean water

white smokers emit lighter colored plumes; made up of calcium and silicon and other light minerals

lower temperatures than black smokers, probably due to the fact that they are farther away from the heat source

chemoautotrophs get energy by oxidizing electron donors, such as sulfur compounds

bacteria grows in mats, attracts amphipods, copepods (the primary consumers)

a great multitude of fascinating animals form complex food webs in this biome

gastropods, shrimp, barnacles, mussels, tube worms, eels, cnidarians, octopuses, clams and more

the pompeii worm is a unique species of polychaete worm with "hairs" all over its body

these hairs are actual colonies of thermophile bacteria

it is hypothesized that these colonies provide some sort of insulation and protection to the worm, and in turn the worm secrets an edible mucus for the colonies to eat

this makes sense in that these incredible worms are the most heat tolerant animals known to science (after the tardigrade) and can withstand temperatures of up to 221°F!

the worm keeps its anterior end out of the vent water, and its body in the extreme heat

giant pacific tube worms are probably my favorite organisms; their discovery was the catalyst for further investigation of these hydrothermal vent habitats and the lifeforms that make them possible

they do not have a mouth, gut nor anus

they only have a hemoglobin rich plume that is bright red, and an organ called a trophosome

during larval development, giant tube worm larvae take on a kind of bowl shape, with an opening where the anus would be

bacteria colonize this cavity, and when the worm grows up, the trophosome is sealed, and the bacteria are permanently stuck inside

this is not bad, since the bacteria have a place to live, and the worms then have a means of energy attainment via the chemoautotrophic bacteria

many many other species also have chemoautotrophic endosymbionts, like bathymodiolid mussels, clams, alvinocarid shrimp and more

creatures living here obtain their oxygen from the O2 dissolved in the ocean water, so technically many still get oxygen from photosynthesis, since most of the dissolved oxygen in the ocean is a product of photosynthesis

it can be said that the keystone species here are the various chemosynthetic bacteria species, because such a high diversity and concentration of life would not be possible without the energy they provide

possible anthropogenic threats:

seafloor mining

seafloor dredging

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mild summers and snowy winters

temperature range: 23-41°F annual mean

mostly spruce, pine, birch trees

low precipitation: mostly rain in the summer, but snow and fog can happen too

lots of taiga in Europe and North America have lakes and bogs due to meltwater as a result of a recent glaciation

very few cold blooded animals: various frogs, toads and salamander species

lake chub, chum salmon, blackfish, cisco, walleye, Arctic lamprey

moose, reindeer, wood bison, voles, porcupine, mink, weasel, otter, lynx, fox, bear, wolverine

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warm, moist summers and cool winters

needleleaf and broadleaf coniferous trees dominate

have the highest biomass of all terrestrial biomes

this is because massive trees, like redwoods and large pine species, are the dominant species in this biome

podsols: infertile, acidic soil; upper layer is made up of mor (grey ash-like substance full of fungus); minerals have permeated deeper down into the soil, very few earthworms

few reptiles and amphibians due to cold temperatures

woodpeckers, grouse, hawks, owls, warblers

voles, squirrels, moose, reindeer, lynx, wolves

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Picture of a red pencil urchin sitting atop coral in the Papahanaumokuakea National Marine Monument 

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warm, shallow water

relatively nutrient poor water

cannot exist in cold waters at higher latitudes

require high light availability (corals require light to survive due to symbiotic symbiodinium algae in their tissues)

occur primarily around the equator and tropics

all shallow water coral reefs combined contain 25% of all marine life, while occupying only around 1% of the oceans

high biomass, high biodiversity

complex structure of reefs serves as a protected area for juvenile fish and other juvenile marine organisms

common fish: butterflyfish, reef sharks, parrotfish, triggerfish, surgeonfish, damsels, barracudas, jacks, trevallies, puffers, gobies, eels, pipefishes, trumpetfishes, seahorses, and much more

common invertebrates: tunicates, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, sea stars, jellyfish, anemones, scleractinian corals, sponges, polychaete worms, crabs, shrimp, snails, nudibranchs, cephalopods, octocorals, and much much more

keystone species:

most often it is reef sharks, whether it be black tip or white tip

under threat by the overfishing and illegal commerce of sharks

are the apex predators in the coral reef biome

keep grazer populations in check

scleractinian corals

under threat by excessive and prolonged bleaching caused by warming ocean temperatures

provide food, microhabitats and structure

corals are the foundational organisms in this biome

plant life is relatively low, and algal protists are sparse if the reef is healthy

anthropogenic threats

plastic pollution (microplastics too)

overfishing

freshwater and sediment runoff

warming ocean temperatures caused by anthropogenic climate change

increasingly frequent and intense storms caused by anthropogenic climate change

dredging and land development

sewage and fertilizer runoff which causes eutrophication and overgrowth of corals by algae

climatograph