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Hoang 7.4
In early 1786, Virginia’sJames Madison advocated a meeting of states to address the widespread economic problems that plaguedthe new nation. Heeding Madison’s call, the legislature in Virginia invited all thirteen states to meet inAnnapolis, Maryland, to work on solutions to the issue of commerce between the states. Eight statesresponded to the invitation. But the resulting 1786 Annapolis Convention failed to provide any solutionsbecause only five states sent delegates . In February 1787, in the wake of the uprising in westernMassachusetts, the Confederation Congress authorized the Philadelphia convention. This time, all thestates except Rhode Island sent delegates to Philadelphia to confront the problems of the day.

One issue that the delegates in Philadelphia addressed was the way in which representatives to the newnational government would be chosen

James Madison put forward a proposition known as the Virginia Plan, which called for a strong nationalgovernment that could overturn state laws (Figure 7.15). The plan featured abicameralor two-houselegislature, with an upper and a lower house. The people of the states would elect the members of thelower house, whose numbers would be determined by the population of the state. State legislatures wouldsend delegates to the upper house.. The number of representatives in the upper chamber would also bebased on the state’s population. Thisproportional representationgave the more populous states, likeVirginia, more political power. William Paterson introduced a New Jersey Plan to counter Madison’s scheme, proposing that all stateshave equal votes in a unicameral national legislature. He also addressed the economic problems of theday by calling for the Congress to have the power to regulate commerce, to raise revenue though taxes on

The issue of counting or not counting slaves for purposes of representation connected directly to thequestion of taxation. Beginning in 1775, the Second Continental Congress asked states to pay for warby collecting taxes and sending the tax money to the Congress. In April 1783,the Confederation Congress amended the earlier system of requisition by having slaves count as three-fifths of the white population. In this way, slaveholders gained a significant tax break. The delegates inPhiladelphia adopted this same three-fifths formula in the summer of 1787.

The draft constitution was finished in September 1787. The delegates decided that in order for the newnational government to be implemented, each state must first hold a special ratifying convention. Whennine of the thirteen had approved the plan, the constitution would go into effect. upporters of the 1787 Constitution, known asFederalists, made the case that a centralizedrepublic provided the best solution for the future. The Federalists, particularly John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison, put their case to the publicin a famous series of essays known asThe Federalist Papers. These were first published in New York andsubsequently republished elsewhere in the United States.

Quang 7.2.1
THE STATUS OF WOMEN

In eighteenth-century America, as well as in England, the legal status of a married woman was defined as veiled, that is, a married (or secretive) woman who had no personal identity. legal person. legally or economically independent of her husband. Two of the powerful members of the revolutionary generation, Abigail Adams and Mercy Otis Warren, challenged assumptions and traditions about gender during the revolution. Inspired by the Revolution, Judith Sargent Murray of Massachusetts advocated for women's economic independence and equal educational opportunities for boys and girls. Murray's more radical ideas were in favor of women's economic independence. Adams, Murray, and Warren all come from privileged backgrounds. All three were fully literate, while many women in the American republic were not. Their literacy and ability to work allowed them to promote new roles for women in the atmosphere of unique possibilities created by the Revolution and its promise of change. Overall, the Revolution reshaped the role of women by undermining the traditional expectations of wives and mothers, including betrayal.

THE MEANING OF RACE

In many ways, the Revolution served to reinforce assumptions about race among white Americans. They saw the new nation as a white republic; Negroes are slaves, and Indians have no place. Thomas Paine and Jefferson argued that separation from the Empire was necessary. For his part, Benjamin Franklin wrote in the 1780s that, over time, alcoholism would wipe out the Indians, leaving the land free for white settlers.
Trang Linh 7.2.2
In the 1780s, Jefferson advocated for the abolition of slavery in Virginia as well as the removal of blacks from the state. Southern planters were outraged by Jefferson's views on the abolition of slavery and the removal of blacks from America. There was a Revolution that resulted in a movement to abolish slavery. Slaveholders in Virginia freed approximately ten thousand slaves. All slaves were freed under the Massachusetts constitution of 1780. However, hundreds of people remained enslaved in the state. When several slaves successfully sought their freedom in court in the 1780s, a series of court decisions undermined slavery in Massachusetts.

During the Revolution, Indians faced a difficult situation. Few Indians sided with the American revolutionaries because almost all middle-ground revolutionaries saw them as an enemy to be destroyed. After the war, the victorious Americans ignored Indian claims to what they saw as their hard-won land, and they moved aggressively to assert control over western New York and Pennsylvania. The defeat of the Indians and their claims marked the end of the Northwest Indian War (1785–1795). Under the Virginia statute, no one could be forced to attend or support a specific church or be prosecuted for his or her beliefs.

Dũng 7.3
THE STATE CONSTITUTIONS
Responding to a request for advice on proper government from North Carolina, Adams wrote Thoughts on Government, which influenced many state legislatures. The state constitutions of the new United States illustrate different approaches to addressing the question of how much democracy would prevail in the thirteen republics.
The Ordinance of 1787 officially turned the land into an incorporated territory called the Northwest
The Congress would appoint a governor for the territories, and when the population in the territory reached five thousand free adult settlers, those citizens could create their own legislature and begin the process of moving toward statehood.
SHAYS’ REBELLION
Revolution, widespread internal devaluation of that currency occurred as many lost confidence in the value of state paper money and the Continental dollar. The farmers wanted their debts forgiven, and they demanded that the 1780 constitution be revised to address citizens beyond the wealthy elite who could serve in the legislature.
Shays and Shattuck were two of the leaders of the rebels who rose up against the Massachusetts government in
The climax of Shays’ Rebellion came in January 1787, when the rebels attempted to seize the federal armory in Springfield, Massachusetts. Shays’ Rebellion resulted in eighteen deaths overall, but the uprising had lasting effects. To men of property, mostly conservative Whigs, Shays’ Rebellion strongly suggested the republic was falling into anarchy and chaos.

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7.2 Quang Anh
After the Revolution, the power balance between men and women, White and Black, and Native Americans remained mostly unchanged. Many people were inspired and empowered by revolutionary ideas like the Declaration of Independence's call for universal equality. Abigail Adams and others battled for women's rights, while the Pennsylvania Abolition Society and the New York Manumission Society outlawed slavery. For Black people, women, and Native Americans, the revolutionary ambitions of equality fell well short of reality. In the new republic, non-White people and women were denied full citizenship, including the right to vote. Benjamin Rush advocated the education of girls and young women performed a part in securing the republic's existence.

7.4: D.Đức
The economic problems that plagued the thirteen states of the Confederation set the stage for the creation of a strong central government under a federal constitution.
THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION

Annapolis, Maryland, to work on solutions to the issue of commerce between the states. Eight states responded to the invitation. But the resulting 1786 Annapolis Convention failed to provide any solutions because only five states sent delegates. These delegates did, however, agree to a plan put forward by Alexander Hamilton
THE QUESTION OF REPRESENTATION
One issue that the delegates in Philadelphia addressed was how representatives to the new national government would be chosen.
James Madison put forward a proposition known as the Virginia Plan, which called for a strong national government that could overturn state laws. The plan featured a bicameral or two-house legislature, with an upper and a lower house.
THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY
The question of slavery stood as a major issue at the Constitutional Convention because slaveholders wanted slaves to be counted along with whites, termed «free inhabitants,» when determining a state’s total population. This, in turn, would augment the number of representatives accorded to those states in the lower house. Some northerners, however, such as New York’s Gouverneur Morris, hated slavery and did not even want the term included in the new national plan of government.
THE QUESTION OF DEMOCRACY
Many of the delegates to the Constitutional Convention had serious reservations about democracy, which they believed promoted anarchy.
THE FIGHT OVER RATIFICATION
The draft constitution was finished in September 1787. The delegates decided that for the new national government to be implemented, each state must first hold a special ratifying convention. When nine of the thirteen had approved the plan, the constitution would go into effect. When the American public learned of the new constitution, opinions were deeply divided, but most people were opposed. To salvage their work in Philadelphia, the architects of the new national government began a campaign to sway public opinion in favor of their blueprint for a strong central government.
7.3 Khac Huy
THE CONSTITUTIONS OF THE STATES
Adams published Thoughts on Government in response to a request for guidance on effective government from North Carolina, and it affected numerous state legislatures. Different methods to resolving the question of how much democracy would prevail in the thirteen republics may be seen in the state constitutions of the new United States. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 established the land as a separately incorporated territory. The territory's governor would be appointed by Congress, and if the territory's population reached 5,000 free adult settlers, the territory's residents may form their government and begin the process of becoming a state.
SHAYS’ REBELLION
Revolution, widespread internal devaluation of that currency occurred as much lost confidence in the value of state paper money and the Continental dollar. The farmers wanted their debts forgiven, and they demanded that the 1780 constitution be revised to address citizens beyond the wealthy elite who could serve in the legislature. Shays and Shattuck were two of the leaders of the rebels who rose against the Massachusetts government The climax of Shays’ Rebellion came in January 1787, when the rebels attempted to seize the federal armory in Springfield, Massachusetts. Shays’ Rebellion resulted in eighteen deaths overall, but the uprising had lasting effects. To men of property, mostly conservative Whigs, Shays’ Rebellion strongly suggested the republic was falling into anarchy and chaos.
7.2Nhật Huy
The status of women :
During eighteenth-century America, a married woman had no legal or economic status independent of her husband. They could not conduct business or buy and sell the property and even the property she brought to a marriage was in her husband's control. The woman did not call for the right to vote, but some began to agitate for equality under the law between husband and wives, and for the same educational opportunities as men. In the end, the Revolution reshaped women's roles by challenging traditional expectations of wives and mothers, such as subservience. Women were expected to practice republican virtues at home, in the separate domestic sphere assigned to them, particularly frugality and simplicity. Republican Motherhood meant that women were more responsible than men for raising good children and instilling values.
They all possess the virtue required to ensure the republic's survival. The Revolution also brought about new opportunities. women's access to educational opportunities Men realized that the republic required women to play an important role.
The meaning of race:
White people viewed the new nation as a white republic; blacks were slaves, and Indians had no place. Racial hatred of blacks increased during the Revolution because many slaves fled their white masters for the freedom offered by the British. The same was true for Indians who allied themselves with the British
Slavery:
Slavery offered the most glaring contradiction between the idea of equality stated in the Declaration of Independence (“all men are created equal”) and the reality of race relations in the late eighteenth century.  Jefferson understood the contradiction fully, and his writings reveal hard-edged racist assumptions. In his Notes on the State of Virginia in the 1780s, Jefferson urged the end of slavery in Virginia and the removal of blacks from that state.  Jefferson envisioned an “empire of liberty” for white farmers and relied on the argument of sending blacks out of the United States, even if doing so would completely destroy the slaveholders’ wealth in their human property. Southern planters strongly objected to Jefferson’s views on abolishing slavery and removing blacks from America.

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7.1 Diệu Linh
REPUBLICANISM AS A POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

The tradition that the monarch’s child or other relative inherits the throne led to conflicts and warfare in Europe. By the mid-1770s, Americans believed that George III, the king of Great Brain did not fulfill his duty, so they dissatisfied and wanted to replace the monarchy by a republic form of government. Republican was an alternative to democracy. It allowed most citizen to make decisions upon the whole. To many people, democracy did not offer a good placement for monarchy. The Whigs, for instance, defined themselves in opposition to democracy, which they equated with anarchy. Many now assume that US was founded as a democracy, but the Whigs believed and pushed for democracy.

REPUBLICANISM AS A SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY

Virtuous behavior was believed to be the key to maintain a republic. The revolutionary leaders agreed that the ownership of property provided one way to measure an individual’s virtue. In other words, a republic would limit political rights to property holders. George Washington did a great job to serve for the new republic, but he did not aim at becoming a new king of America but retiring as commander in chief and returning to his estate. The aristocratic side of republicanism found expression in the Society of the Cincinnati, of which Washington was the first president general. According to that, the eldest sons of members inherited their fathers’ memberships.

7.2 Châu Giang
THE STATUS OF WOMEN
In America in the 18th century, women had no social or economic status, most of which depended on their husbands. But some, especially the wives of elite republican statesmen, began to agitate for equality under the law between husbands and wives.
Some women hoped to overturn coverture, especially Abigail Adams, Whig leader John Adams’ wife. Abigail Adams ran the family homestead during the Revolution, but she did not have the ability to conduct business without her husband’s consent. So, she wrote a letter to her husband about the difficulties of running the farm while her husband was away and received a disappointing response from him.
Mercy Otis Warren is another member of the revolutionary and successful generation by publishing anti-Bristish works, she stepped out of the female sphere and into the otherwise male-dominated sphere of public life.
Judith Sargent Murray was inspired by the Revolution and began to publish ideas about educational equality in the 1780s. She had more radical ideas in favor of women’s economic independence, but it is also a traditional idea that women should take care of family morals and maintain morality much better than men.
Benjamin Rush, a Whig educator and physician from Philadelphia, strongly advocated education of girls and young women played an important role in maintaining republicanism and ensuring the survival of the republic.

THE MEANING OF RACE
By the time of the Revolution, slavery existed for more than a hundred years in America, they had no place, some fled for the freedom offered by the British. America thinks this is the British plan to defeat them.
Slavery
Slavery offered the most glaring contradiction between the idea of equality stated in the Declaration of Independence and the reality of race relations in the late 18th century.
Thomas Jefferson, who wrote the Declaration of Independence, still held the view that blacks were inferior to whites, and did bad things to them (like Sally Hemings, among whom had several children).
In 1780, Jefferson called for the abolition of slavery and the expulsion of blacks from the United States, which was strongly opposed by many Southerners.
When Jefferson ran for president in 1796, an anonymous “Southern Planter” wrote an oath against Jefferson’s inauguration and was supported by slaves and many other Americans.

7.3: Mạnh Hưng

The state constitution
____
In 1776, John Adams called for the 13 independent colonies to write their own constitutions. In response to a request for advice on the right government North Carolina was not pro-democracy, he wrote: "there is no good government but a republic." Out of fear of tyranny with only the ruling group, he proposed a system of checks in which there were three distinct branches of government - executive, legislative, and judicial.
Although the 1776 Pennsylvania constitution and the 1784 New Hampshire constitution both provide examples of democratic leanings, the people were still subject to oppression and exploitation. In addition, Pennsylvania's Constitution also removed the executive branch (without a governor) and the senate. Instead, Pennsylvania has one home - the unicameral legislature. In contrast, the New Hampshire Constitution of 1784 allowed every town and small village to represent the state government, making the lower house of the legislature a model of democratic government. John Adams wrote extensively about the Massachusetts constitution of 1780, which reflected his fear of too much democracy. It thus created two legislative chambers, an upper and lower house, and a powerful governor with broad veto power.

The articles of confederation
____
In 1776, John Adams called for the thirteen colonies to write their state constitutions. Enlightenment political thought deeply influenced Adams and other revolutionary leaders seeking to form viable republican governments. Constitutions in Maryland and South Carolina sought to limit the power of democratic dictatorships. John Adams wrote extensively about the Massachusetts constitution of 1780, reflecting his fear of democracy being too high. The South Carolina Constitution of 1778 also sought to protect the interests of the wealthy.

Shays' rebellion
____
After the American Revolution, land sales failed to produce the revenue needed to deal with economic problems. The economic crisis came to a head in 1786 and 1787 in western Massachusetts where farmers faced high taxes and debts. In 1786, Massachusetts citizen rebels closed courthouses across the state to prevent foreclosure (seizure of land in lieu of loan payments) on farms in debt. Rebels demanded that the 1780 constitution be revised to address citizens beyond the wealthy elite who could serve in thelegislature.

7.4 : Gia Kiên

James Madison called for a meeting of states to address economic problems. Only five states sent delegates to the 1786 Annapolis Convention. A second convention was called for May 1787 in Philadelphia, and it produced a new framework for government that became the U.S. Constitution.

The Virginia Plan proposed a bicameral or two-house legislature with an upper and lower house. The people of the states would elect members of the lower house, whose numbers would be determined by the population of each state. This proportional representation gave the more populous states more political power. James Madison's Virginia Plan proposed that all states have equal votes in a unicameral national legislature. William Paterson's New Jersey Plan proposed a bicameral legislature with equal representation for all states. Roger Sherman from Connecticut offered a compromise to break the deadlock over representation.

Northerners agreed to the three-fifths compromise in the 1787 Constitution. Compromise gave extra political power to slave states, although not as much as if the total population, both free and enslaved, had been used. No direct federal income tax was immediately imposed. The Electoral College is the mechanism for choosing the president, and senators are chosen by state legislatures rather than elected directly by the people (direct elections). The draft constitution was finished in September 1787; each state had to ratify the plan before it could go into effect.

Opponents argued that the Constitution would consolidate all power in a national government. The Federalists argued that representation was too limited and not reflective of the people. They also argued that the Constitution did not contain a bill of rights. The Federalist Papers were first published in New York and subsequently republished elsewhere in the United States. Ancient democracies never possessed one feature of good government.

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7. 1 (Phương Anh)
American revolutionaries were determined to find an alternative to monarchy. S month later, Jefferson's Declaration of Independence affirmed the break with England but did not suggest what form of government should replace monarchy. In the late eighteenth century, republics were few and far between; many European Enlightenment thinkers questioned the stability of a republic. After their break from Great Britain, Americans turned to republicanism for their new government.

REPUBLICANISM AS A POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

Monarchy rests on the practice of dynastic succession. By the mid-1770s, many American colonists believed that George III, the king of Great Britain, had failed to protect and guide their subjects. The disaffection from monarchy explains why a republic appeared a better alternative to the revolutionaries. The Roman Republic provided guidance for those who sought a republican form of government. To many revolutionaries, especially wealthy landowners, merchants, and planters, democracy did not offer a good replacement for monarchy. Conservative Whigs believed in government by a patrician class, composed of a small number of privileged families. Radical Whigs favored broadening the popular participation in political life and pushed for democracy. The great debate after independence centered on the question of who should rule in the new American republic - republicanism or democracy?

REPUBLICANISM AS A SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY

The success or failure of republicanism in the United States would be determined by civic virtue and an educated people. Property ownership was one way to judge an individual's virtue, according to revolutionary leaders, who argued that property owners had the most stake in society and hence could be trusted to make decisions for it. Non-property owners, on the other hand, should have little to do with government, they argued.In other words, unlike a democracy, where the majority of non-property owners have the ability to vote, a republic would restrict political rights to property owners. In this way, republicanism showed a preference for the wealthy, which is understandable given the colonial past. George Washington served as a role model par excellence for the new republic as he did not seek to become the new king of America but he retired instead. The aristocratic side of republicanism—and the belief that the true custodians of public virtue were those who had served in the military—found expression in the Society of the Cincinnati. Founded in 1783, the society admitted only officers of the Continental Army and the French forces.
7.4 khánh an
-THE CONSTITUTION CONVENTION
In early 1786, Virginia’s James Madison advocated a meeting of states to address the widespread economic problems that plagued the new nation.But the resulting 1786 Annapolis Convention failed to provide any solutions because only five states sent delegates. the attendees decided to create a new framework for a national government. That framework became the United States Constitution, and the Philadelphia convention became known as the Constitutional Convention of 1787.
-THE QUESTION OF REPRESENTATION
One issue that the delegates in Philadelphia addressed was the way in which representatives to the new national government would be chosen James Madison put forward a proposition known as the Virginia Plan, which called for a strong national government that could overturn state laws    -THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY
they discuss about the tax of the the number of people in one state , after all agreement is under the three-fifths compromise in the 1787 Constitution, each slave would be counted as three-fifths of a white person     p4The Electoral College was created to ensure that senators were chosen by state legislatures, not elected directly by the people
-THE FIGHT OVER RATIFICATION
The draft constitution was finished in September 1787. The delegates decided that in order for the new national government to be implemented, each state must first hold a special ratifying convention. When nine of the thirteen had approved the plan, the constitution would go into effect. people oppose the constitution but the architects of the new national government began
a campaign to sway public opinion in favor of their blueprint for a strong central government.
7.2
Mai Anh( the status of women - slavery)

Elite republican revolutionaries did not envision a completely new society, traditional ideas and categories of race and gender, order and decorum remained firmly entrenched among members of their privileged class. The legal status of married women was defined as coverture, meaning a married woman had no legal or economics status independent. However, some women hoped to overturn coverture that the revolution of feminism was increasingly being responded. By the time of Revolution which served to reinforce the assumption about race among white Americans, slavery had been firmly in place in American for over on hundred years. American viewed the new nation as a white republic, blacks were slaves and Indians had no place. The American believed that the British instigated Indians to attack them. Slavery offered most glaring contradiction between the idea of equality stated in the Declaration of Independence and the reality of race relations in the late 18th century. Racism shaped white views of black, the blacks were treated badly. Then the view of abolishing slavery and removing blacks from America of Jefferson was strongly objected.

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7.1 hùng
-Most of Europe was controlled by famous monarchs in the eighteenth century, who were bound by tradition to protect and advise their subjects. However, by the mid-1770s, many American colonists had become dissatisfied with their situation. believe George III, King of the United Kingdom, did not do so. Patriots feel the British are to blame. The monarchy under George III was tainted, and the king became a despotic ruler who didn't care about the people. supports the historic privileges enjoyed by British Empire citizens

-republicanism offered an alternative to monarchy, it was also an alternative to democracy, a system
of government characterized by majority rule. To many revolutionaries, especially wealthy landowners, merchants,
and planters, democracy did not offer a good replacement for monarchy. Democracies have ever
been spectacles of turbulence and contention; have ever been found incompatible with personal security
or the rights of property; and have in general been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their
deaths. It is easy
to understand why democracy seemed threatening: majority rule can easily overpower minority rights

-, a republic requires its citizens to cultivate virtuous behavior; if the people
are virtuous, the republic will survive. If the people become corrupt, the republic will fall. republicanism succeeded or failed in the United States would depend on civic virtue and an educated
citizenry. property holders had the greatest stake in society and therefore could
be trusted to make decisions for it, In other words, unlike a democracy, in which the mass of non-property
holders could exercise the political right to vote, a republic would limit political rights to property holders.
In this way, republicanism exhibited a bias toward the elite, a preference that is understandable given
the colonial legacy

-George Washington served as a role model par excellence for the new republic, He did not seek
to become the new king of America; instead he retired as commander in chief of the Continental Army and
returned to his Virginia estate at Mount Vernon to resume his life among the planter elite. Founded in 1783, the society admitted only officers of the
Continental Army and the French forces, not militia members or minutemen.

7.2 Minh Anh, Bảo Anh
After the Revolution changed, the inequality between men, women and white; black, Indians remained mainly unchanged. Married women’s status as femes covert didn’t change, and remained economically dependent on their husband; however, the revolution opened new doors to educational opportunities for women. By the time of the Revolution, they viewed the new nation as a white republic blacks were slaves, and Indians had no place since Indians who allied with the British; Jefferson wrote in the Declaration of Independence, while slavery was abolished by the Pennsylvania Abolition Society and the New York Manumission Society. The 1783 Treaty of Paris didn’t address Indians at all, the victorious Americans turned a deaf ear to Indian’s hard-won land. The Northwest Indian War and the Treaty of Greenville defeated the Indians and their claims. Nonetheless, the revolutionary aspirations of equality fell far short of reality for Black people, women, and Native Americans. Non-White persons and women were denied full citizenship, including the opportunity to vote, in the new republic.

Khang
THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION

James Madison called for a meeting of states to address economic problems. Only five states sent delegates to the 1786 Annapolis Convention. A second convention was called for May 1787 in Philadelphia. Fifty-five men met in secret and created a new framework for a national government.

THE QUESTION OF REPRESENTATION

The Virginia Plan called for a bicameral or two-house legislature with an upper and lower house. The people of the states would elect members of the lower house, whose numbers would be determined by the population of each state. This proportional representation gave the more populous states more political power. Madison's Virginia Plan proposed that all states should have equal votes in a unicameral national legislature. William Paterson proposed a New Jersey Plan to counter Madison's scheme. Roger Sherman from Connecticut offered a compromise to break the deadlock over the thorny question of representation.

THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY

Slavery stood as a major issue at the Constitutional Convention. Slaveholders wanted slaves counted along with whites for purposes of determining state population. Some northerners, such as New York's Gouverneur Morris, hated slavery. States routinely fell far short of delivering the money requested by Congress. Northerners agreed to the three-fifths compromise because the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, passed by the Confederation Congress, banned slavery. Since representation in the House of Representatives was based on the population of a state, the compromise gave extra political power to slave states.

THE QUESTION OF DEMOCRACY

Direct elections of senators came with the Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1913. Critics argue that the process prevents the direct election of the president.

THE FIGHT OVER RATIFICATION

The draft constitution was finished in September 1787. The delegates decided that each state must first hold a special ratifying convention. When the American public learned of the new constitution, opinions were deeply divided. Anti-Federalists argued that the Constitution would consolidate all power in a national government.

7.3 duc minh
In 1776, John Adams urged the thirteen independent colonies to write their own state constitutions. Enlightenment political thought profoundly influenced Adams and other revolutionary leaders. Adams did not advocate democracy; rather, he wrote, "there is no good government but what is republican". Some states embraced democratic practices, while others adopted far more aristocratic and republican ones. The 1776 Pennsylvania constitution and the 1784 New Hampshire constitution both provide examples of democratic tendencies. In Pennsylvania, the requirement to own property in order to vote was eliminated. This opened voting to most free White male citizens of Pennsylvania. Conservative Whigs, who distrusted the idea of majority rule, recoiled from the abolition of property qualifications. The 1778 South Carolina constitution sought to protect the interests of the wealthy. A man had to own at least £5,000 worth of personal property to be the governor of Maryland. He also had to possess an estate worth £1,000 to be a state senator. This latter qualification excluded over 90 percent of the White males from political office. Most revolutionaries pledged their greatest loyalty to their individual states. They feared a strong national government and took some time to adopt the first national constitution. The Articles of Confederation established the current form of government for the United States. The people could not vote directly for members of the national Congress; rather, state legislatures chose who represented each state. There was no president or executive office of any kind, and there was no national judiciary. The Articles of Confederation failed to raise revenue to clear the U.S. debt. The lack of support illustrates Americans' deep suspicion of a powerful national government. Without revenue, the Congress could not pay back American creditors who had lent it money. Establishing workable foreign and commercial policies also proved difficult. The Ordinance of 1787 officially turned the land into an incorporated territory called the Northwest Territory. It also prohibited slavery north of the Ohio River (Figure 7.13). The geometric grid pattern established by the ordinance is still evident today on the U.S. landscape. Land sales failed to produce revenue needed to deal with economic problems facing new country in 1780s. Each state had issued large amounts of paper money and, after the Revolution, internal devaluation of that currency occurred. The economic crisis came to a head in western Massachusetts in 1786 and 1787. In 1786, Massachusetts citizens took up arms and closed courthouses across the state. Farmers wanted their debts forgiven, and they demanded that the 1780 constitution be revised. Many of the rebels were veterans of the war for independence; Shays was a ringleader. Massachusetts Governor James Bowdoin raised a private army of forty-four hundred men, funded by wealthy Boston merchants, without the approval of the legislature. Despite these measures, the rebellion continued. The climax of Shays' Rebellion came in January 1787, when the rebels attempted to seize the federal armory.

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