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Royal Maya Burial Objects (Hendrik Pilve)

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Royal Maya Burial Objects (Hendrik Pilve)

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Rulers and Mythological Relations (Josh Bendik)

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Rulers and Mythological Relations (Josh Bendik)

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The Maya had a very unique way of setting up their royal courts that was not solely founded upon power structures and methods that were commonly seen in the Western world.  Many of the power structures were focused on the origin story of the Maya, the Popul Vuh, as well as other mythos that rulers and lords attempted to associate themselves with.  It was because of this importance on a ruler's mythological relationship with the Maya mythos that we see many examples of the Maya implementing these aspects of their mythology into the artifacts that we have uncovered today.  With these we are able to determine just how important the Maya origin story and mythos was to the people in justifying claims for rulership, as well as association with the more elite status of other members.

Additionally, these artifacts provide insight into the methodology and reasoning behind their own creation, with rulers commissioning artworks and sculptures depicting Maya Gods and rulers with the intent of cementing their rule and legitimizing their claim to the Maya throne of whichever ancient city they were a part of.

The evidence shown within these artifacts allows us to gleam insight onto the exact ways in which rulers legitimized themselves in the eyes of the Maya people, one of these other ways besides commissioning artworks is the impersonation of deities seen in the Maya creation myth.  Through the act of this impersonation Maya rulers accentuated aspects of themselves that they would hope the Maya people would see as aspects befitting of a ruler.

However, the Maya view of the rulers and elites was not one that deified them as if they were otherworldly beings.  The impersonation of deities is one that serves only to invoke aspects of the Gods, and did not actually lead the Maya people into believing they were the Gods themselves or that they were literally the God they were impersonating, although it was believed the spirit and aspects of the God were with a ruler if they were seen as worthy.

We also see others among the higher class that differ from ancient Western societies, where crafters and weavers were given special status among the elite.  The reason for this is because of, once again, the Maya creation story and the importance of creation in the society.  The crafters were given special place among the elite because of this association with creation.

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The Royal Court and the Scribe Artists (Emily Brandenberger)

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The Royal Court and the Scribe Artists (Emily Brandenberger)

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Throughout history, great societies are normally led by royal courts in some capacity- the ancient Egyptians with the Pharaoh and his advisors, the Catholic church(granted the abstract connection) with the Pope and his bishops, various Empirical dynasties and so on. The Mayans are no exception. Despite keeping with tradition, the broader definition and question of “who’s who” is a much more profound discussion. The answer is not as cut and dry as simply a king and his few advisors, the roles are much more difficult to define with the Mayans. Takeshi Inomata and Stephen D. Houston focus on the English definition of “court” being a sovereign party and a group of individuals surrounding said sovereign personage. How does one become the sovereign and therefore a leader of the royal court? Given that Sovereign is defined as “Having supreme power” this leaves the roles of leader and courtier open for debate. Who are these individuals in the court and what separates them from an average citizen on the street? Members of the royal court would need to be named and assigned roles and ranks within every Royal court that took shape. Moreover, how would this supposed “Royal Court” lead its people? What could this new group bring to contribute to solving the problems of the people?

Along with assigning roles, a King’s true power also needs to be defined along with his sovereign relationship with the gods since the Mayans have their ruler as both above society, but also in the heart of it all. But beware the silent man- behind the scenes of every great society lies a scribe-artist to tell the tale of it all. They are also members of every royal court, every powerful leader has their legacy shaped by them. Their power needs to be defined as well. This exhibit will display the widely complex construct of the court and how it was actually a constantly evolving relationship, not simply a stagnant job title. This exhibit will also push the audience to look beyond challenging the mind to see the grand design and realize that not everything is not as it seems. Were the Gods of the time really all-powerful? Kings may or may not have been the stoic figures they had been made out to be. When delegating authority, who would be put in positions of true royalty and what did that mean?

When writing the history books, who really held the power

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Takeshi Inomata and Stephen D Houston define the court as a “Sovereign entity and the surrounding people”.(Inomata,7-10) There is a decided lack of a blood or lineage requirement in order to be the sovereign in this definition, therefore allowing the court to be an ever-changing unit. This freeing definition opens up several doors for the royalty of the Mayans- if the sovereign can be anyone with supreme power, the sovereign therefore can create their court with anyone so long as they surround its leader. This could be their nearby sons, spouses(we will stick with a wife to a male king for ease of description), and be as expansive as a commoner the king chose to be an advisor on war time matters.The doors also open up definitions for the sovereign as well. As mentioned by Takeshi Inomata, "Given the only requirement being supreme power, this would make it nearly a relative rank"(Inomata, 10), allowing anyone to become the sovereign of their own court. This loose definition also opens the doors to allow the deities of the Mayans to be the true sovereign, with the king being a courtier. If only the king is meeting with a God, the king becomes the sole court member to the sovereign god who by definition would have supreme power over the king given the king is not wholly divine. Given the many jobs and tasks required to run their city, the general court would likely be vast, with several substitute courts to follow. The court system for the society would likely resemble a massive pyramid scheme, with many different leaders and many different courts surrounding them.

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Object 2: The Sovereign- Courtier relationship between the Gods and the People

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Object 2: The Sovereign- Courtier relationship between the Gods and the People

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The Sovereign-Courtier relationship also extends to the Gods and their subjects. Given that Gods by definition hold supreme power over the mortal, they would be the leaders of a court wherever they go. As mentioned in the Opening Of the Maya Court, "In the ancient temples, the deity would hold the position of sovereign, with the priests/religious leaders being members of the court for that particular God."(Inomata, 14). Perhaps in a more interesting fashion. The current king and his court would serve together as a court for the gods of the people- given their close proximity to the gods by comparison to the commoners. This acts as a massive power check over the mortal royalty of the Mayans because while they have an image of being from a divine origin in some ways, they still serve the same gods as everyone else. This would open a new discussion for qualification- if the king is the chief ruler over the land, could he limit who has access to the Gods? Or would he be merely a servant of the sovereign and therefore only act as a tool, allowing the court of the Gods to build and staff itself? These immense shrines and palaces would invite many to join the court of a deity given everyone would be in close proximity to the religious connection to the god in question and therefore, create a wide court of the people in which rank is irrelevant. This immense power gap also opens up a new question? Is there a courtier-sovereign relationship among the Mayan Gods?

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Perhaps the most easily forgotten and immensely undervalued were the artist-scribes. Their job was to record, depict, and construct the history of the people. Included in this history would be the customs, traditions, laws, and powers of rulers, among several other things. They would undergo immense training to do what they did- Gods would be personified in art, temples would be constructed in their name, shrines in their image, etc. Their job of record keeper would also be immensely important, this way the customs and rules would never be lost. As a result of this incredibly important job, the scribe-artists often found themselves on the roster of the royal and noble courts. Their position was unique to them given the specialized training passed down from the previous generation. Along with keeping customs and records, the art they would produce would be the most influential and groundbreaking of the time- art is what tells the story of a society, these were the people to put it together. Religion would also find a new life with these artists, as their likeness would take on a physical form for the people to worship and build a faith on. Given their immense job as well, it is likely they had their own courtship with several courtiers due to the fact that one man cannot keep the records, customs and traditions of an entire society and be expected to create new work that will transcend time. But there is an even greater power that comes with holding the keys to history.

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The King’s true power had the potential to be a false image as large as the entire society. As a result of carrying the image of being partially of divine origin, the courtship assumed most of the responsibility of the king. Following this came the false image that the king had immense power, when in fact it was a parade. The Mayans rarely had a standing army outside of war time, therefore the King did not have a true fighting force to measure for any particular strength as a leader. With no standing army, the king leaves the door wide open for a divine intervention of some form in times of peril- a Demigod, natural disaster, direction intervention from a god, etc. The king would be quickly revealed as powerless while the courtship had all the cards. Along with this, most diplomatic meetings would be of extremely extravagant design in order to show the wealth of a society, rather than a power of the king. Pomp and circumstance took center stage in order to win favor with foreign powers, who in turn would bring their own brand of luxury. The role of Sovereign would truly take on a different meaning as a result of these two situations, as the veil would be lifted from the “perfect” image of the royals. The roles would potentially be reversed given the court would be doing the real labor whilst the king would simply sit idle and wait for his kingdom to be perfected.

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Object 5: The immortal Power of the Scribe Artists

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Object 5: The immortal Power of the Scribe Artists

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As they say, “Beware the quiet man”… the true sovereign to them all is the scribe-artist. When the history books are written, what measure will be used to validate all the hearsay? The scribes physical work will be the scale. Their work will have immortalized the deities, and granted power to the kings. Customs would be kept with them, and they would hold a carte blanche when it came time to record everything. With this time of power and responsibility- who truly has supreme power over the other? If history were to ask “Did that deity truly have the power over the corn fields?” the power to validate or corrupt the deity would fall solely to the scribe artist. When commissioning work for a king, the scribe artist could make the ruler larger than life, when in fact they were a minor stepping stone in history. The Mayans held them in such high regard they were often considered to hold rank with royalty in the noble and royal courts alongside the kings themselves. The power of destruction also lay with them. On a whim they could decide to have the prior king, or even as drastic as a god, fall from grace by producing a work of art destroying the history of the god or leader in question. To hold supreme power over another- the power of immortality, and potentially the complete demise of an entire civilization or religion. The scribe-artists were the true sovereigns of the Mayan Culture and are often overlooked.

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Inomata, Takeshi. “Taylor & Francis Ebooks.” Royal Courts Of The Ancient Maya : Volume 1 Theory, Comparison and Synthesis , https://assets.taylorfrancis.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/04153308/Taylor-Francis-eBooks-Collections-Brochure-1.pdf.

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Royal Religious acts and Rituals (Eric macedo)

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Royal Religious acts and Rituals (Eric macedo)

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The Maya are very well known for their dramatic religious ceremonies. Religion and rituals had a large influence in the Mayas life. The Maya believed in blood sacrifice for their gods as well as other significant Mayan practices. Kings would perform blood soaked ceremonies for significant calendar cycles, stages, and important political or religious life circumstances. For the Maya, cycle beginnings and endings of the calendar were important. They believed the  most sacred blood comes from the ear and tongue. By cutting their ears through, the Maya were opening them to hear wisdom from the gods. They cut tongues in order to be able to speak the revelations in which the gods have spoken to them. The Maya religion also exercised human sacrifice. In some Mayan rituals, the priest or ruler of somesort sort would cut a tied up humans heart out of their body and use as an offering for the gods. These rituals would be done to satisfy their Gods and have peace in the world. Other rituals were meant for governing and all to the glory of their gods, They played ball games to help them win more human sacrifice as well as using clothing to bring awareness of their gods power. special religious acts and rituals brought different items of importance. smoke from incense burners would be used by the Courts to bring happiness to Gods.

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Object: Vessel
Where found: Guatemala
Date: AD 700-800

In this vessel, the figures that are depicted are playing a ritual ball game organized by rulers or kings in the late classic period (AD 600-900). As seen on the image, the Maya would use a heavy wood and leather belts as well as knee pads for safety equipment. The figure shown on the vessel with the ball on his hand is wearing a dear headdress often worn by victorious players. The glyphic text in front of his head reads the word "Chok" which means prince. The pyramids steps behind the him are the stands in which fans or spectators would have watched him engage in the ritual.

The game would be played with a leather ball and a court similar to basketball but the rules were different. Although the ball game still remains arcane, Many believe it to be part recreational and part ritual. People know little about the origins or the reason they played (Zender, 1). played by nobles, it is believed that they would handle bets and wagers with slaves, land, feasts and other events. In some cases the Mayans would play captives from another city, the captives lost (which happened almost everytime) the Maya would offer the captives as human sacrifice to the gods. Maya kings and nobles that played ball would dress up as their gods in game to conceptualize the myth process of civil government (Zender, 4).

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The figures on Vessel with a Ball Game Scene are engaged in a ritual ball game commonly played in Late Classic period (A.D. 600-900) Maya cities. The protective ball game equipment includes a heavy wood-and-leather belt and knee pad. The figure with his hand on the ball is wearing a deer headdress, often worn by victorious ballplayers. The glyphic text in front of his head gives his name and describes him as a prince (chok). The background shows the pyramid steps upon which spectators would have watched the game.

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Vessel with a Ball Game Scene - Precolumbian - Google Arts & Culture

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The figures on Vessel with a Ball Game Scene are engaged in a ritual ball game commonly played in Late Classic period (A.D. 600-900) Maya cities. The protective ball game equipment includes a heavy wood-and-leather belt and knee pad. The figure with his hand on the ball is wearing a deer headdress, often worn by victorious ballplayers.

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Object: Drawing
Date: 2004

Evidence has shown that sacrificial rites granted the ruling class of the Maya with political power. These sacrificial rites consisted of the bloodletting rituals. Bloodletting rituals are based upon iconographic and epigraphic data and usually only involved the highest nobles. It involves piercing or puncturing the body in different places by using a variation of tools. These tools consist of stingray spines, flint blades, cord and bowls with lancets. The picture above, on the right, shows a noble women acting on self-sacrifice by pulling a thorny vine through her tongue. On the left a royal man is using a stingray spine to puncture his penis. They did this as a way to communicate with their gods and royal ancestors. The idea was to enter a trance-like state that would allow them to produce supernatural visions and communicate. Their goal was to request from the gods and ancestors things they needed or desired such as rain, good harvest and success in warfare. These rituals mainly took place on specific dates, they were often marked through the Maya ritual calendar. The dates were usually based on when a king ascends from the throne. As well as other important stages in a king or queens life, for example marriages, births or deaths. In secluded temple rooms on top of the pyramids, those who were sacrificing carried out the act. Later in the day, there would be a public ceremony celebration that Maya people could attend at the base of the main pyramid.

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Object: Incense burner
Where found: Chiapas, Mexico
Date: 600-900 (late classic)

The artifact was produced with smoothed coils and sheets of rough orange clay. Know to be an "Incensario" this incense burner shows a sculpture of the Palenque Triad of deities that important historians call "gIII". The Maya referred to him as Kinich Ajaw or in our terms "Sun Lord". Ajaw is shown in this sculpture with his famous nose and figures of shell and fishes near his mouth. This incense burner was known to be from the palenque site where it was most likely focused in production.

The incense was usually made by tree sap from respected trees. Maya members of court would use incense to perform "K'al' kuch" which means "burning ritual" the burning incenses purpose was to please the local gods or chak and to insure safety passages through the caves in which the rituals were performed. The smoke would be used in other rituals as well, the strong smoke and fragrance would rise and reflect a Maya favorite for ceremonial theatrics. During religious acts the incense smoke produced was translated to be a specific spirit animal for each person in which they shared their souls.

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Made up of smoothed sheets and coils of coarse orange clay, this "incensario," or incense burner, depicts one of the Palenque Triad of deities that art historians call "GIII." The Maya called him Kinich Ajaw, or "Sun Lord." He is shown here with his trademark nose, and shell and fish symbols around his mouth. The stacking of faces is a hallmark of "incensarios" from the site of Palenque, where there was probably a workshop dedicated to their production. The potent effect of smoke and fragrance that would have risen from this visually provocative incense burner indeed reflects a Maya preference for ceremonial theatrics.

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Incensario (Incense Burner) - Maya - Google Arts & Culture

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Made up of smoothed sheets and coils of coarse orange clay, this "incensario," or incense burner, depicts one of the Palenque Triad of deities that art historians call "GIII." The Maya called him Kinich Ajaw, or "Sun Lord." He is shown here with his trademark nose, and shell and fish symbols around his mouth.

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Object 4: Censor stand (Jaguar God of the Underworld)

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Object 4: Censor stand (Jaguar God of the Underworld)

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Object: Censor stand
Where found: Chiapas Mexico
Date: AD 690-729
Censor stands made out of ceramic or one the largest and nicest sculptures created by the Maya. This is why royal courts and leader would order the making of them to worship the Jaguar God of the underworld who may have the been the Sun and night . This stand was found in current day Chiapas, Mexico and were extremely important in religious events and ceremonies. They were used to worship or give thanks to the special deity. Special incenses were placed on the top of the stands to provide veneration. The lowest head on this sculpture is the maize god who represents the underworld (because the maize comes from under ground). Above the head of the maize god stands the jaguar god of the underworld who's representation is the sun at night during the journey to the underworld from dusk to dawn. The jaguar god's head is capped off by Itzamans who is a serpent bird that was murdered in the branches of world tree before the creation of the universe. The transition between the two heads (jaguar gods and Itzaman) represents the surface of the earth and the interface between the under world and celestial realm. These deities were massively worshipped by the kings and courts of the Maya era.

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Monumental ceramic censer stands are some of the finest and largest freestanding sculptures created by Maya artists. The sophistication and craftsmanship demonstrated in this stand are indicative of Palenque, an important Maya city-state located in current-day Chiapas, Mexico, that flourished in the seventh century. Ceramic censers (incensarios) were an important component of ritual paraphernalia and ceremonial life at Palenque. They were used to represent and venerate divine beings, primarily the deities of the Palenque triad (called GI, GII, and GIII). Censers were composed of a stand and a brazier-bowl (now missing), which was placed on top and used for burning copal incense. The stands were elaborately embellished with a variety of iconographic elements, most often featuring the Jaguar God of the Underworld (GIII). For the Maya, the center of the universe was the Axis Mundi, or World Tree, which had roots growing deep in the sea under the earth and branches that rose to support the heavens. Symbolically, the tubular bodies of the censers formed cosmic trees that made the movement of deities through the cosmos possible during ritual acts.

This censer stand is sculpted with a vertical tier of five heads. The lowest head is a version of the Maize God with attached leaves containing corn kernels. He represents the Underworld, as maize grows from under the earth. Above the Maize God's head is the principal head of the Jaguar God of the Underworld who represents the sun at night during its Underworld journey from dusk to dawn. The Jaguar God head is capped by Itzamye, the serpent- bird that was killed in the branches of the World Tree just prior to the creation of the present world, according to the Maya creation epic, the Popol Vuh. Artistically, the shift from the Jaguar God of the Underworld to Itzamye symbolizes the surface of the earth and the interface between the Underworld and the celestial realm. In the headdress of Itzamye is a small figure that may be a version of the Jester God, a signifier of rulership. Above Itzamye is an unrecognizable head, which is capped by Itzamna, the paramount sky god of the Maya, who resided at the top of the heavens. A small jaguar is perched in Itzamna's headdress.

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Censer Stand with the Head of the Jaguar God of the Underworld - Precolumbian - Google Arts & Culture

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Monumental ceramic censer stands are some of the finest and largest freestanding sculptures created by Maya artists. The sophistication and craftsmanship demonstrated in this stand are indicative of Palenque, an important Maya city-state located in current-day Chiapas, Mexico, that flourished in the seventh century.

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Object: Conch shell trumpet
Where found: Guatemala
Date: 250-400 AD

Often in many cases ceremonies and rituals were performed while burial of an elite or Mayan king. This conch bear shares the face of a Maya leader/king. The glyphs on the side of the shell list the name of its royal owner who often use this trumpet as a "ritual trumpet" which purpose was the use of sacrifice. Whether it would be the deer hunters would come back with or the simple sacrifice of humans this trumpet was intended for special sacrificial use. The image in the trumpet, is a king, his chin strap  and knots were all too show evidence of power and force. The headdress of the element is the jaguar deity explained earlier. the trumpet was most likely used to bring back an ancestor who was recalled during a bloodletting ritual. The sounds of the trumpets and drums were used in human sacrifice to produce fear. Depending the way they were shaped or carved would often depict if they were buried in tombs, since they became signals of death.

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This elaborately decorated conch shell bears the face of a Maya king, carefully incised following the undulations in the shell's surface, and a column of glyphs to the side recording the name of its royal owner. The king's chin strap and the knots above and below his ear ornament are all personified, a device that indicates the accrued power and force in the object. The primary headdress element is a jaguar deity, which seems to be topped by the glyph for "heaven." The portrait is probably of the ancestor who was recalled when the trumpet was used in a bloodletting rite.

The holes at the top of the shell and along the side edges indicate that it was intended as a ritual trumpet. From representations of their use on Maya painted vessels, it is known that conch shell trumpets were sounded by hunters returning with slain deer. Other vessel representations suggest that the deer obtained in these hunts were intended for special sacrificial uses. Such a sacrificial context for the use of trumpets would fit with conquest-period accounts that describe the frightening music of trumpets and drums that accompanied ritual human sacrifice. Conch shells, both plain and carved, are generally found in tombs, where, as natural underwater objects, they became symbols of death and the watery Maya underworld, Xibalba.

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Conch Shell Trumpet - Guatemala, Maya culture - Google Arts & Culture

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This elaborately decorated conch shell bears the face of a Maya king, carefully incised following the undulations in the shell's surface, and a column of glyphs to the side recording the name of its royal owner. The king's chin strap and the knots above and below his ear ornament are all personified, a device that indicates the accrued power and force in the object.

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The Maya had a very intricate, specialized way of honoring their dead. In addition to the construction of special tombs, royal Maya were buried with valuable and essential items, such as, jade, fine pottery, Spondylus shell jewelry, obsidian bloodletters, and mirrors. All of these objects were seen as being very valuable and essential for the deceased’s journey to the afterlife.  Fine jewelry, made of jade and Spondylus shell were placed in the tombs to decorate the deceased and honor their status as a royal Maya. Religious costumes were one of the most important aspects of Maya royalty. They allowed them to perform religious rituals and distinguished them from the common Maya people. Jade was especially important because it was only found in the southern highlands and was viewed as a symbolism of life due to its vibrant green color. In addition to valuable jewelry made from jade and Spondylus shell, pottery was another essential aspect of royal Maya burial. Pottery was mainly used for competitive feasting and chocolate drinking, but was also seen as a form of artwork. Many ceramic vessels discovered depict hieroglyphs and complex paintings. Examples of Maya pottery often reflected historical events, mythology, or symbolism, and is one of the most commonly found objects in a royal Maya burial. Another commonly found object in Maya burials are obsidian shards. Obsidian shards were used for bloodletting due to its extremely sharp properties. The Maya heavily incorporated bloodletting into their religious practices, believing it allowed them to develop stronger communication with the gods. Blood was seen as an essence of life, so giving up that essence to the gods was seen as very powerful for the Maya. Another interesting object placed in Royal Maya tombs are mirrors. The Maya constructed slate backed, pyrite mirrors by polishing pyrite. These mirrors were often decorated with hieroglyphics or paintings depicting mythology or symbolism. All of these objects were commonly found in Royal Maya tombs and were seen as essential to transitioning to the afterlife by the Maya.

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Pictured above is an assortment of jade beads. Various shapes and sizes of beads can be found with centered holes. These valuable beads were intended to be strung together and worn as jewelry. Jade beads are one of the many objects commonly buried with Maya royalty.

Jade could only be found in the Motagua River Valley, which made it the most precious Mesoamerican resource. The Maya viewed Jade the same way we view gold, a precious earth metal with intrinsic value. Maya royalty were in possession of the majority of the jade, although common Maya people could be found with tiny amounts of jade. In royal Maya burials, Jade beads were buried along with rulers to symbolize kingship and life. The symbolism behind jade is what gave intrinsic value to the rare mineral. The Maya believed that the rich green color of jade symbolized life because it was apparent all around them. Green color in nature, such as quetzal bird feathers, could be found all over Mesoamerica. Rulers would incorporate jade beads and quetzal bird feathers into constructing intricate costumes for religious rituals. Maya rulers would be buried with ruminants of their religious costumes to help guide them in the after life.

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The image above shows two pieces of ceramics uncovered from the Pacbitun BU-19 tomb. Both vessels depict birds, and contain the colors black and red. In the Pacbitun BU-19 tomb, a total of 19 painted ceramic pieces were uncovered. This tomb provided some of the best preserved and most detailed Maya ceramics pieces.

Ceramic vessels and pottery were used for competitive chocolate drinking and feasting. Competitive feasting was one of the most prestigious ways for village rulers to gain influence, so it's important the vessels are representative of the prestige these rulers had. The paintings and hieroglyphics on these vessels often depicted nobility and related to royalty. Chronology and sociopolitical information are two important key pieces of information that we are able to extract from studying ceramic pottery. The pieces of pottery shown above, found in tomb BU-19, are quite simple when compared to some of the more intricate pieces of Maya ceramic pottery. These ceramic pieces may have been the ruler's preferred pottery pieces, or perhaps they were buried with him intending to help him in his afterlife. Regardless of reason, it's apparent that fine pottery was highly valued among Maya royalty.

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Pictured above is a Spondylus shell collar that was found in the tomb of a royal Maya woman. The shell collar is made up of 380 individual Spondylus plaques.

Spondylus shells were valued by the Maya for their bright orange color, similar to how they valued jade for it's lively green color. Spondylus shells were utilized in many ways, including crafting jewelry and costume adornments. The shells would have to be stripped away from their spiny exterior and polished in order to be utilized and crafted into jewelry. Spondylus shell jewelry, such as the collar shown in the image above, were used as religious costume accessories, completing the look of a Maya royal. Maya royals were buried with Spondylus shell jewelry or fragments to symbolize their power and accompany them to the afterlife. In the Pacbitun BU-19 tomb, a Spondylus "skull valve" was found beneath the head of the deceased royal. It's unsure why this Spondylus "skull valve" is placed in the tomb, but it can be assumed that it's intentions revolve around aiding the deceased royal with their journey in the afterlife.

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Pictured above is a series of drawings by Kazuo Auyomama, depicting the use-wear patterns and blade structure of an obsidian shard used for bloodletting. Bloodletting was a significant ritual in Maya culture and was used as a form of communication with the gods.

Obsidian can be exclusively be found in the southern highlands river region of Mesoamerica, making it another valuable resource like jade. The Maya learned that the sharp nature of obsidian could be used for many purposes, including hunting and religious ceremonies. Royal Maya believed they could communicate with their gods through bloodletting. This form of sacrifice symbolized devotion to their gods and was intended to help develop their relationship with the gods. Blood was seen as a highly valuable material, providing life to the Maya. Royal Maya were often buried with shard of obsidian, intended for bloodletting. Bloodletting was seen as essential to having a strong connection with the gods, so it can be inferred that the obsidian was intended to aid the deceased royalty in their afterlife journey and ensure they can maintain a strong connection with the gods.

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Pictured above is a round mosaic mirror produced from Pyrite and supported with slate. Mosaic mirrors are fairly rare Maya artifacts, however, many royal tombs of the deceased Maya royalty contained mosaic mirrors.

Slate and pyrite are very abundant in mesoamerica, and were utilized by the Maya for several purposes, including crafting mirrors. Most pyrite mosaic mirrors produced were backed with slate to increase it's durability. These mirrors were typically round, as pictured above, however, a couple of square and oval mosaic mirrors have also been discovered. Most of these Maya mosaic mirrors are quite plain, however, several mosaic mirrors have been found with intricate painting and hieroglyphics. One example of an intricate mosaic mirror was discovered in Topoxte, Guatemala. Hieroglyphics border the edge of the mosaic mirror, depicting some form of chronological order to a specific event. As described by Paul Healy, the mosaic can be perceived as "the Moon Goddess giving birth to the rabbit". The rabbit is a Maya symbol of the moon, meaning that the mosaic depicts the creation of the moon. These mosaic mirrors were commonly found in Maya royal tombs, representing a form of aid/support on the deceased's journey into the afterlife.

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Garber, J. F. (2011, August 17). Ancient Maya of the Belize Valley: Half a Century of Archaeological Research. ProQuest Ebook Central. Retrieved November 22, 2021, from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/nu/reader.action?docID=305238&ppg=1050.

Healy, P. F., & Blainey, M. G. (2011, November). Ancient Maya Mosaic Mirrors: Function, Symbolism, and Meaning. Retrieved November 22, 2021, from https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.lib.uconn.edu/stable/1185964?seq=17%23metadata_info_tab_contents.

The Trustees of Princeton University. (n.d.). Shell depicting a marine deity (y1985-48). Princeton University. Retrieved November 22, 2021, from https://artmuseum.princeton.edu/collections/objects/32845.

Maya obsidian of the Three Rivers Region, belize - climate change institute - university of Maine. Climate Change Institute. (2019, November 4). Retrieved November 22, 2021, from https://climatechange.umaine.edu/2018/07/25/12752/.

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Stela 10, Kaminaljuyu (with texture), 400-200 BC

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Object 1: Example of Deity Impersonation

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Object 1: Example of Deity Impersonation

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The artifact shown here is one of many Maya examples of lordship being shown in art and the figure on the right is the focus of this example.  The mask being warn by the lord is a depiction of the Principal Bird Deity which comes from the Maya creation story, the Popol Vuh.

The Popol Vuh's importance in the society is on display as figures are often depicted wearing feathers and bird masks to represent this Principal Bird Deity that held great influence in the story of the Popol Vuh.  The God also was associated with ownership of objects like Jade, and Lords would adorn themselves to look like the God to invoke this sense of ownership and right to rule.

The ruler claims to be divine, in direct descent from other divinities, or receives divine honours after death (Houston and Stuart, 290).  Rulers were recognized as not being Gods themselves, distinctions were made between the rulers and the Gods that they attempted to represent.  In the case of the Principal Bird Deity, there were attempts to associate themselves with the Deity.  This adornment "transformed him into a faithful replica of god (298)" through effective impersonation of a deity.

The figure on the left also shows that in the society there was certainly not a singular focus as an almost equally adorned and ceremonial figure with a fanged mask and a staff are present.  This implies that the tablet is not meant as a singularly focused portrait but on telling a story of this king's rule.

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Stela 10, Kaminaljuyu (with texture) - 3D model by Alexandre Tokovinine (@tokovinin3d) [e02f9fd]

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Munson, Jessica, et al. “Classic Maya Bloodletting and the Cultural Evolution of Religious Rituals: Quantifying Patterns of Variation in Hieroglyphic Texts. 2009,

Zender, Mark. “Glyphs for ‘Handspan’ and ‘Strike’ in Classic Maya Ballgame Texts1.” The Pari Journal , 17 Mar. 2004,

Sharer, Robert J., and Loa P. Traxler. The Ancient Maya. Sixth Edition. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006.

Stuart, David and Houston, Steven "Of gods, glyphs and kings: divinity and rulership among the Classic Maya" Brigham Young University and Harvard University, 1995

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Palenque, Palace House E, Stone slab, 7th-8th Century AD

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Object 2: Mythological Depiction With Rulers

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Object 2: Mythological Depiction With Rulers

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Here is shown an image of a female member of Maya royalty presenting their son with a ceremonial headpiece as they pass the rulership onto them.  As can be seen in the image, the ceremonial headpiece is similar to the headpiece seen previously, although this time it seems to lack the ceremonial depiction of the Principal Bird Deity

The headpiece most likely still maintains an aspect of mythos and gives affirmation to the wearer, and the feathers are likely to represent the Quetzal which was a very prominent figure of wealth and freedom in Maya culture.  In addition, there is another entity depicted in the stonework that stands out from the two main figures.  This figure is at the bottom and seems to be a depiction of a jaguar.

Similar depictions of jaguars can be seen all across maya relics, Fields in The Royal Charter at Xunantunich describes two jaguar stela as "...replicating the actions of the gods who set the equivalent throne stones at creation. By depicting himself in this manner, the king portrays himself as the architect of the k’atun and as the driving force behind the events of creation..." (Fields, 188).  In the case of the jaguar depicted here, it is likely a representation of the Jaguar Sun God, one of the hero twins in the Maya origin story.  "To spectators, the gods concretely and visibly participate in the ruler's ceremony" (Houston and Stuart, 298).  Not only was this most likely included in the image of this ceremony being undertaken as a symbolic gesture of the affirmation from the Gods that the king was gaining, but also as a somewhat literal depiction of the spectators who witnessed the event believing the deity was there with them and portraying the scene as such.

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Palenque – Palace House E, Stone slab - The British Museum - Google Arts & Culture

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Palenque is one of the top destinations of Chiapas and one of the best examples of Maya architecture in all of Mexico. The Palace of Palenque was probably ...

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Ruler in the Maw of a Serpent Vase, Vase K127

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This Izapa style stone bowl depicts a ruler with his head within a serpent's mouth.  Depictions of rulers along with mythological acts or entities as seen here were far from uncommon, but the act of creating these bowls and symbolic artworks was also a form of ritual in and of itself.  The act of creation is very important in Maya society, and creating bowls, pots, and murals within the courts of lords and rulers was no exception.

"That courtly artisanship enjoyed high status in Maya culture is revealed by its place in myth, where we have representations of gods engaged in various acts of craftwork and in the act of creation itself. The primeval epic the Popol Vuh describes the creation as work by "modelers, makers" (Tedlock 1985; Coe and Kerr 1997)." (Martin, 177)  It's most likely because of this that we see many different forms of pottery and murals created both in the likeness of rulers and in depiction of myth.

This piece among many others would be extremely prevalent in the courts of Maya rulers, and areas within the courts dedicated to the creation of these works and to the artisans themselves would most likely also be present.  Royalty would also commision various artworks from the artisans "Varied records survive elsewhere in Mesoamerica for the involvement of exalted royal family members in craft production, and it has been proposed that at least some Classic Maya ceramic painting had royal authorship." (Martin, 177)

The mythological aspect of the murals is one thing to note, but it is important to remember that these depictions were not just retellings of the story of the Popul Vuh or simple additions to the mythos.  These works were part of the Maya society itself, and were so important that they earned a special place at the peak of society.

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Limestone bust of the Young Maize God. Maya, Copan, Mexico, AD 680-750

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This bust was commissioned by a Maya ruler by the name of Waxaklajuun Ub'aah K'awiil (also known as '18-Rabbit'), the thirteenth ruler of Copan.  The work here depicts a youth dressed in garb representing the Maya Maize God, a god of strength and creation well respected by Maya rulers.

As seen in the previous exhibits, Maya rulers often attempt to mimic the Gods as seen in the Maya creation story in order to better cement their rule and their status as a ruler.  We also know that the act of creation itself was a vital part of higher society living among the Maya as crafting spots had special locations within royal palaces for their work.  Here we see an example of a work specifically commissioned by a Maya ruler, most likely to increase his association with the Maya Maize God

The Principal Bird Deity was not the only deity sought by rulers to imitate, the Maize God is arguably the most important deity within the Maya creation story and mythology due in no small part to the importance of maize in the Maya culture both as a source of food and an item of ritual.  "As the kings sought to perpetuate the ideal of perfect beauty and ruling power, they turned to the Maize God as the model of these ideal virtues. As a result of this close kinship, it is not uncommon to see rulers being represented in the guise of the Maize God." (Carroll, 47) The story of the bust here is one that holds more than just artistic meaning as it symbolically represents the rulers power, or at least the power they strived for.

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Description

Sculpture of the Maya Maize God, a youth wearing a headdress in the form of a stylized ear of corn and hair in the form of the silk of the cob. The head is disproportionately large compared to the narrow shoulders and slender torso. The sculpture was probably carved from two different blocks of limestone, one for the head and another for the torso.

Curator's comments

Sculpture of the Maize God, one of eight that were once set on the cornice of Structure 22, commissioned by Waxaklajuun Ub'aah K'awiil (also known as '18-Rabbit'), the thirteenth ruler of Copan. It was built in AD715 to commemorate the twentieth anniversary of his accession to the throne. The Maize God with his vibrant, youthful features represents the Maya ideal of beauty and features prominently in Maya art during the Classic period (200BC - AD900). He personifies the agricultural cycle and is associated with abundance and prosperity. In this sculpture his headdress is a stylized ear of corn and his hair the silk of the corn. Bibliography: S.G. Morley, G.W. Brainerd and R.J. Sharer 'The Ancient Maya', 5th ed. (Stanford University Press, 1994) L. Schele and M.E. Miller, 'The Blood of Kings' (London, Thames & Hudson, 1986) K. Taube, 'Aztec and Maya Myths' (London, The British Museum Press, 1993) D. Tetlock, 'Popol Vu' (New York, Touchstone, 1996) S. Martin and N. Grube, 'The Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya' (Thames and Hudson, 2000)

McEwan 2009, p.21 Limestone bust of the Young Maize God. Maya, Copan, Mexico, AD 680-750 The Popol Vuh, the sacred book of the Maya, recounts a creation story that tells how the world came into being and how the gods created the first humans out of maize - a staple crop among the Maya. The Young Maize God is depicted here upon his emergence from the Underworld as the embodiment of vigorous fresh growth, marking the beginning of the annual agricultural cycle of renewal. Many similar busts were used as architectural embellishments on Temple 22 at Copan. Rather than being fashioned from a single block of limestone, the heads were sculpted separately from the torsos, and close inspection of this well known version reveals differences in colour, graining and surface texture. The head is also disproportionately large compared with the narrow shoulders and slender torso. This disparity may have been intentional or might indicate that this particular head and torso were not originally meant to fit together but were "restored" in the late 19th century.

Exhibition history

Exhibited: 1990 20 Oct-9 Dec, Japan, Tokyo, Setagaya Art Museum, Treasures of the British Museum, cat. no.187 1991 5 Jan-20 Feb, Japan, Yamaguchi, Prefectural Museum of Art, Treasures of the British Museum, cat. no.187 1991 9 Mar-7 May, Japan, Osaka, National Museum of Art, Treasures of the British Museum, cat. no.187 2000-2001 6 Dec-11 Feb, London, BM Room 35; Human Image 2010-2011, London, BM/BBC, 'A History of the World in 100 Objects' 2012 Mar-Jul, Abu Dhabi, Manarat al Saadiyat, Treasures of the World's Cultures 2012-2013 30 Nov-7 Apr, Bonn, Art and Exhibition Hall of the Federal Republic of Germany, Treasures of the World's Cultures

Acquisition notes

Maudslay's original sculptures, from Yaxchilán in Mexico and Copán in Honduras, were initially deposited at the Victoria and Albert Museum (known as the South Kensington Museum until 1899) in 1885. There appears to have been some lack of clarity over whether these were a gift, or a loan from Maudslay. With Maudslay's permission, the original sculptures and a selection of casts were transferred to the British Museum, on the grounds their subject matter more properly fell within the British Museum's purview. The deliveries took place on the 20th (originals) and 22nd (casts) of November 1893. The majority of the casts remained at the V&A, on the understanding that they too would be transferred to the British Museum as soon as space could be found for them. Continued confusion over the legal ownership of the collection (Maudslay, V&A or BM) - see correspondence V&A correspondence archive - probably explains why neither casts nor originals were registered at the time of their arrival. The issue was finally resolved with the transfer of the remaining casts to the British Museum for exhibition in 1923. The originals sculptures were therefore given a 1923 registration number, despite their having been present at the British Museum since 1893.

Department

Africa, Oceania and the Americas

Additional IDs

Previous owner/ex-collection number: 1886 321 (South Kensington Museum No. (Now V&A))

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Sculpture of the Maya Maize God, a youth wearing a headdress in the form of a stylized ear of corn and hair in the form of the silk of the cob. The head is disproportionately large compared to the narrow shoulders and slender torso.

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Copán, Maya Jaguar Sun God on Shield, 756 CE

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Here we see yet another depiction of the Maya Sun God, this time depicted as part of a shield found on a mural in Copán.  Besides reiterating the importance of the Jaguar Sun God within Maya society, it also holds a specific place in showing us the value of the God among the warrior elite.  Depictions like this on shields and other garb carried by the warrior elite of the Maya were common as an attempt to invoke power and fear in the eyes of the enemy, and this one being depicted with a Maya king only increases its importance.

This shield demonstrates the prevalence of the elite Maya warrior culture and it's connection to the higher authority claimed by rulers. The word "k'in" refers to the sun, "The term k'inich is commonly appropriated by Classic Period rulers as part of their own names - presumably reign names, though it's conceivable members of a court may have taken it as a given name as well in grooming for rulership and claim to future legitimacy." (McLeod, 6)

With the knowledge of ruler's and lords attempting to connect themselves with the Jaguar Sun God, we see yet another example of deity impersonation.  It was not that they saw themselves as the God but rather attempted to invoke a sense of power within their own names and titles.  It's because of this that we see the importance of Maya religion within the very fabric of court living.  Although not the only God Maya rulers and lords would attempt to associate themselves with as seen in earlier exhibits, the connection between a sense of power, the warrior elite, and Maya lords creates a three way dynamic that cemented the ideas of strong rulership in the eyes of Maya citizens.

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( Click image to enlarge)
Maya Jaguar Sun God. Peabody Museum Expedition: M. H. Saville and J. G. Owens, Directors, 1891-1892. © President and Fellows of Harvard College, Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, PM 92-49-20/C842

Maya Jaguar Sun God, Peabody Museum of Archaeology & Ethnology

A Museum Perspective

This carved stone shield depicts a sun god of the ancient Maya people of Mexico and Central America. The shield appeared on a sculpted stone portrait of a Maya king from 756 CE on the famed Hieroglyphic Stairway of Copán in Honduras. It shows the Jaguar God of the Underworld, the name scholars give to the night sun as he journeys in darkness, battling the jaguars of the Underworld, before emerging triumphant in the east as the rising sun. The military elite of Classic Maya kingdoms (250-900 CE) were known as Jaguar Warriors. These battlefront "shock troops" wore jaguar pelts, often attacking enemy towns and cities under cover of darkness, much as a jaguar hunts its prey at night. The wearing of a sun shield, like the one pictured here, was thought to give a Maya king the power both of the night sun and the Jaguar Warriors in order to dispatch his duties as supreme ruler of his people.

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( Click image to enlarge) Maya Jaguar Sun God. Peabody Museum Expedition: M. H. Saville and J. G. Owens, Directors, 1891-1892. © President and Fellows of Harvard College, Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, PM 92-49-20/C842 A Museum Perspective This carved stone shield depicts a sun god of the ancient Maya people of Mexico and Central America.

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Stuart, David and Houston, Steven "Of gods, glyphs and kings: divinity and rulership among the Classic Maya" Brigham Young University and Harvard University, 1995

Martin, Simon "Chapter 6: Court and Realm";
Inomata, Takeshi "Royal Courts Of The Ancient Maya: Volume 1: Theory, Comparison, And Synthesis" Taylor and Francis, 2018

Fields, Virginia M. "Chapter 11: The Royal Charter at Xunantunich";
Garber, James F. "Ancient Maya of the Belize Valley: Half a Century of Anthropological Fieldwork" University Press of Florida, 2011

Caroll, Cynthia R. " The Image of the Maize God in Classic Maya Art: The Ideal Aesthetic of Gods and Royalty" Studia Antiqua, 2005

McLeod, Alexus, "Philosophy of the Ancient Maya: Lords of Time" Lexington Books, 2018