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Don Miguel Gregorio Antonio Ignacio Hidalgo-Costilla y Gallaga Mandarte Villaseñor; 8 May 1753 - 30 July 1811), more commonly known as Don Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla or simply Miguel Hidalgo ( Spanish pronunciation: [miˈɣel iˈðalɣo], was a Mexican Roman Catholic priest and a leader of the Mexican War of Independence.

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Table of Contents

1. Kaiser Wilhelm II's Early Years

2. Emperor and King: 1888

3. Kaiser Wilhelm II and World War I

4. Kaiser Wilhelm II's Years of Exile

Wilhelm II (1859-1941), the German kaiser (emperor) and king of Prussia from 1888 to 1918, was one of the most recognizable public figures of World War I (1914-18). He gained a reputation as a swaggering militarist through his speeches and ill-advised newspaper interviews. While Wilhelm did not actively seek war, and tried to hold back his generals from mobilizing the German army in the summer of 1914, his verbal outbursts and his open enjoyment of the title of Supreme War Lord helped bolster the case of those who blamed him for the conflict. His role in the conduct of the war as well as his responsibility for its outbreak is still controversial.

Some historians maintain that Wilhelm was controlled by his generals, while others argue that he retained considerable political power. In late 1918, he was forced to abdicate. He spent the rest of his life in exile in the Netherlands, where he died at age 82.

Kaiser Wilhelm II's Early Years

Kaiser Wilhelm II was born in Potsdam, Germany, on January 27, 1859, the son of Prince Frederick Wilhelm of Prussia (1831-88) and Princess Victoria (1840-1901), the oldest daughter of Queen Victoria (1819-1901). The future monarch was the queen's firstborn grandchild and was genuinely fond of her; in fact, he was holding her in his arms when she died. His ties to Britain through its royal family would play an important part in his later political maneuvering.

Did you know? Kaiser Wilhelm II was reportedly amused when he heard his cousin King George V (1865-1936) had changed the name of the British royal family from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor in 1917 as a result of anti-German sentiment in Britain during World War I.

Wilhelm's childhood was shaped by two events, one medical and one political. His birth had been traumatic; in the course of a complicated delivery, the doctor permanently damaged Wilhelm's left arm. In addition to its smaller size, the arm was useless for such ordinary tasks as cutting certain foods with a knife at mealtime.

The political event that shaped Wilhelm was the formation of the German Empire under the leadership of Prussia in 1871. Wilhelm was now second in line after his father to become an emperor as well as king of Prussia. Twelve years old at the time, Wilhelm was filled with nationalistic enthusiasm. His later determination to win a "place in the sun" for Germany had its roots in his childhood.

An intelligent young man who possessed a lifelong interest in science and technology, Wilhelm was educated at the University of Bonn. His quick mind, however, was combined with an even quicker temper and an impulsive, high-strung personality. He had dysfunctional relationships with both parents, particularly his English mother. Historians still debate the effects of the kaiser's complicated psychological makeup on his political decisions.

In 1881, Wilhelm married Princess Augusta Victoria (1858-1921) of Schleswig-Holstein. The couple would go on to have seven children.

Emperor and King: 1888

Wilhelm's father became Kaiser Frederick III of Germany in March 1888. Already ill with terminal throat cancer, he died after a reign of only several months. Wilhelm succeeded his father on June 15, 1888, at the age of 29. Within two years of his coronation, Wilhelm broke with Otto von Bismarck (1815-98), the "Iron Chancellor" who had dominated German politics since the 1860s. The kaiser embarked on his so-called New Course, a period of personal rule in which he appointed chancellors who were upper-level civil servants rather than statesmen. Bismarck bitterly predicted that Wilhelm would lead Germany to ruin.

Wilhelm damaged his political position in a number of ways. He meddled in German foreign policy on the basis of his emotions, resulting in incoherence and inconsistency in German relations with other nations. He also made a number of public blunders, the worst of which was The Daily Telegraph affair of 1908. Wilhelm gave an interview to the London-based newspaper in which he offended the British by saying such things as: "You English are mad, mad, mad as March hares." The kaiser had already been hurt politically in 1907 by the Eulenburg-Harden affair, in which members of his circle of friends were accused of being homosexuals. Although there is no evidence that Wilhelm was gay-in addition to his seven children with his first wife, he was rumored to have several illegitimate offspring-the scandal was used by his political opponents to weaken his influence.

Wilhelm's most important contribution to Germany's prewar military expansion was his commitment to creating a navy to rival Britain's. His childhood visits to his British cousins had given him a love for the sea-sailing was one of his favorite recreations-and his envy of the power of the British navy convinced him that Germany must build a large fleet of its own in order to fulfill its destiny. The kaiser supported the plans of Alfred von Tirpitz (1849-1930), his chief admiral, who maintained that Germany could gain diplomatic power over Britain by stationing a fleet of warships in the North Sea. By 1914, however, the naval buildup had caused severe financial problems for Wilhelm's government.

Kaiser Wilhelm II and World War I

Wilhelm's behavior during the crisis that led to war in August 1914 is still controversial. There is little doubt that he had been broken psychologically by the criticism that followed the Eulenburg-Harden and Daily Telegraph scandals; he suffered an episode of depression in 1908. In addition, the kaiser was out of touch with the realities of international politics in 1914; he thought that his blood relationships to other European monarchs were sufficient to manage the crisis that followed the June 1914 assassination of the Austrian archduke Franz Ferdinand (1863-1914) in Sarajevo, Bosnia. Although Wilhelm signed the order for German mobilization following pressure from his generals-Germany declared war against Russia and France during the first week of August 1914- he is reported to have said, "You will regret this, gentlemen."

With World War I under way, the kaiser, as commander in chief of the German armed forces, retained the power to make upper-level changes in military command. Nonetheless, he was largely a shadow monarch during the war, useful to his generals as a public-relations figure who toured the front lines and handed out medals. After 1916, Germany was, in effect, a military dictatorship dominated by two generals, Paul von Hindenburg (1847-1934) and Erich Ludendorff (1865-1937).

Kaiser Wilhelm II's Years of Exile

In late 1918, popular unrest in Germany (which had suffered greatly during the war) combined with a naval mutiny convinced civilian political leaders that the kaiser had to abdicate to preserve order. In fact, Wilhelm's abdication was announced on November 9, 1918, before he had actually consented to it. He agreed to leave when the leaders of the army told him he had lost their support as well. On November 10, the former emperor took a train across the border into the Netherlands, which had remained neutral throughout the war. He eventually bought a manor house in the town of Doorn, and remained there for the remainder of his life.

Although the Allies wanted to punish Wilhelm as a war criminal, Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands (1880-1962) refused to extradite him. His last years were darkened by the death of his first wife and the suicide of his youngest son in 1920. He did, however, make a happy second marriage in 1922. His new wife, Hermine Reuss (1887-1947), actively petitioned German leader Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) in the early 1930s to restore the monarchy, but nothing ever came of her negotiations. Hitler despised the man he held responsible for Germany's defeat in World War I, and Wilhelm was shocked by the Nazis' thuggish tactics. In 1938, Wilhelm remarked that for the first time he was ashamed to be a German. After two decades in exile, he died in the Netherlands on June 4, 1941, at the age of 82.

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Kaiser Wilhelm II - WWI, Abdication & Death

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Wilhelm II (1859-1941) was the last German kaiser (emperor) and king of Prussia from 1888 to 1918, and one of the most recognizable public figures of World War I (1914-18). He gained a reputation as a swaggering militarist through his speeches and ill-advised newspaper interviews.

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map of Germany

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Giuseppe Mazzini(1805-1872) was a writer and political activist who strived to found a unified democratic republic of Italy. Throughout his life, he founded and supported revolutionary groups who sought to free Italy of foreign powers and unite the different states. During his lifetime, his aspirations were only partially fulfilled, and he considered himself to have failed. But, when Italy was finally united, Mazzini was credited with playing a significant role. Mazzini also helped define early ideas of a united Europe and was a leading figure in the European movement for popular democracy in a republican state.

Mazzini has been referred to as 'the soul of Italy' and 'the beating heart of Italy.'

Early Life Mazzini

Mazzini was born in Genoa, then part of the Ligurian Republic under the rule of the French Empire. His father was a university professor, and the young Mazzini proved to be a precocious intellect and voracious reader. At the age of only 14, he entered university, graduating with a law degree in 1826.

Although he became known as a revolutionary, people commented that the young Mazzini was kind, gentle and compassionate. He had a magnetic personality which drew many to him.

After graduating from university, Mazzini worked as a 'poor man's lawyer' and also began a fledgeling journalistic career. Mazzini took an active interest in politics and was drawn to the movement seeking to unify Italy and throw off foreign powers.

In 1827, he joined the Carbonari, a secret organisation working for Italian independence. However, the Carbonari had limited influence, and Mazzini was betrayed as it was broken up. As a result of his involvement in revolutionary activity, Mazzini spent six months in jail in Savona (1830-31). During his time in jail, he became even more committed to the movement of working for an Italian republic. His term was "apostolate"- working to achieve "liberty of country" for "Italia." In 1831, he was released, on the condition that he would accept exile.

"A country is not a mere territory; the particular territory is only its foundation. The Country is the idea which rises upon that foundation; it is the sentiment of love, the sense of fellowship which binds together all the sons of that territory."

— Giuseppe Mazzini

Mazzini in Exile

Mazzini agreed to exile in Marseille, France. Here in Marseille, Mazzini became a charismatic leader of the Italian exiles, seeking to continue the struggle for Italian independence. Mazzini wrote a stream of articles, arguing for a Republic of Italian states. He also founded a new political society called 'La Giovane Italia (Young Italy) to support the goal of Italian unification. Young Italy's goals were

Unification of the several Italian states and kingdoms

A single republic (no monarchy)

One, independent, Free Republic.

The motto of Young Italy was 'God and the People'. Mazzini was not a Christian but believed in God and the power of the people. He declared:

"Neither pope nor king. Only God and the people will open the way of the future to us."

The movement gained influence and 60,000 members. Mazzini was influential in inspiring Giuseppe Garibaldi to devote his life to the cause of Italian independence. However, their attempted insurrections were unsuccessful and were ruthlessly put down in Chambery and later Piedmontese.

These failures were a great set back for Mazzini, who felt a sense of personal failure. However, although the revolutions were unsuccessful, it raised the issue of national unity in the public consciousness. As Mazzini himself prophetically said.

"Ideas ripen quickly when nourished by the blood of martyrs."

Young Italy disintegrated as a political organisation, but its ideas became disseminated throughout Italy. Mazzini moved to Switzerland, where he founded Young Europe and also Young Germany / Young Poland. Although Mazzini struggled with the setbacks in Italy, he continued to hold onto the ideal of a united Europe, which he felt had to come first through national unity free of foreign influence. Through his creation of Young Europe, Mazzini is seen as an early visionary of a united European Union, which only came into being after the Second World War.

In 1837, Mazzini moved to England, where he wrote frequently and even started a school for Italian boys. Mazzini became relatively well known in England, and there was considerable support for Mazzini from liberal figures - especially after Parliament admitted opening his letters. He re-founded 'Young Italy' to help strengthen the feeling of Italian solidarity. He continued to write to agents across Europe and was supportive of the Bandiera brothers who made an unsuccessful attempt to start a revolt in Calabria.

In 1849, Mazzini triumphantly was able to return to Italy after Tuscany and Rome were declared Republics. Mazzini was elected as triumvir of the new republic. Mazzini had fulfilled his lifelong dream of leading the beginnings of an Italian republic, and he began energetically reforming Italian society. However, the Republic was short-lived as the Pope appealed for military help from the French and the Catholic forces were able to destroy the fledgeling republic and restore the Pope. Mazzini again had to retreat to London and Switzerland. In the 1850s, Mazzini was active in supporting attempts at insurrections across Italy. Again these insurrections failed to achieve their immediate goal. But, there was public support for their ideas, and the insurrections kept the dream of Italian independence in the public mind. To some Mazzini was an inspirational figure. However, Mazzini also had serious detractors, some declared him a traitor. Others felt he achieved nothing worthwhile.

In 1861, the vision of Mazzini was partially fulfilled with the declaration of a new United Kingdom of Italy - only missing Venice and Rome, but also it was a monarchy rather than a republic like Mazzini wanted to see.

In 1870, he was arrested after leading a republican uprising in Sicily But, fortunately, was released after Italian troops occupied Rome.

Mazzini died from pleurisy at Pisa in March 1872, he was buried in his hometown of Genoa. He never married, though had an affair with the attractive Giuditta Bellerio Sidoli, a Modenese widow.

Mazzini's revolutionary beliefs

In the 1860s, Mazzini was in contact with Karl Marx and members of the Socialist First International. However, after initial contacts, Mazzini withdrew. He had a strong belief in God, and could not accept the 'atheistic' Communism of Marx or the Anarchism of Bakunin.

Marx criticised Mazzini saying his ideas were increasingly reactionary and represented "nothing better than the old idea of a middle-class republic."

Mazzini, in turn, described Marx as " a destructive spirit whose heart was filled with hatred rather than love of mankind. Despite the communist egalitarianism which [Marx] preaches he is the absolute ruler of his party, admittedly he does everything himself but he is also the only one to give orders and he tolerates no opposition."

Citation: Pettinger, Tejvan. "Biography of Giuseppe Mazzini", Oxford, www.biographyonline.net Published 8 Feb 2012. Last updated 11 February 2019.

Mazzini

Mazzini - Italian nationalist and radical reformer Guiseppe Mazzini (1805-72) was a leading political figure of his day and left an enduring mark on the history of Europe at Amazon.com
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Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) was a writer and political activist who strived to found a unified democratic republic of Italy. Throughout his life, he founded and supported revolutionary groups who sought to free Italy of foreign powers and unite the different states. During his lifetime, his aspirations were only partially fulfilled, and he considered himself to ...

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neoclassical

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A map of Italy