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Please share any links that have been helpful to you in writing your essay.

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What has helped you in writing the argumentative essay? Share your advice here.

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Show us your argumentative skills!

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Flipgrid is where social and emotional learning happens! The leading video discussion platform for millions of PreK to PhD educators, students, and families.

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Review aspects of the argumentative essay and help Ali escape!

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Complete the card clustering activity here.

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Note.ly - Online sticky notes accessible anywhere.

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Find all reflection prompts here.

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Making a list can help you develop ideas for writing once you have a particular focus. If you want to take a stand on a subject, you might list the top ten reasons why you're taking that particular stand. Or, once you have a focused topic, you might list the different aspects of that topic.

Example:

As you review and work with your initial list, you'll find yourself revising it by adding or deleting items. Doing an initial list is a quick and useful way to develop ideas for writing.

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Making a list can help you develop ideas for writing once you have a particular focus. If you want to take a stand on a subject, you might list the top ten reasons why you're taking that particular stand. Or, once you have a focused topic, you might list the different aspects of that topic.

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Brainstorming is like freewriting around a specific topic. It helps you bring your subconscious thoughts into consciousness, identifying as many ideas as possible that are related to a particular topic.

To brainstorm, let your thoughts about a specific topic flow, and list those thoughts.

Example:

Squirrels

So, what happens once you've brainstormed a topic? Look over the list. Are there items that group together? Are there items that catch your interest as a thinker, researcher, and writer-items you want to know more about? Are there items that seem unrelated or not useful? Use your list as a starting place; it creates ideas for you, as a writer, to work with.

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Brainstorming is like freewriting around a specific topic. It helps you bring your subconscious thoughts into consciousness, identifying as many ideas as possible that are related to a particular topic. To brainstorm, let your thoughts about a specific topic flow, and list those thoughts. Example: Squirrels So, what happens once you've brainstormed a topic?

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Freewriting is just what it says-writing freely, whatever comes into your mind, without caring about spelling, punctuation, etc. It's a way to free up your thoughts, help you know where your interests lie, and get your fingers moving on the keyboard (and this physical act can be a way to get your thoughts flowing).

Here's a sample freewriting that could yield a number of topics for writing:
I don't think this is useful or helpful in any way. This is stupid, stupid, stupid. I'm looking out of my window and it's the end of may and I can see that white cotton stuff flying around in the air, from the trees. One of my aunts was always allergic to that stuff when it started flying around in the spring. Don't know offhand what type of tree that comes from. That aunt is now 94 years old and is in a nursing home for a while after she had a bad episode. She seems to have one now every spring. It's like that old tree cotton triggers something in her body. Allergies. Spring. Trying to get the flowers to grow but one of the neighbors who is also in his 90s keeps feeding the squirrels and they come and dig up everyone's flowerbed to store their peanuts. Plant the flowers and within thirty minutes there's a peanut there. Wonder if anyone has grown peanut bushes yet? Don't know . . . know . . .

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Freewriting is just what it says-writing freely, whatever comes into your mind, without caring about spelling, punctuation, etc. It's a way to free up your thoughts, help you know where your interests lie, and get your fingers moving on the keyboard (and this physical act can be a way to get your thoughts flowing).

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify the steps in constructing an outline.

Construct a topic outline and a sentence outline.

Your prewriting activities and readings have helped you gather information for your assignment. The more you sort through the pieces of information you found, the more you will begin to see the connections between them. Patterns and gaps may begin to stand out. But only when you start to organize your ideas will you be able to translate your raw insights into a form that will communicate meaning to your audience.

Tip

Organizing Ideas

When you write, you need to organize your ideas in an order that makes sense. The writing you complete in all your courses exposes how analytically and critically your mind works. In some courses, the only direct contact you may have with your instructor is through the assignments you write for the course. You can make a good impression by spending time ordering your ideas.

Order refers to your choice of what to present first, second, third, and so on in your writing. The order you pick closely relates to your purpose for writing that particular assignment. For example, when telling a story, it may be important to first describe the background for the action. Or you may need to first describe a 3-D movie projector or a television studio to help readers visualize the setting and scene. You may want to group your support effectively to convince readers that your point of view on an issue is well reasoned and worthy of belief.

In longer pieces of writing, you may organize different parts in different ways so that your purpose stands out clearly and all parts of the paper work together to consistently develop your main point.

Methods of Organizing Writing

The three common methods of organizing writing are chronological order , spatial order , and order of importance . You will learn more about these in Chapter 8 "Writing Essays: From Start to Finish"; however, you need to keep these methods of organization in mind as you plan how to arrange the information you have gathered in an outline. An outline is a written plan that serves as a skeleton for the paragraphs you write. Later, when you draft paragraphs in the next stage of the writing process, you will add support to create "flesh" and "muscle" for your assignment.

When you write, your goal is not only to complete an assignment but also to write for a specific purpose-perhaps to inform, to explain, to persuade, or for a combination of these purposes. Your purpose for writing should always be in the back of your mind, because it will help you decide which pieces of information belong together and how you will order them. In other words, choose the order that will most effectively fit your purpose and support your main point.

Table 7.1 "Order versus Purpose" shows the connection between order and purpose.

Table 7.1 Order versus Purpose

Chronological Order

To explain the history of an event or a topic

To tell a story or relate an experience

To explain how to do or make something

To explain the steps in a process

Spatial Order

To help readers visualize something as you want them to see it

To create a main impression using the senses (sight, touch, taste, smell, and sound)

Order of Importance

To persuade or convince

To rank items by their importance, benefit, or significance

Writing a Thesis Statement

One legitimate question readers always ask about a piece of writing is "What is the big idea?" (You may even ask this question when you are the reader, critically reading an assignment or another document.) Every nonfiction writing task-from the short essay to the ten-page term paper to the lengthy senior thesis-needs a big idea, or a controlling idea, as the spine for the work. The controlling idea is the main idea that you want to present and develop.

Tip

The big idea, or controlling idea, you want to present in an essay is expressed in a thesis statement . A thesis statement is often one sentence long, and it states your point of view. The thesis statement is not the topic of the piece of writing but rather what you have to say about that topic and what is important to tell readers.

Table 7.2 "Topics and Thesis Statements" compares topics and thesis statements.

Table 7.2 Topics and Thesis Statements

Music piracy

The recording industry fears that so-called music piracy will diminish profits and destroy markets, but it cannot be more wrong.

The number of consumer choices available in media gear

Everyone wants the newest and the best digital technology, but the choices are extensive, and the specifications are often confusing.

E-books and online newspapers increasing their share of the market

E-books and online newspapers will bring an end to print media as we know it.

Online education and the new media

Someday, students and teachers will send avatars to their online classrooms.

The first thesis statement you write will be a preliminary thesis statement, or a working thesis statement . You will need it when you begin to outline your assignment as a way to organize it. As you continue to develop the arrangement, you can limit your working thesis statement if it is too broad or expand it if it proves too narrow for what you want to say.

Tip

Writing an Outline

For an essay question on a test or a brief oral presentation in class, all you may need to prepare is a short, informal outline in which you jot down key ideas in the order you will present them. This kind of outline reminds you to stay focused in a stressful situation and to include all the good ideas that help you explain or prove your point.

For a longer assignment, like an essay or a research paper, many college instructors require students to submit a formal outline before writing a major paper as a way to be sure you are on the right track and are working in an organized manner. A formal outline is a detailed guide that shows how all your supporting ideas relate to each other. It helps you distinguish between ideas that are of equal importance and ones that are of lesser importance. You build your paper based on the framework created by the outline.

Tip

There are two types of formal outlines: the topic outline and the sentence outline. You format both types of formal outlines in the same way.

Place your introduction and thesis statement at the beginning, under roman numeral I.

Use roman numerals (II, III, IV, V, etc.) to identify main points that develop the thesis statement.

Use capital letters (A, B, C, D, etc.) to divide your main points into parts.

Use arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.) if you need to subdivide any As, Bs, or Cs into smaller parts.

End with the final roman numeral expressing your idea for your conclusion.

Here is what the skeleton of a traditional formal outline looks like. The indention helps clarify how the ideas are related.

1. IntroductionThesis statement

2. Main point 1 → becomes the topic sentence of body paragraph 1

1. Supporting detail → becomes a support sentence of body paragraph 1

2. Supporting detail

3. Supporting detail

3. Main point 2 → becomes the topic sentence of body paragraph 2

1. Supporting detail

2. Supporting detail

3. Supporting detail

4. Main point 3 → becomes the topic sentence of body paragraph 3

1. Supporting detail

2. Supporting detail

3. Supporting detail

5. Conclusion

Tip

Constructing Topic Outlines

A topic outline is the same as a sentence outline except you use words or phrases instead of complete sentences. Words and phrases keep the outline short and easier to comprehend. All the headings, however, must be written in parallel structure. (For more information on parallel structure, see "Refining Your Writing: How Do I Improve My Writing Technique?".)

Here is the topic outline that Mariah constructed for the essay she is developing. Her purpose is to inform, and her audience is a general audience of her fellow college students. Notice how Mariah begins with her thesis statement. She then arranges her main points and supporting details in outline form using short phrases in parallel grammatical structure.

Checklist

Writing an Effective Topic Outline

This checklist can help you write an effective topic outline for your assignment. It will also help you discover where you may need to do additional reading or prewriting.

Do I have a controlling idea that guides the development of the entire piece of writing?

Do I have three or more main points that I want to make in this piece of writing? Does each main point connect to my controlling idea?

Is my outline in the best order-chronological order, spatial order, or order of importance-for me to present my main points? Will this order help me get my main point across?

Do I have supporting details that will help me inform, explain, or prove my main points?

Do I need to add more support? If so, where?

Do I need to make any adjustments in my working thesis statement before I consider it the final version?

Writing at Work

Word processing programs generally have an automatic numbering feature that can be used to prepare outlines. This feature automatically sets indents and lets you use the tab key to arrange information just as you would in an outline. Although in business this style might be acceptable, in college your instructor might have different requirements. Teach yourself how to customize the levels of outline numbering in your word-processing program to fit your instructor's preferences.

Constructing Sentence Outlines

A sentence outline is the same as a topic outline except you use complete sentences instead of words or phrases. Complete sentences create clarity and can advance you one step closer to a draft in the writing process.

Here is the sentence outline that Mariah constructed for the essay she is developing.

Writing at Work

PowerPoint presentations, used both in schools and in the workplace, are organized in a way very similar to formal outlines. PowerPoint presentations often contain information in the form of talking points that the presenter develops with more details and examples than are contained on the PowerPoint slide.

Key Takeaways

Exercises

1. Using the topic you selected in "Apply Prewriting Models," develop a working thesis statement that states your controlling idea for the piece of writing you are doing. On a sheet of paper, write your working thesis statement.

2. Using the working thesis statement you wrote in #1 and the reading you did in "Apply Prewriting Models," construct a topic outline for your essay. Be sure to observe correct outline form, including correct indentions and the use of Roman and arabic numerals and capital letters. Please share with a classmate and compare your outline. Point out areas of interest from their outline and what you would like to learn more about.

3. Expand the topic outline you prepared #2 to make it a sentence outline. In this outline, be sure to include multiple supporting points for your main topic even if your topic outline does not contain them. Be sure to observe correct outline form, including correct indentions and the use of Roman and arabic numerals and capital letters.

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English Composition II: Rhetorical Methods-Based

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By the end of this section, you will be able to: Identify the steps in constructing an outline. Construct a topic outline and a sentence outline. Your prewriting activities and readings have helped you gather information for your assignment. The more you sort through the pieces of information you found, the more you will begin to see the connections between them.

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Acknowledgment of Sources is a Rhetorical Act

To an inexperienced writer, citing and documenting sources may seem like busywork. Yet, when you cite your external sources in the text of your paper and when you document them at the end of your piece in a list of works cited or a bibliography, you are performing a rhetorical act. Complete and accurate citing and documenting of all external sources help writers achieve three very important goals:

1. It enhances your credibility as a writer. By carefully and accurately citing your external sources in the text and by documenting them at the end of your paper you show your readers that you are serious about your subject, your research, and the argument which you are making in your paper. You demonstrate that you have studied your subject in sufficient depth, and by reading credible and authoritative sources.

2. It helps you to avoid plagiarism. Plagiarism is trying to pass someone else's ideas or writing as your own. It is a serious offense that can damage the reputation of a writer forever and lead to very serious consequences if committed in an academic or professional setting. Later on in the chapter, we will discuss plagiarism and ways to avoid it in detail.

3. The presence of complete citations of sources in your paper will help you demonstrate to your readers that you are an active participant in the community of readers, writers, researchers, and learners. It shows that you are aware of the conversations that are going on among writers and researchers in your field and that you are willing to enter those conversations by researching and writing about the subjects that interest you. By providing enough information about the sources which you used in you own research and writing, you give other interested readers the opportunity to find out more about your subject and, thus, to enter in a conversation with you.

The Logic and Structure of a Source Citation

Every time writers cite and document their sources, they do it in two places in the paper-in the text itself and at the end of the paper, in a list of works cited or bibliography. A citation is incomplete and, by and large, useless to the readers, if either of the parts is missing. Consider the following example, in which I cite an academic journal article using the Modern Language Association citation system. Please note that I give this example at this point in the chapter only to demonstrate the two parts of a citation. Later on, we will discuss how to cite and document different kinds of sources using different documentation systems, in full detail.

In-text citations

In-text citations are also known as parenthetical citations or parenthetical references because, at the end of the citation, parentheses are used. In her essay "If Winston Weather Would Just Write to Me on E-mail," published in the journal College Composition and Communication, writer and teacher Wendy Bishop shares her thoughts on the nature of writing: "[I see...writing as a mixture of mess and self-discipline, of self-history [and] cultural history." (101).

The Citation in the List of Works Cited

Bishop, Wendy. "If Winston Weather Would Just Write to Me on E-mail." College Composition and Communication. 46.1 (1995): 97-103.

The reason why each citation, regardless of the type of source and the documentation system being used, has two parts is simple. Writers acknowledge and document external sources for several reasons. One of these reasons is to give their readers enough information and enable them, if necessary, to find the same source which the paper mentions. Therefore, if we look at the kinds of information provided in the citation (page numbers, titles, authors, publishers, and publication dates), it becomes clear that this information is sufficient to locate the source in the library, bookstore, or online.

When to Cite and Document Sources

The brief answer to this question is "always." Every time you use someone else's ideas, arguments, opinions, or data, you need to carefully acknowledge their author and source. Keep in mind that you are not just borrowing others' words when you use sources in your writing. You are borrowing ideas. Therefore, even if you are not directly citing the source, but paraphrase or summarize it, you still need to cite it both in the text and at the end of the paper in a list of works cited or in a list of references.

The only exception is when you are dealing with what is known as "common knowledge." Common knowledge consists of facts that are so widely known that they do not require a source reference. For instance, if you say in your writing that the Earth rotates around the Sun or that Ronald Reagan was a US President, you do not need to cite the sources of this common knowledge formally.

Avoiding Plagiarism

Plagiarism is a problem that exists not only on college, university, and high school campuses. In recent years, several high profile cases, some involving famous writers and journalists have surfaced, in which the these writers were accused of either presenting someone else work as their own or fabricating works based on fictitious or unreliable research. With the advent of the Internet, it has become relatively easy to download complete papers. Various people and organizations, sometimes masquerading as "writing consultants" promise students that they would write a paper on any subject and of any level of complexity for a hefty fee. Clearly, the use of such services by student writers is dishonest and dishonorable. If your college or university is like mine, it probably has adopted strict policies for dealing with plagiarizing writers. Punishments for intentional plagiarism are severe and may include not only a failing grade for the class but even an expulsion from the university.

In addition to intentional plagiarism, there is also the unintentional kind. Experience shows that beginning writers' work sometimes include passages which could be called plagiarized because such writers often do not know how to cite and document external sources properly or do not understand that importance of following proper citation practices.

Observing the following practices will help you avoid plagiarism:

As you research, keep careful notes of your sources. As you take notes for your research project, keep track of what materials in those notes comes from external sources and what material is yours. Keep track of all your sources, including interviews and surveys, photographs and drawings, personal e-mails and conversations. Be sure to record the following information:

Remember that when you use external sources, you are borrowing not the words of another writer, but his or her ideas, theories, and opinions. Therefore, even if you summarize or paraphrase a source, be sure to give it full credit. Writers used to have to record this information on separate note cards. However, with the proliferation of online and other electronic tools which allow us to keep track of our research, the task of recording and reflecting on source-related information has become easier.

Anti-Plagiarism Activity

Read the following four paragraphs. They are from a research source, an article in The New Yorker magazine. The other three are from student papers which attempt to use the article as an external source. As you read consider the following questions:

Would you call the student's passage or its parts plagiarized from the original? Why or why not?

If any parts of the student's passages are plagiarized what needs to be changed in order to avoid plagiarism? Keep in mind that you may need to rewrite the whole Paragraph and not just make changes in separate sentences.

Which of the student passages will require more significant rewriting than others and why?

Source Paragraph (from the article "Personality Plus," by Malcolm Gladwell. New Yorker, Sept 20, 2004). One of the most popular personality tests in the world is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), a psychologicalassessment system based on Carl Jung's notion that people make sense of the world through a series or psychological frames. Some people are extraverts, some are introverts. Some process information through logical thought. Some are directed by their feelings. Some make sense of the world through intuitive leaps. Others collect data through their senses.
Student Paragraph 1
The Myers-Briggs Test is a very popular way to assess someone's personality type. Philosopher Carl Jung believed that people make sense of the world in different ways. Some are extraverts and some and introverts. According to this idea, people process information either by logical reasoning or through intuition or feelings.
Student Paragraph 2
According to writer Malcolm Gladwell, One of the most popular personality tests in the world is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), a psychological-assessment system based on Carl Jung's notion that people make sense of the world through a series or psychological frames. Gladwell states that the test is based on the idea by Carl Jung that people make sense of the world through a series of psychological frames. According to Jung, some people are extroverts and some are introverts. Some process information through logical input, and some through feelings. Some make sense of the world through intuitive leaps. Others collect data through their senses.
Student Paragraph 3
One of the most popular personality tests in the world is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), a psychological assessment system based on Carl Jung's notion that people make sense of the world through a series or psychological frames (Gladwell 43). The test is based on Jung's theory that people understand the world differently. This is why we have extroverts and introverts and people who act either based on reasoning or feelings (Gladwell).

Major Citation Systems

In this part of the chapter, I will explain the major citation and documentation systems which you are likely to encounter in your writing for college classes and beyond. The information in this section is not meant to be memorized. Instead, I encourage you to use this material as a reference source, when you are writing a paper and need to cite and document sources correctly, using one of the systems described below, refer to this chapter.

Please note that the following sections include only the basic information about each of the citation styles. There are plenty of excellent sources explaining and illustrating the differences between citation systems. I recommend the website of the Online Writing Center at Purdue University.

Conclusion

Avoiding plagiarism and acknowledging your external sources completely and accurately are vital parts of the writing process. Your credibility as a writer and the reception that you work will receive from readers may depend on how well you acknowledge your sources. By following the guidelines presented in this chapter and by seeking out more knowledge about the rules of citing and documenting from the publications listed in this chapter, you will become a more competent, more professional, and more credible writer. This chapter covers only the basics of source citing and documenting. For more resources this topic and the various styles of documentation, see the Appendix to this book.

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English Composition II: Rhetorical Methods-Based

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To an inexperienced writer, citing and documenting sources may seem like busywork. Yet, when you cite your external sources in the text of your paper and when you document them at the end of your piece in a list of works cited or a bibliography, you are performing a rhetorical act.

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Heather Logan Using Sources Creatively

( printable version here)

When writing papers that require the use of outside source material, it is often tempting to cite only direct quotations from your sources. If, however, this is the only method of citation you choose, your paper will become nothing more than a series of quotations linked together by a few connecting words. Your paper will seem to be a collection of others' thoughts and will contain little thinking on your part.

To avoid falling into this trap, follow a few simple pointers:

Avoid using long quotations merely as space-fillers. While this is an attractive option when faced with a ten-page paper, the overuse of long quotations gives the reader the impression you cannot think for yourself.

Don't use only direct quotations. Try using paraphrases in addition to your direct quotations. To the reader, the effective use of paraphrases indicates that you took the time to think about the meaning behind the quote's words. (For further assistance see our materials on "Using Paraphrases.")

When introducing direct quotations, try to use a variety of verbs in your signal phrases. Don't always rely on stock verbs such as "states" or "says." Think for a little while about the purpose of your quotation and then choose a context-appropriate verb.

Also, when using direct quotations try qualifying them in a novel or interesting manner. Depending on the system of documentation you're using, the signal phrases don't always have to introduce the quotation.

For example, instead of saying:

"None of them knew the color of the sky" is the opening line of Stephen Crane's short story, "The Open Boat" (339). This implies the idea that "all sense of certainty" in the lives of these men is gone (Wolford 18).

"None of them knew the color of the sky," the opening line of Stephen Crane's, "The Open Boat," implies that "all sense of certainty" in the lives of these men is gone (Crane 339; Wolford 18).

The combination of these two sentences into one is something different. It shows thought on the writer's part in how to combine direct quotations in an interesting manner.

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English Composition II: Rhetorical Methods-Based

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Heather Logan Using Sources Creatively ( printable version here) When writing papers that require the use of outside source material, it is often tempting to cite only direct quotations from your sources. If, however, this is the only method of citation you choose, your paper will become nothing more than a series of quotations linked together by a few connecting words.

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"When to Quote and When to Paraphrase" was written by Brianna Jerman

Academic writing requires authors to connect information from outside sources to their own ideas in order to establish credibility and produce an effective argument.

Sometimes, the rules surrounding source integration and plagiarism may seem confusing, so many new writers err on the side of caution by using the simplest form of integration: direct quotation. However, using direct quotes is not always the best way to use a source. Paraphrasing or summarizing a text is sometimes a more effective means of supporting a writer's argument than directly quoting. Taking into consideration the purpose of their own writing and the purpose of utilizing the outside source, authors should seek to vary the ways in which they work sources into their own writing.

Paraphrasing and quoting are two of the three ways an author can integrate sources. The two methods are closely related, and therefore, can sometimes be confused with one another. Quoting borrows the exact wording used in a source and is indicated by placing quotes around the borrowed material. Paraphrasing, on the other hand, borrows an idea found in a shorter passage but communicates this idea using different words and word order. While it is acceptable to loosely follow a similar structure, paraphrasing requires more than simply changing a few of the original words to synonyms. Both paraphrasing and directly quoting have their merit, but they should be used at different times for different purposes. An author chooses to use one of these strategies depending on why the source is being used and what information the source provides.

When to Paraphrase

Paraphrasing provides an author the opportunity to tailor the passage for the purpose of his or her own essay, which cannot always be done when using a direct quote. Paraphrasing should be used to

Further explain or simplify a passage that may be difficult to understand. It could be that the topic, such as the process of extracting stem cells, is particularly difficult to follow, or that the author has used language that further complicates the topic. In such situations, paraphrasing allows an author to clarify or simplify a passage so the audience can better understand the idea.

Establish the credibility of the author. In connection to the above point, paraphrasing a complicated passage can help the author establish trust with his or her audience. If an author directly quotes a difficult passage without analysis or further explanation, it may appear that he or she does not understand the idea. Paraphrasing not only clarifies the idea in the passage but also illustrates that the writer, since he or she can articulate this difficult message to the reader, is knowledgeable about the topic and should be trusted.

Maintain the flow of the writing. Each author has a unique voice, and using direct quotes can interrupt this voice. Too many quotes can make an essay sound choppy and difficult to follow. Paraphrasing can help communicate an important idea in a passage or source without interrupting the flow of the essay.

Eliminate less relevant information. Since paraphrasing is written using the author's own words, he or she can be more selective in what information from a passage should be included or omitted. While an author should not manipulate a passage unnecessarily, paraphrasing allows an author to leave out unrelated details that would have been part of a direct quote.

Communicate relevant statistics and numerical data. A lot of times, sources offer statistical information about a topic that an author may find necessary to developing his or her own argument. For example, statistics about the percentage of mothers who work more than one job may be useful to explaining how the economy has affected children rearing practices. Directly quoting statistics such as this should be avoided.

When to Quote

Direct quotes should be used sparingly, but when they are used, they can be a powerful rhetorical tool. As a rule, avoid using long quotes when possible, especially those longer than three lines. When quotes are employed, they should be used to

Provide indisputable evidence of an incredible claim. Directly quoting a source can show the audience exactly what the source says so there is not suspicion of misinterpretation on the author's part.

Communicate an idea that is stated in a particularly striking or unique way. A passage should be quoted if the source explains an idea in the best way possible or in a way that cannot be reworded. Additionally, quoting should be used when the original passage is particularly moving or striking.

Serve as a passage for analysis. If an author is going to analyze the quote or passage, the exact words should be included in the essay either before or following the author's analysis.

Provide direct evidence for or proof of an author's own claim. An author can use a direct quote as evidence for a claim he or she makes. The direct quote should follow the author's claim and a colon, which indicates that the following passage is evidence of the statement that precedes it.

Support or clarify information you've already reported from a source. Similar to the above principle, an author can use a direct quote as further evidence or to emphasize a claim found in the source. This strategy should be used when an idea from a source is particularly important to an author's own work.

Provide a definition of a new or unfamiliar term or phrase. When using a term that is used or coined by the source's author or that is unfamiliar to most people, use direct quotes to show the exact meaning of the phrase or word according to the original source.

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English Composition II: Rhetorical Methods-Based

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"When to Quote and When to Paraphrase" was written by Brianna Jerman Academic writing requires authors to connect information from outside sources to their own ideas in order to establish credibility and produce an effective argument.

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Bias

Bias means presenting facts and arguments in a way that consciously favours one side or other in an argument. Is bias bad or wrong?

No! Everyone who argues strongly for something is biased. So it's not enough, when you are doing a language analysis, to merely spot some bias and say..."This writer is biased" or "This speaker is biased."

Let's begin by reading a biased text.

Hypocrites gather to feed off Daniel's tragic death

The death of two-year-old Daniel Valerio at the hands of his step-father brought outrage from the media.

Daniel suffered repeated beatings before the final attack by Paul Alton, who was sentenced in Melbourne in February to 22 years jail.

Rupert Murdoch's Herald-Sun launched a campaign which included a public meeting of hundreds of readers. Time magazine put Daniel on its front cover. The Herald-Sun summed up their message:
The community has a duty to protect our children from abuse - if necessary by laws that some people regard as possibly harsh or unnecessary.
But laws - like making it compulsory for doctors and others to report suspected abuse - cannot stop the violence.

Last year, 30 children were murdered across Australia. Babies under one are more likely to be killed than any other social group.

Daniel's murder was not a horrific exception but the product of a society that sends some of its members over the edge into despairing violence.

The origin of these tragedies lies in the enormous pressures on families, especially working class families.

The media and politicians wring their hands over a million unemployed. But they ignore the impact that having no job, or a stressful poorly paid job, can have.

Child abuse can happen in wealthy families. But generally it is linked to poverty.

A survey in 1980 of "maltreating families" showed that 56.5 per cent were living in poverty and debt. A further 20 per cent expressed extreme anxiety about finances.

A study in Queensland found that all the children who died from abuse came from working class families.

Police records show that school holidays - especially Xmas - are peak times for family violence. "The sad fact is that when families are together for longer than usual, there tends to be more violence", said one Victorian police officer.

Most people get by. Family life may get tense, but not violent.

But a minority cannot cope and lash out at the nearest vulnerable person to hand - an elderly person, a woman, or a child.

Compulsory reporting of child abuse puts the blame on the individual parents rather than the system that drives them to this kind of despair.

Neither is it a solution. Daniel was seen by 21 professionals before he was killed. Nonetheless, the Victorian Liberal government has agreed to bring it in.

Their hypocrisy is breathtaking.

This is the same government that is sacking 250 fire-fighters, a move that will lead to more deaths.

A real challenge to the basis of domestic violence means a challenge to poverty.

Yet which side were the media on when Labor cut the under-18 dole, or when Jeff Kennett[1] added $30 a week to the cost of sending a child to kindergarten?

To really minimise family violence, we need a fight for every job and against every cutback.

- by David Glanz, The Socialist, April 1993

There are good and bad aspects of bias.

1. It is good to be open about one's bias. For example, the article about Daniel Valerio's tragic death is written for The Socialist newspaper. Clearly socialists will have a bias against arguments that blame only the individual for a crime when it could be argued that many other factors in society contributed to the crime and need to be changed. Focusing on the individual, from the socialist's point of view, gets "the system" off the hook when crimes happen. The socialist's main reason for writing is to criticise the capitalist system. So David Glanz is not pretending to not be biased, because he has published his article in a partisan[2] newspaper.
Here are some ways to be open about your bias, but still be naughty.

(a) Deliberately avoid mentioning any of the opposing arguments.

(b) Deliberately avoid mentioning relevant facts or information that would undermine your own case.

(c) Get into hyperbole.

(d) Make too much use of emotive language.

(e) Misuse or distort statistics.

(f) Use negative adjectives when talking about people you disagree with, but use positive adjectives when talking about people you agree with.

Can you find examples of any of these "naughty" ways to be biased in Glaz's article?

2. You mustn't assume that because a person writes with a particular bias he/she is not being sincere, or that he/she has not really thought the issue through. The person is not just stating what he/she thinks, he/she is trying to persuade you about something.

Bias can result from the way you have organised your experiences in your own mind. You have lumped some experiences into the 'good' box and some experiences into the 'bad' box. Just about everybody does this[3]. The way you have assembled and valued experiences in your mind is called your Weltanschauung (Velt-arn-shao-oong). If through your own experience, plus good thinking about those experiences, you have a better understanding of something, your bias is indeed a good thing.

For example, if you have been a traffic policeman, and have seen lots of disasters due to speed and alcohol, it is not 'wrong' for you to biased against fast cars and drinking at parties and pubs. Your bias is due to your better understanding of the issue, but you still have to argue logically.

Really naughty bias

4. If you pretend to be objective, to not take sides, but actually use techniques that tend to support one side of an argument, in that case you are being naughty. There are subtle ways to do this.

(a) If the support for one side of the argument is mainly at the top of the article, and the reasons to support the opposite side of the issue are mainly at the bottom end of the article; that might be subtle bias - especially if it was written by a journalist. Journalists are taught that many readers only read the first few paragraphs of an article before moving on to reading another article, so whatever is in the first few paragraphs will be what sticks in the reader's mind.

(b) Quotes from real people are stronger emotionally than just statements by the writer. This is especially true if the person being quoted is an 'authority' on the subject, or a 'celebrity'. So if one side of the issue is being supported by lots of quotes, and the other side isn't, that is a subtle form of bias.

(c) If when one person is quoted as saying X, but the very next sentence makes that quote sound silly or irrational, that is a subtle form of bias too.

Common sense tells us that if someone is making money out of something, he/she will be biased in favour of it.

For example, a person who makes money out of building nuclear reactors in Europe or China could be expected to support a change in policy in Australia towards developing nuclear energy.

A manufacturer of cigarettes is unlikely to be in favour of health warnings on cigarette packets or bans on smoking in pubs.

Nonetheless, logically speaking, we cannot just assume a person who is making money out of something will always take sides with whomever or whatever will make him/her more money.

We have to listen to the arguments as they come up. Assuming someone is biased is not logically okay. You have to show that someone is biased and use evidence to support your assertion that he/she is biased.

[1] Jeff Kennett was the leader of the Liberal party in Victoria at that time.

[2] When you are a partisan you have taken sides in an argument, or a battle, or a war.

[3] Learning critical thinking (which is what you are learning in Year 11 and 12 English) is aimed at getting you to do more, and better, thinking than that.

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English Composition II: Rhetorical Methods-Based

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Bias means presenting facts and arguments in a way that consciously favours one side or other in an argument. Is bias bad or wrong? No! Everyone who argues strongly for something is biased. So it's not enough, when you are doing a language analysis, to merely spot some bias and say..."This writer is biased" or "This speaker is biased."

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Article links:
"Effective Means for Writing a Paragraph" provided by Candela Open Courses"Writing Effective Paragraphs" provided by the University of Richmond Writing Center"Transitional Words and Phrases" provided by the University of Richmond Writing Center"What Logical Plan Informs Your Paper's Organization?" provided by the Writing Center

Describe how to write a topic sentence.

Describe how to support a topic sentence with details.

Describe when to begin a new paragraph.

List uses for transitional words.

Describe strategies to assist in organizing a paper.

provided by Candela Open Courses

Now that you have identified common purposes for writing and learned how to select appropriate content for a particular audience, you can think about the structure of a paragraph in greater detail. Composing an effective paragraph requires a method similar to building a house. You may have the finest content, or materials, but if you do not arrange them in the correct order, then the final product will not hold together very well.

A strong paragraph contains three distinct components:

1. Topic sentence . The topic sentence is the main idea of the paragraph.

2. Body . The body is composed of the supporting sentences that develop the main point.

3. Conclusion . The conclusion is the final sentence that summarizes the main point.

The foundation of a good paragraph is the topic sentence, which expresses the main idea of the paragraph. The topic sentence relates to the thesis, or main point, of the essay (see Chapter 9 "Writing Essays: From Start to Finish" for more information about thesis statements) and guides the reader by signposting what the paragraph is about. All the sentences in the rest of the paragraph should relate to the topic sentence.

This section covers the major components of a paragraph and examines how to develop an effective topic sentence.

DEVELOPING A TOPIC SENTENCE

Pick up any newspaper or magazine and read the first sentence of an article. Are you fairly confident that you know what the rest of the article is about? If so, you have likely read the topic sentence. An effective topic sentence combines a main idea with the writer's personal attitude or opinion. It serves to orient the reader and provides an indication of what will follow in the rest of the paragraph. Read the following example.

Creating a national set of standards for math and English education will improve student learning in many states.

This topic sentence declares a favorable position for standardizing math and English education. After reading this sentence, a reader might reasonably expect the writer to provide supporting details and facts as to why standardizing math and English education might improve student learning in many states. If the purpose of the essay is actually to evaluate education in only one particular state, or to discuss math or English education specifically, then the topic sentence is misleading.

TIP

When writing a draft of an essay, allow a friend or colleague to read the opening line of your first paragraph. Ask your reader to predict what your paper will be about. If he or she is unable to guess your topic accurately, you should consider revising your topic sentence so that it clearly defines your purpose in writing.

MAIN IDEA VERSUS CONTROLLING IDEA

Topic sentences contain both a main idea (the subject, or topic that the writer is discussing) and a controlling idea (the writer's specific stance on that subject). Just as a thesis statement includes an idea that controls a document's focus (as you will read about in Chapter 8 "The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?"), a topic sentence must also contain a controlling idea to direct the paragraph. Different writers may use the same main idea but can steer their paragraph in a number of different directions according to their stance on the subject. Read the following examples.

Marijuana is a destructive influence on teens and causes long-term brain damage.

The antinausea properties in marijuana are a lifeline for many cancer patients.

Legalizing marijuana would create a higher demand for Class A and Class B drugs.

Although the main idea-marijuana-is the same in all three topic sentences, the controlling idea differs depending on the writer's viewpoint.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TOPIC SENTENCE

Five characteristics define a good topic sentence:

1. A good topic sentence provides an accurate indication of what will follow in the rest of the paragraph.Weak example. People rarely give firefighters the credit they deserve for such a physically and emotionally demanding job. (The paragraph is about a specific incident that involved firefighters; therefore, this topic sentence is too general.)Stronger example. During the October riots, Unit 3B went beyond the call of duty. (This topic sentence is more specific and indicates that the paragraph will contain information about a particular incident involving Unit 3B.)

2. A good topic sentence contains both a topic and a controlling idea or opinion.Weak example. In this paper, I am going to discuss the rising suicide rate among young professionals. (This topic sentence provides a main idea, but it does not present a controlling idea, or thesis.)Stronger example. The rising suicide rate among young professionals is a cause for immediate concern. (This topic sentence presents the writer's opinion on the subject of rising suicide rates among young professionals.)

3. A good topic sentence is clear and easy to follow.Weak example. In general, writing an essay, thesis, or other academic or nonacademic document is considerably easier and of much higher quality if you first construct an outline, of which there are many different types. (This topic sentence includes a main idea and a controlling thesis, but both are buried beneath the confusing sentence structure and unnecessary vocabulary. These obstacles make it difficult for the reader to follow.)Stronger example. Most forms of writing can be improved by first creating an outline. (This topic sentence cuts out unnecessary verbiage and simplifies the previous statement, making it easier for the reader to follow.)

4. A good topic sentence does not include supporting details.Weak example. Salaries should be capped in baseball for many reasons, most importantly so we don't allow the same team to win year after year. (This topic sentence includes a supporting detail that should be included later in the paragraph to back up the main point.)Stronger example. Introducing a salary cap would improve the game of baseball for many reasons. (This topic sentence omits the additional supporting detail so that it can be expanded upon later in the paragraph.)

5. A good topic sentence engages the reader by using interesting vocabulary.Weak example. The military deserves better equipment. (This topic sentence includes a main idea and a controlling thesis, but the language is bland and unexciting.)Stronger example. The appalling lack of resources provided to the military is outrageous and requires our immediate attention. (This topic sentence reiterates the same idea and controlling thesis, but adjectives such as appalling and immediate better engage the reader. These words also indicate the writer's tone.)

WRITING AT WORK

When creating a workplace document, use the "top-down" approach-keep the topic sentence at the beginning of each paragraph so that readers immediately understand the gist of the message. This method saves busy colleagues precious time and effort trying to figure out the main points and relevant details.

Headings are another helpful tool. In a text-heavy document, break up each paragraph with individual headings. These serve as useful navigation aids, enabling colleagues to skim through the document and locate paragraphs that are relevant to them.

DEVELOPING PARAGRAPHS THAT USE TOPIC SENTENCES, SUPPORTING IDEAS, AND TRANSITIONS EFFECTIVELY

Learning how to develop a good topic sentence is the first step toward writing a solid paragraph. Once you have composed your topic sentence, you have a guideline for the rest of the paragraph. To complete the paragraph, a writer must support the topic sentence with additional information and summarize the main point with a concluding sentence.

This section identifies the three major structural parts of a paragraph and covers how to develop a paragraph using transitional words and phrases.

IDENTIFYING PARTS OF A PARAGRAPH

An effective paragraph contains three main parts: a topic sentence, the body, and the concluding sentence. A topic sentence is often the first sentence of a paragraph. This chapter has already discussed its purpose-to express a main idea combined with the writer's attitude about the subject. The body of the paragraph usually follows, containing supporting details. Supporting sentences help explain, prove, or enhance the topic sentence. The concluding sentence is the last sentence in the paragraph. It reminds the reader of the main point by restating it in different words.

Figure 5.3(1) Paragraph Structure Graphic Organizer

Read the following paragraph. The topic sentence is underlined for you.

After reading the new TV guide this week I had just one thought-why are we still being bombarded with reality shows? This season, the plague of reality television continues to darken our airwaves. Along with the return of viewer favorites, we are to be cursed with yet another mindless creation. Prisoner follows the daily lives of eight suburban housewives who have chosen to be put in jail for the purposes of this fake psychological experiment. A preview for the first episode shows the usual tears and tantrums associated with reality television. I dread to think what producers will come up with next season, but if any of them are reading this blog-stop it! We've had enough reality television to last us a lifetime!

The first sentence of this paragraph is the topic sentence. It tells the reader that the paragraph will be about reality television shows, and it expresses the writer's distaste for these shows through the use of the word bombarded.

Each of the following sentences in the paragraph supports the topic sentence by providing further information about a specific reality television show. The final sentence is the concluding sentence. It reiterates the main point that viewers are bored with reality television shows by using different words from the topic sentence.

Paragraphs that begin with the topic sentence move from the general to the specific. They open with a general statement about a subject (reality shows) and then discuss specific examples (the reality show Prisoner). Most academic essays contain the topic sentence at the beginning of the first paragraph.

Now take a look at the following paragraph. The topic sentence is underlined for you.

Last year, a cat traveled 130 miles to reach its family, who had moved to another state and had left their pet behind. Even though it had never been to their new home, the cat was able to track down its former owners. A dog in my neighborhood can predict when its master is about to have a seizure. It makes sure that he does not hurt himself during an epileptic fit. Compared to many animals, our own senses are almost dull.

The last sentence of this paragraph is the topic sentence. It draws on specific examples (a cat that tracked down its owners and a dog that can predict seizures) and then makes a general statement that draws a conclusion from these examples (animals' senses are better than humans'). In this case, the supporting sentences are placed before the topic sentence and the concluding sentence is the same as the topic sentence.

This technique is frequently used in persuasive writing. The writer produces detailed examples as evidence to back up his or her point, preparing the reader to accept the concluding topic sentence as the truth.

Sometimes, the topic sentence appears in the middle of a paragraph. Read the following example. The topic sentence is underlined for you.

For many years, I suffered from severe anxiety every time I took an exam. Hours before the exam, my heart would begin pounding, my legs would shake, and sometimes I would become physically unable to move. Last year, I was referred to a specialist and finally found a way to control my anxiety-breathing exercises. It seems so simple, but by doing just a few breathing exercises a couple of hours before an exam, I gradually got my anxiety under control. The exercises help slow my heart rate and make me feel less anxious. Better yet, they require no pills, no equipment, and very little time. It's amazing how just breathing correctly has helped me learn to manage my anxiety symptoms.

In this paragraph, the underlined sentence is the topic sentence. It expresses the main idea-that breathing exercises can help control anxiety. The preceding sentences enable the writer to build up to his main point (breathing exercises can help control anxiety) by using a personal anecdote (how he used to suffer from anxiety). The supporting sentences then expand on how breathing exercises help the writer by providing additional information. The last sentence is the concluding sentence and restates how breathing can help manage anxiety.

Placing a topic sentence in the middle of a paragraph is often used in creative writing. If you notice that you have used a topic sentence in the middle of a paragraph in an academic essay, read through the paragraph carefully to make sure that it contains only one major topic. To read more about topic sentences and where they appear in paragraphs, see Chapter 8 "The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?".

IMPLIED TOPIC SENTENCES

Some well-organized paragraphs do not contain a topic sentence at all. Instead of being directly stated, the main idea is implied in the content of the paragraph. Read the following example:

Heaving herself up the stairs, Luella had to pause for breath several times. She let out a wheeze as she sat down heavily in the wooden rocking chair. Tao approached her cautiously, as if she might crumble at the slightest touch. He studied her face, like parchment; stretched across the bones so finely he could almost see right through the skin to the decaying muscle underneath. Luella smiled a toothless grin.

Although no single sentence in this paragraph states the main idea, the entire paragraph focuses on one concept-that Luella is extremely old. The topic sentence is thus implied rather than stated. This technique is often used in descriptive or narrative writing. Implied topic sentences work well if the writer has a firm idea of what he or she intends to say in the paragraph and sticks to it. However, a paragraph loses its effectiveness if an implied topic sentence is too subtle or the writer loses focus.

TIP

Avoid using implied topic sentences in an informational document. Readers often lose patience if they are unable to quickly grasp what the writer is trying to say. The clearest and most efficient way to communicate in an informational document is to position the topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph.

SUPPORTING SENTENCES

If you think of a paragraph as a hamburger, the supporting sentences are the meat inside the bun. They make up the body of the paragraph by explaining, proving, or enhancing the controlling idea in the topic sentence. Most paragraphs contain three to six supporting sentences depending on the audience and purpose for writing. A supporting sentence usually offers one of the following:

Reason Sentence: The refusal of the baby boom generation to retire is contributing to the current lack of available jobs.

Fact Sentence: Many families now rely on older relatives to support them financially.

Statistic Sentence: Nearly 10 percent of adults are currently unemployed in the United States.

Quotation Sentence: "We will not allow this situation to continue," stated Senator Johns.

Example Sentence: Last year, Bill was asked to retire at the age of fifty-five.

The type of supporting sentence you choose will depend on what you are writing and why you are writing. For example, if you are attempting to persuade your audience to take a particular position you should rely on facts, statistics, and concrete examples, rather than personal opinions. Read the following example:

There are numerous advantages to owning a hybrid car. (Topic sentence)

First, they get 20 percent to 35 percent more miles to the gallon than a fuel-efficient gas-powered vehicle. (Supporting sentence 1: statistic)

Second, they produce very few emissions during low speed city driving. (Supporting sentence 2: fact)

Because they do not require gas, hybrid cars reduce dependency on fossil fuels, which helps lower prices at the pump. (Supporting sentence 3: reason)

Alex bought a hybrid car two years ago and has been extremely impressed with its performance. (Supporting sentence 4: example)

"It's the cheapest car I've ever had," she said. "The running costs are far lower than previous gas powered vehicles I've owned." (Supporting sentence 5: quotation)

Given the low running costs and environmental benefits of owning a hybrid car, it is likely that many more people will follow Alex's example in the near future. (Concluding sentence)

To find information for your supporting sentences, you might consider using one of the following sources:

Reference book

Encyclopedia

Website

Biography/autobiography

Map

Dictionary

Newspaper/magazine

Interview

Previous experience

Personal research

TIP

When searching for information on the Internet, remember that some websites are more reliable than others. websites ending in .gov or .edu are generally more reliable than websites ending in .com or .org. Wikis and blogs are not reliable sources of information because they are subject to inaccuracies.

CONCLUDING SENTENCES

An effective concluding sentence draws together all the ideas you have raised in your paragraph. It reminds readers of the main point-the topic sentence-without restating it in exactly the same words. Using the hamburger example, the top bun (the topic sentence) and the bottom bun (the concluding sentence) are very similar. They frame the "meat" or body of the paragraph. Compare the topic sentence and concluding sentence from the previous example:

Topic sentence: There are numerous advantages to owning a hybrid car.

Concluding sentence: Given the low running costs and environmental benefits of owning a hybrid car, it is likely that many more people will follow Alex's example in the near future.

Notice the use of the synonyms advantages and benefits. The concluding sentence reiterates the idea that owning a hybrid is advantageous without using the exact same words. It also summarizes two examples of the advantages covered in the supporting sentences: low running costs and environmental benefits.

You should avoid introducing any new ideas into your concluding sentence. A conclusion is intended to provide the reader with a sense of completion. Introducing a subject that is not covered in the paragraph will confuse the reader and weaken your writing.

A concluding sentence may do any of the following:

Restate the main idea.Example: Childhood obesity is a growing problem in the United States.

Summarize the key points in the paragraph.Example: A lack of healthy choices, poor parenting, and an addiction to video games are among the many factors contributing to childhood obesity.

Draw a conclusion based on the information in the paragraph.Example: These statistics indicate that unless we take action, childhood obesity rates will continue to rise.

Make a prediction, suggestion, or recommendation about the information in the paragraph.Example: Based on this research, more than 60 percent of children in the United States will be morbidly obese by the year 2030 unless we take evasive action.

Offer an additional observation about the controlling idea.Example: Childhood obesity is an entirely preventable tragedy.

TRANSITIONS

A strong paragraph moves seamlessly from the topic sentence into the supporting sentences and on to the concluding sentence. To help organize a paragraph and ensure that ideas logically connect to one another, writers use transitional words and phrases. A transition is a connecting word that describes a relationship between ideas. Take another look at the earlier example:

There are numerous advantages to owning a hybrid car. First, they get 20 percent to 35 percent more miles to the gallon than a fuel-efficient gas-powered vehicle. Second, they produce very few emissions during low speed city driving. Because they do not require gas, hybrid cars reduce dependency on fossil fuels, which helps lower prices at the pump. Alex bought a hybrid car two years ago and has been extremely impressed with its performance. "It's the cheapest car I've ever had," she said. "The running costs are far lower than previous gas-powered vehicles I've owned." Given the low running costs and environmental benefits of owning a hybrid car, it is likely that many more people will follow Alex's example in the near future.

Each of the underlined words is a transition word. Words such as first and second are transition words that show sequence or clarify order. They help organize the writer's ideas by showing that he or she has another point to make in support of the topic sentence. Other transition words that show order include third, also, and furthermore.

The transition word because is a transition word of consequence that continues a line of thought. It indicates that the writer will provide an explanation of a result. In this sentence, the writer explains why hybrid cars will reduce dependency on fossil fuels (because they do not require gas). Other transition words of consequence include as a result, so that, since, or for this reason.

To include a summarizing transition in her concluding sentence, the writer could rewrite the final sentence as follows:

In conclusion, given the low running costs and environmental benefits of owning a hybrid car, it is likely that many more people will follow Alex's example in the near future.

The following chart provides some useful transition words to connect supporting sentences and concluding sentences.

Table 5.3(2) Useful Transitional Words and Phrases

For Supporting Sentences

For Concluding Sentences

all in all

finally

in conclusion

on balance

thus

WRITING AT WORK

Transitional words and phrases are useful tools to incorporate into workplace documents. They guide the reader through the document, clarifying relationships between sentences and paragraphs so that the reader understands why they have been written in that particular order.

For example, when writing an instructional memo, it may be helpful to consider the following transitional words and phrases: before you begin, first, next, then, finally, after you have completed. Using these transitions as a template to write your memo will provide readers with clear, logical instructions about a particular process and the order in which steps are supposed to be completed.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

A good paragraph contains three distinct components: a topic sentence, body, and concluding sentence.

The topic sentence expresses the main idea of the paragraph combined with the writer's attitude or opinion about the topic.

Good topic sentences contain both a main idea and a controlling idea, are clear and easy to follow, use engaging vocabulary, and provide an accurate indication of what will follow in the rest of the paragraph.

Topic sentences may be placed at the beginning, middle, or end of a paragraph. In most academic essays, the topic sentence is placed at the beginning of a paragraph.

Supporting sentences help explain, prove, or enhance the topic sentence by offering facts, reasons, statistics, quotations, or examples.

Concluding sentences summarize the key points in a paragraph and reiterate the main idea without repeating it word for word.

Transitional words and phrases help organize ideas in a paragraph and show how these ideas relate to one another.

A paragraph should be unified, coherent, and well developed. Paragraphs are unified around a main point and all sentences in the paragraph should clearly relate to that point in some way. The paragraph's main idea should be supported with specific information that develops or discusses the main idea in greater detail.

Creating a Topic Sentence

The topic sentence expresses the main point in a paragraph. You may create your topic sentence by considering the details or examples you will discuss. What unifies these examples? What do your examples have in common? Reach a conclusion and write that "conclusion" first. If it helps, think of writing backwards-from generalization to support instead of from examples to a conclusion.

If you know what your main point will be, write it as clearly as possible. Then, focus on keywords in your topic sentence and try to explain them more fully. Keep asking yourself "How?" or "Why?" or "What examples can I provide to convince a reader?". After you have added your supporting information, review the topic sentence to see if it still indicates the direction of your writing.
Purposes of Topic Sentences

To state the main point of a paragraph

To give the reader a sense of direction (indicate what information will follow)

To summarize the paragraph's main point

Placement of Topic Sentences

Often appear as the first or second sentences of a paragraph

Rarely appear at the end of the paragraph

Supporting a Topic Sentence with Details
To support a topic sentence, consider some of the possible ways that provide details. To develop a paragraph, use one or more of these:

Add examples

Tell a story that illustrates the point you're making

Discuss a process

Compare and contrast

Use analogies (eg., "X is similar to Y because. . . ")

Discuss cause and effect

Define your terms

Reasons for beginning a new paragraph

To show you're switching to a new idea

To highlight an important point by putting it at the beginning or end of your paragraph

To show a change in time or place

To emphasize a contrast

To indicate changing speakers in a dialogue

To give readers an opportunity to pause

To break up a dense text

Ways of Arranging Information Within or Between Paragraphs

Order of time (chronology)

Order of space (descriptions of a location or scene)

Order of climax (building toward a conclusion)

Order of importance (from least to most important or from most to least important)

Provided by the University of Richmond Writing Center

This page only provides a list of transitional words; be certain you understand their meanings before you use them. Often, there exists a slight, but significant, difference between two apparently similar words. Also remember that while transitions describe relationships between ideas, they do not automatically create relationships between ideas for your reader. Use transitions with enough context in a sentence or paragraph to make the relationships clear.

Example of unclear transition:

The characters in Book A face a moral dilemma. In the same way, the characters in Book B face a similar problem.

Improved transition:

The characters in Book A face a moral dilemma, a contested inheritance. Although the inheritance in Book B consists of an old house and not a pile of money, the nature of the problem is quite similar.

Examples of Transitions: Illustration

Thus, for example, for instance, namely, to illustrate, in other words, in particular, specifically, such as.

Contrast

On the contrary, contrarily, notwithstanding, but, however, nevertheless, in spite of, in contrast, yet, on one hand, on the other hand, rather, or, nor, conversely, at the same time, while this may be true.

Addition

And, in addition to, furthermore, moreover, besides, than, too, also, both-and, another, equally important, first, second, etc., again, further, last, finally, not only-but also, as well as, in the second place, next, likewise, similarly, in fact, as a result, consequently, in the same way, for example, for instance, however, thus, therefore, otherwise.

Time

After, afterward, before, then, once, next, last, at last, at length, first, second, etc., at first, formerly, rarely, usually, another, finally, soon, meanwhile, at the same time, for a minute, hour, day, etc., during the morning, day, week, etc., most important, later, ordinarily, to begin with, afterwards, generally, in order to, subsequently, previously, in the meantime, immediately, eventually, concurrently, simultaneously.

Space

At the left, at the right, in the center, on the side, along the edge, on top, below, beneath, under, around, above, over, straight ahead, at the top, at the bottom, surrounding, opposite, at the rear, at the front, in front of, beside, behind, next to, nearby, in the distance, beyond, in the forefront, in the foreground, within sight, out of sight, across, under, nearer, adjacent, in the background.

Concession

Although, at any rate, at least, still, thought, even though, granted that, while it may be true, in spite of, of course.

Similarity or Comparison

Similarly, likewise, in like fashion, in like manner, analogous to.

Emphasis

Above all, indeed, truly, of course, certainly, surely, in fact, really, in truth, again, besides, also, furthermore, in addition.

Details

Specifically, especially, in particular, to explain, to list, to enumerate, in detail, namely, including.

Examples

For example, for instance, to illustrate, thus, in other words, as an illustration, in particular.

Consequence or Result

So that, with the result that, thus, consequently, hence, accordingly, for this reason, therefore, so, because, since, due to, as a result, in other words, then.

Summary

Therefore, finally, consequently, thus, in short, in conclusion, in brief, as a result, accordingly.

Suggestion

For this purpose, to this end, with this in mind, with this purpose in mind, therefore.

provided by Writing Commons

Why is it important to organize a paper logically?
Academic writing-like many types of writing-is typically more effective when the writer's ideas are presented logically. For the sake of clarity and cohesiveness, a logical plan should inform the paper's organization from beginning to end at the global (big picture) and local (zoomed in) levels. The target audience is more likely to become engaged, and maintain their engagement, when the conversation is clearly organized and purposefully presented.
Organizational structures that work:

Graphic organizers

Web: Draw a circle in the middle of a page and write your thesis inside. In a series of circles around the thesis, fill in ideas for the introduction, the main point of each body paragraph, and the conclusion. Then number the circles appropriately.

Cluster or mind map: Begin with the topic in the center and map out a series of main ideas in connected ovals; continue to draw more ovals and cluster the details around each main idea.

Outlines

Traditional, formal outline: This organizational plan typically begins with a thesis statement and lays out your paper's content in detail, using a standard outline format.

Working outline: This plan generally begins with a working thesis followed by an organized, but less formal, presentation of ideas. Strategic reorganization of the outline takes place as your paper develops.

Reverse outline: Outlining is done after a draft of the paper has been written. The writer extracts the main idea from each paragraph, determines what steps need to be taken to present the ideas logically, and reorganizes appropriately.

What can be done to construct a logical plan?

Experiment with different organizational structures and choose one that works in harmony with your writing style, as well as the requirements of the assignment.

Develop a well-organized thesis or working thesis-ideas that are clearly-presented in the thesis generally support clearly-presented ideas in the body of your paper.

Treat the paper as a living document. Systematically reevaluate the success, or failure, of the organizational plan and reorganize as needed to keep the paper "breathing."

order of time order of space order of climax order of importance: transitions traditional, formal outline working outline reverse outline

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Article links: "Effective Means for Writing a Paragraph" provided by Candela Open Courses "Writing Effective Paragraphs" provided by the University of Richmond Writing Center "Transitional Words and Phrases" provided by the University of Richmond Writing Center "What Logical Plan Informs Your Paper's Organization?" provided by the Writing Center Describe how to write a topic sentence.

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Topic sentences have a difficult history in the business of teaching writing. In the 1960s, an influential article was published in a scholarly journal read by writing teachers which proclaimed that research proved that topic sentences were practically nonexistent. However, that "research" was based on light, journalistic, entertainment-oriented texts where topic sentences would be the equivalent of lead boots.

Actually, topic sentences play an important role in giving a document coherence-especially technical, scientific, and business documents. In light, journalistic, entertainment-oriented writing, topic sentences of a subtle, unobtrusive type are used. These are discussed later in this chapter.

The rhetoric and composition scholars may have done some research on the anatomy of the topic sentence and the strategies for its use, but it's doubtful. Not sexy enough. What you'll see here are some efforts to identify several types of topic sentences and some efforts to determine which types fit which writing situations.

Note: There are some differences between topic sentences and thesis sentences, but they are minor. You can read this chapter as applying to thesis sentences as well.
Anatomy of the Topic Sentence
But first what is the topic sentence? It is a sentence occurring toward the beginning of a paragraph that in some way tips the reader off as to the focus, purpose, contents of that paragraph (and perhaps one or more paragraphs following). At its best, it focuses the reader's attention; it says "hey, here's what we're talking about!" Here's an example:

There is no doubt that Gage suffered the accident, and that it had a dramatic impact on his life. However, in his book An Odd Kind of Fame: Stories of Phineas Gage, Australian psychologist Malcolm Macmillan casts serious doubts on the accuracy of the account that entered both scientific and popular discourse. First, very little is known about Gage's personality and habits before the accident. . . .

In this example, serious doubts on the accuracy of the account is the core of the topic sentence, indicating the focus of the following discussion, which is "doubts." Notice it does not begin the paragraph; the first sentence seems to be transitioning from a previous paragraph.

In a scientific, technical, business, or government context where readers are struggling to comprehend, topic sentences seem like help from Above! However, in a light, journalistic, entertainment-oriented context, such a topic sentence might seem like a massive wet blanket. Consider this journalistic example; notice the absence of a topic sentence.

Before the Big Bang

The Catholic Church, which put Galileo under house arrest for daring to say that Earth orbits the sun, isn't known for easily accepting new scientific ideas. So it came as a surprise when Pope Pius XII declared his approval in 1951 of a brand new cosmological theory--the Big Bang. What entranced the pope was the very thing that initially made scientists wary: The theory says the universe had a beginning, and that both time and space leaped out of nothingness. It seemed to confirm the first few sentences of Genesis.

What triggered the Big Bang? According to a new theory, our universe crashed into another three-dimensional world hidden in higher dimensions. "The model suggests a radically different view of cosmic history in which the key events shaping the structure of the universe occurred before the Big Bang," says cosmologist Paul Steinhardt. Eventually, astrophysicists followed the pope's lead, as evidence for the Big Bang became too powerful to ignore. They accepted the notion that the entire observable universe--100 billion galaxies, each stuffed with 100 billion stars, stretching out more than 10 billion light-years in all directions--was once squashed into a space far smaller than a single electron. They bought the idea that the cosmos burst into existence precisely 13.7 billion years ago and has been expanding ever since. But even now, many astrophysicists are still uncomfortable with the implication that the Big Bang marked the beginning of time itself. And the theory has yet to yield a satisfactory answer to a key question: What made the Big Bang go bang?

It takes a while, but you finally realize the topic is the Big Bang Theory. So now you know the playing field for the topic-sentence game.
Types of Topic Sentences
It could be that writers use a spectrum of topic-sentence types, some of which fill the needs of those happy-go-lucky journalistic writers, while others fill the needs of those struggling writers of scientific, technical, business, or government texts. We don't know because the rhetoric and composition scholarly community has not stooped to consider such issues (unless of course some lonely mouse-like scholar in some hidden tiny college has published something in a little-known journal).

Topic reference. The simplest-and weakest-form of topic sentence is one in which the topic of the paragraph occurs in the sentence. Otherwise, there is no indication as to what will be said about the topic or what the paragraph will cover.

The surface of Mars is thought to be primarily composed of basalt, based upon the Martian meteorite collection and orbital observations. There is some evidence that a portion of the Martian surface might be more silica-rich than typical basalt, perhaps similar to andesitic stones on Earth, though these observations may also be explained by silica glass. Much of the surface is deeply covered by iron oxide dust as fine as talcum powder. There is conclusive evidence that on the surface of Mars liquid water existed at one time. Key discoveries leading to this conclusion include the detection of various minerals such as hematite and goethite which usually only form in the presence of water.

In this example, the topic is surface of Mars but there is no thesis or overview-nor could there be.

Topic definition. A slightly more complex form of topic sentence occurs when the topic sentence defines-or begins the definition of-a term. Call it a topic-definition topic sentence.

In geology, a subduction zone is an area on Earth where two tectonic plates meet and move towards one another, with one sliding underneath the other and moving down into the mantle, at rates typically measured in centimeters per year. An oceanic plate ordinarily slides underneath a continental plate; this often creates a zone with many volcanoes and earthquakes. In a sense, subduction zones are the opposite of divergent boundaries, areas where material rises up from the mantle and plates are moving apart.

In this example, the definition of the topic subduction zone is begun in the first sentence and is continued in the rest of the paragraph.

Keyword topic sentence. One stronger type of topic sentence contains a keyword that sets up an expectation as to the content and organization of the rest of the paragraph or paragraphs. Common keywords include "reasons," "aspects," "factors," and generally any suspicious-looking plural noun at the beginning of a paragraph. Indicative too are modifying words such as "several," "a number of," and so on.

During Samhain there are a number of activities the Celts took part in that resemble some customs we observe on Halloween today. One such custom is trick-or-treating, which may have arisen from the bonfires that the Celts had at this time because children would go door to door asking for firewood. Along with wood, Celts may have collected food door to door for an offering to honor their gods. In honor of these gods, the people may have dressed up to look like them indicating a possible start of wearing costumes. Other costume related events were when the Celts would dress up in ghoulish outfits to parade through the streets and eventually out of town to lead the wandering spirits away from the town.

In this example, the keywords number of activities indicate that the paragraph (and possibly additional paragraphs following) will discuss several Celtic activities that resemble modern Halloween activities. True, this topic sentence could also be seen as a thesis-statement topic sentence, to be discussed in the following. The key difference, however, is the expectation that this keyword type sets up.

Overview topic sentence. Some paragraphs or groups of paragraphs discuss multiple subtopics. An overview topic sentence lists those subtopics.

Most brains exhibit a visible distinction between gray matter and white matter. The gray matter makes up the outer layer of the brain, called cerebral cortex. Gray matter consists of the cell bodies of the neurons, while white matter consists of the fibers (axons) that connect neurons. The axons are surrounded by a fatty insulating sheath called myelin, giving the white matter its distinctive color. Deep in the brain, compartments of white matter (fasciculi, fiber tracts), gray matter (nuclei) and spaces filled with cerebrospinal fluid (ventricles) are found.

In this example, the topic sentence indicates that the two subtopics, gray matter and white matter, will be discussed.

Thesis-statement topic sentence. Some topic sentences make an assertion-an argument-that the rest of paragraph must support.

Although Babbage's machines were mechanical monsters, their basic architecture was astonishingly similar to a modern computer. The data and program memory were separated, operation was instruction based, control unit could make conditional jumps, and the machines had separate I/O units.

In this example, the topic sentence states a thesis: that Babbage's calculating machine is "astonishingly similar" to the modern computer. You expect the rest of the paragraph to support that thesis.

Suspense-oriented nontopic sentence. Some writers enjoy messing with your readerly brains. They intentionally hide the logic connecting the current paragraph to anything preceding. Charlatans!

We leave traces of ourselves wherever we go, on whatever we touch. One of the odd discoveries made by small boys is that when two pebbbles are struck sharply against each other they emit, briefly, a curious smoky odor. The phenomenon fades when the stones are immaculately cleaned, vanishes when they are heated to furnace temperature, and reappears when they are simply touched by the hand again before being struck.

In this example, from the beginning of Lewis Thomas's "Vibes" appearing in his The Lives of a Cell, we're not sure where Lewis Thomas is headed with this discussion. After another paragraph or two, you'll see that the topic is odors. The idea is to create a sense of wonder and suspense.
Revising with Topic Sentences
It's not an instinctive matter to start a paragraph or section with a topic sentence. Few of us have that kind of foresight. Instead, topic sentences are likely to be added, in those paragraphs where they are really needed, in the revision phase of a writing project. If writing is often a process of discovery, we discover the need for topic sentences later in that process.

Revision to include a topic sentence.
Choosing Topic Sentences
Your best guide for deciding when to use topic sentences and which type is probably your own instincts and intuition. But here are some ideas:

If your section (one or more paragraphs) discusses multiple similar things (for example, problems, solutions, causes, consequences), probably the keyword topic sentence will work.

If your section proves a points and includes multiple supporting statements, probably the thesis-sentence type topic sentence is a good idea.

If your section provides an extended discussion of an unfamiliar term, try starting with a formal sentence definition as the topic sentence.

If your section provides a narrative of some sort, probably no topic sentence is needed.

If you are involved in a popular science and technology writing project, topic sentences of any sort may be heavy, stodgy, and inappropriate.

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technical writing degrees and certificates

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Business & Technical Communications at Austin Community College, offered as online regular credit and continuing education, features courses in basic technical writing, graphics for technical writers, HTML, CSS, XML, DITA, WIKIs, web content management systems, web pages, web sites indexing technical editing, business communication, career building, desktop publishing; courses featuring

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In academic writing, many paragraphs or groups of paragraphs start with topic sentences, which are like mini-thesis statements. Topic sentences are idea indicators, or "signs" that help guide a reader along from idea to idea.

Topic sentences have a topic and an angle, just like thesis sentences. But the angle of topic sentences usually is smaller in range than that of the thesis sentence. Very often the topic remains the same from thesis to topic sentence, while the angle shifts as the writer brings in various types of ideas and research to support the angle in the thesis.

Look at this sample again; these are topic sentences created from the thesis sentence. The topic remains the same in all (regular exercise) and the overall angle remains the same (benefits). But the angle narrows and shifts slightly from topic sentence to topic sentence as the writer brings in different supporting ideas and research.

Realize that all paragraphs do not need topic sentences. Sometimes, you may need multiple paragraphs to help explain one topic sentence, because you have a lot of supporting information.

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In academic writing, many paragraphs or groups of paragraphs start with topic sentences, which are like mini-thesis statements. Topic sentences are idea indicators, or "signs" that help guide a reader along from idea to idea. Topic sentences have a topic and an angle, just like thesis sentences.

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Argumentative Thesis Statement Features 

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Argumentative Thesis Statement Features 

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Recognize an arguable thesis

Below are some of the key features of an argumentative thesis statement.

An argumentative thesis is . . .

Debatable

An argumentative thesis must make a claim about which reasonable people can disagree. Statements of fact or areas of general agreement cannot be argumentative theses because few people disagree about them.

Assertive

An argumentative thesis takes a position, asserting the writer's stance. Questions, vague statements, or quotations from others are not argumentative theses because they do not assert the writer's viewpoint.

Reasonable

An argumentative thesis must make a claim that is logical and possible. Claims that are outrageous or impossible are not argumentative theses.

Evidence Based

An argumentative thesis must be able to be supported by evidence. Claims that presuppose value systems, morals, or religious beliefs cannot be supported with evidence and therefore are not argumentative theses.

Focused

An argumentative thesis must be focused and narrow. A focused, narrow claim is clearer, more able to be supported with evidence, and more persuasive than a broad, general claim.

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Recognize an arguable thesis Below are some of the key features of an argumentative thesis statement. An argumentative thesis is . . . An argumentative thesis must make a claim about which reasonable people can disagree. Statements of fact or areas of general agreement cannot be argumentative theses because few people disagree about them.

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Student says:

After reviewing my research, I am actually having a hard time deciding on a working thesis. I started out wanting to argue for the legalization of marijuana, but I do actually feel more nervous about this than when I started. I was really basing my opinion on some ideas that I now know are myths: that marijuana is not addictive and that so many people are in our prisons for marijuana convictions. Of course, I was also basing my opinion on what I know about alcohol and the fact that it is legal, so I don't think I'm ready to change my mind, though the more I read, the more I think maybe both should be illegal. But, that is a really impractical, and a really controversial argument, and I'm losing my focus-research tends to do that sometimes.

Despite the problems with my original thinking, I've decided to move forward with my argument that marijuana should probably be legal, though I'm going to have to write a really, really careful argument.

With that in mind, I have to try to develop a working thesis that fits my goals, though I know this can be changed later.

My first attempt at a thesis went something like this:

American sentiment about marijuana is changing thanks to a greater understanding of the drug and its effects. It is now time to work to legalize marijuana, though with some careful consideration and clear limitations.

Well, I am capturing the ideas I want, but I feel this is too wordy for sure!

So, I'm going to try again.

Due to a greater understanding of marijuana and its effects, American sentiment about the legalization of marijuana seems to be changing, and with good reason. With careful regulation, marijuana should be a legal drug in the state of Texas, just as alcohol is legal.

I should maybe avoid bringing the alcohol issue into my thesis, though I know I will address this in my paper. It is just not going to be the main focus, I think. I wonder what my thesis would look like without that last part tagged on at the end.

So, here is my third attempt:

Due to a greater understanding of marijuana and its effects, American sentiment about the legalization of marijuana seems to be changing, and with good reason. With careful regulation, marijuana should be a legal drug in the state of Texas.

I think this feels like a good working thesis. It's technically a two-sentence thesis, but I'm actually thinking the first sentence is maybe more of a transition to my thesis. I think the key is that I'm making a clear assertion, and I have a narrow focus in that second sentence.

I may need to revise this thesis later, especially as I still feel unsure about my overall argument, but I'm going to settle on this for now. I have done a lot of research and still haven't changed my mind, though I know that's still an option. "

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See It in Practice - Excelsior College OWL

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Student says: After reviewing my research, I am actually having a hard time deciding on a working thesis. I started out wanting to argue for the legalization of marijuana, but I do actually feel more nervous about this than when I started.

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After completing this activity, you may download or print a completion report that summarizes your results. To save a PDF copy of the report, click below and follow instructions for your browser.

Printing and Download Instructions

There may be times when you would like to make a PDF of your activity or your results, or both. Below are directions on how to do this in several different browsers.

In the lower right corner of the activity, click the printer icon. (NOTE: This is not the Print button at the bottom of the page.) Select either Print all slides or Print current slide. On the Print popup, under Printer, select the option that relates to pdf. Click Print. Give the file a name. (NOTE: It is recommended that you include your name in the file name if you plan to send the file to someone as proof that you have completed the activity.) Navigate where you would like the file saved, and click Save.

In the lower right corner of the activity, click the printer icon. (NOTE: This is not the Print button at the bottom of the page.) Select either Print all slides or Print current slide. On the Print popup, in the Name: field, select the option that relates to pdf. Click OK. Give the file a name. (NOTE: It is recommended that you include your name in the file name if you plan to send the file to someone as proof that you have completed the activity.) Navigate where you would like the file saved, and click Save.

In the lower right corner of the activity, click the printer icon. (NOTE: This is not the Print button at the bottom of the page.) Select either Print all slides or Print current slide. On the Print popup, under Destination, click the Change... button. Select Save as PDF. In the Print popup, click the Save button In the Save As popup window, give the file a name. (NOTE: It is recommended that you include your name in the file name if you plan to send the file to someone as proof that you have completed the activity.) Navigate where you would like the file saved, and click Save.

In the lower right corner of the activity, click the printer icon. (NOTE: This is not the Print button at the bottom of the page.) Select either Print all slides or Print current slide. On the Print popup, in the Name: field, select the option that relates to pdf. Click Print. Give the file a name. (NOTE: It is recommended that you include your name in the file name if you plan to send the file to someone as proof that you have completed the activity.) Navigate where you would like the file saved, and click Save.

In the lower right corner of the activity, click the printer icon. (NOTE: This is not the Print button at the bottom of the page.) Select either Print all slides or Print current slide. On the Print popup, click the dropdown menu in the bottom left that says PDF and sect Save as PDF. In the popup, type in a name for the file. (NOTE: It is recommended that you include your name in the file name if you plan to send the file to someone as proof that you have completed the activity.) Navigate where you would like the file saved and click Save.

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Argumentative Thesis Activity - Excelsior College OWL

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After completing this activity, you may download or print a completion report that summarizes your results. To save a PDF copy of the report, click below and follow instructions for your browser. Printing and Download Instructions There may be times when you would like to make a PDF of your activity or your results, or both.

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Are you ready to review what you have learned about argumentative thesis statements? The video below will help with that. Be sure the volume on your computer is turned up as you review information on building a strong thesis statement for your argumentative essay.

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Argumentative Thesis Overview - Excelsior College OWL

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Are you ready to review what you have learned about argumentative thesis statements? The video below will help with that. Be sure the volume on your computer is turned up as you review information on building a strong thesis statement for your argumentative essay.

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Chapter 8: Making Academic Arguments

Robin Jeffrey

Almost anything you can argue or claim in a persuasive paper can be refuted - and that is a good thing when you are writing an argument. Opposing points of view exist in every good debate, and it's important to anticipate possible objections to your arguments and to discuss them in your paper.

At the end of this chapter, in the Deeper Reading: Counterargument "On the Other Hand: The Role of Antithetical Writing Writing in First Year Writing Courses," Steven Krause offers an extended explanation of what counterarguments are and, more importantly, why it is important to examine them as a way to strengthen your own arguments. If you are struggling to articulate a counterargument, if you are unsure of how counterarguments fit into to a larger persuasive work, or if you are struggling to respond to counterarguments, Krause can offer you a lot of useful information.

Below, however, is a brief overview of what counterarguments are and how you might respond to them in your arguments.

Types of counterarguments

Could someone disagree with your claim? If so, why? Explain this opposing perspective in your own argument, and then respond to it.

Could someone draw a different conclusion from any of the facts or examples you present? If so, what is that different conclusion? Explain this different conclusion and then respond to it.

Could a reader question any of your assumptions or claims? If so, which ones would they question? Explain and then respond.

Could a reader offer a different explanation of an issue? If so, what might their explanation be? Describe this different explanation, and then respond to it.

Is there any evidence out there that could weaken your position? If so, what is it? Cite and discuss this evidence and then respond to it.

If the answer to any of these questions is yes, that does not necessarily mean that you have a weak argument. It means, ideally and as long as your argument is logical and valid, that you have a counterargument. Good arguments can and do have counterarguments; it is important to discuss them. But you must also discuss and then respond to those counterarguments.

Responding to counterarguments

You do not need to attempt to do all of these things as a way to respond; instead, choose the response strategy that makes the most sense to you, for the counterargument that you have.

If you agree with some of the counterargument perspectives, you can concede some of their points. ("I do agree that ....", "Some of the points made by ____ are valid.....") You could then challenge the importance/usefulness of those points.
"However, this information does not apply to our topic because..."

If the counterargument perspective is one that contains different evidence than you have in your own argument, you can explain why a reader should not accept the evidence that the counterarguer presents
For a detailed account of the various ways that evidence can fail in an argument, see Section 8.5, how evidence fails

If the counterargument perspective is one that contains a different interpretation of evidence than you have in your own argument, you can explain why a reader should not accept the interpretation of the evidence that that your opponent (counterarguer) presents

If the counterargument is an acknowledgement of evidence that threatens to weaken your argument, you must explain why and how that evidence does not, in fact invalidate your claim.

It is important to use transitional phrases in your paper to alert readers when you're about to present an counterargument. It's usually best to put this phrase at the beginning of a paragraph such as:

Researchers have challenged these claims with...

Critics argue that this view...

Some readers may point to...

A perspective that challenges the idea that . . .

Transitional phrases will again be useful to highlight your shift from counterargument to response:

Indeed, some of those points are valid. However, . . .

While I agree that . . . , it is more important to consider . . .

These are all compelling points. Still, other information suggests that . .

While I understand . . . , I cannot accept the evidence because . . .

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A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing

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Chapter 8: Making Academic Arguments Robin Jeffrey Almost anything you can argue or claim in a persuasive paper can be refuted - and that is a good thing when you are writing an argument. Opposing points of view exist in every good debate, and it's important to anticipate possible objections to your arguments and to discuss them in your paper.

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Read about counterarguments and the best way to write them.

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What you'll learn to do: evaluate strategies for rebuttal and refutation of counterargument

An integral part of composing a strong argument is including counterargument. This can be difficult, especially if a writer is arguing for a position s/he already agrees with. In such cases, writers can sometimes make good points to support their stances; however, their arguments are vulnerable unless they anticipate and address counterarguments. When a writer does this, it is often referred to as rebuttal or refutation. Some scholars of rhetoric differentiate the two words in terms of if you can actually disprove a claim or just argue against it; however, in this section, we will use the terms as basically interchangeable to help get you more used to their function in argument. When writers are able to skillfully rebut or refute a view that runs counter to their claims, it strengthens their work. Rebuttal and refutation are common in all types of argument, including academic argument. As you complete more advanced work in college, you will be expected to address counterargument often. And while you might not always need to or be able to prove that other points of view are wrong, you may at least need to try to argue against them.

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An integral part of composing a strong argument is including counterargument. This can be difficult, especially if a writer is arguing for a position s/he already agrees with. In such cases, writers can sometimes make good points to support their stances; however, their arguments are vulnerable unless they anticipate and address counterarguments.

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When the teaching of technical writing first emerged in university engineering schools, it was defined as rigorously objective in writing style-even to the extent of using the passive voice instead of the first person singular "I." The standard model was the primary research report. However, since then, it has become clear that technical writers must often engage in persuasive communication efforts in their primary work.

The infrastructure essential in proposals and progress reports is persuasion. To convince people to hire you to do a project and to reassure them that the project is going well, you need persuasive strategies. This chapter reviews the common persuasive strategies to get you ready to write those kinds of documents-as well as persuasive technical documents. Understanding general persuasive writing strategies, you will be well-equipped to develop these kinds of documents:

Persuasion is the communicative effort to convince people to think a certain or act a certain way-to vote for a city-wide recycling program, to oppose the building of more coal-fired electricity plants, and so on-or the opposite!

In the view of some, persuasion is not a legitimate tool for technical communication. For them, technical writing is supposed to be "scientific," "objective," "neutral." However, if you grant that proposals, progress reports, resumes, application letters, and even complaint letters are instances of technical communication because they often must convey technical information, then you see that persuasion is an important tool in technical communication.

References:

The classical approach to persuasion, laid down my Aristotle (384-322 BCE) in the Art of Rhetoric, involves these appeals to readers and listeners (remember your Rhetoric and Composition 101?):

Logical appeal-When you use reasons and arguments, backed up by facts and logic, to make your case, you are using the logical appeal. We normally think of the logical appeal as the only legitimate method of argument, but the "real world" shows us differently.

Emotional appeal-When you attempt to rouse people's anger or sympathies in a persuasive effort, you are using the emotional appeal. Showing a little girl fleeing from a burning village bombed by war planes or an oil-soaked seagull on a beach devastated by an oil spill-these images spark emotions like anger, horror, sympathy; but they don't make a logical case for or against anything. These images may, however, capture readers' attention and cause them to pay more attention to the rest of your persuasive effort.

Personal appeal-When you present your qualifications, experience, expertise, and wisdom or those others, attempting to build readers' confidence, you are using the personal appeal. As with the emotional appeal, there is no logical justification for the personal appeal. It's like saying, "Trust me." Despite that, readers sometimes want to know who you are and what gives you the right to speak so authoritatively on the subject. Just as the emotional appeal can be used legitimately to get readers to pay attention and care about your message, the right amount of personal appeal can build readers' confidence in you-or at least a willingness to hear you out.

You may also have encountered the "stylistic" appeal: the use of language and visual effects to increase the persuasive impact. For example, a glossy, fancy design for a resume can have a positive impact just as much as the content.

In your rhetoric and composition studies, you may also have encountered something called the Toulmin approach to persuasion. The complete system involves claims, grounds, warrant, backing, and rebuttal, but a particularly useful element is the rebuttal, and another known as the concession.

Rebuttal. In a rebuttal, you directly address counter-arguments that your persuasive opponents might bring up. You show how they are wrong or, at least, how they don't affect your overall argument. Picture yourself face to face with your persuasive opponents-what arguments are they going to come back at you with? How are you going to answer those arguments? In a written persuasive effort, you must simulate this back-and-forth, debate-style argumentative process. Imagine your opponents' counter-arguments (arguments they might put forth against your position) and then imagine your own rebuttals (your answers to those counter-arguments).

Counter-argument. A persuasion can be structured entirely around tearing down the opponent's argument. Consider this example:

Example of a counter-argument. The paragraph begins by repeating an argument against recycling, then concedes a certain truth to it, but ends by showing that it is irrelevant.

See the completeexample.

Concession. In a concession, you acknowledge that certain opposing arguments have some validity, but you explain how they do not damage your overall argument. Concessions build personal appeal: they make you seem more open minded.

Synthesis. Modern rhetoricians urge us not to view the persuasive process as a win-lose, all-out war. When people are entrenched, they shut out the arguments of the other side. Such rigidity prevents us from resolving the issue and getting on with our lives. Instead, the process of counter-argument, rebuttal, and concession should be sincere and continuous until all parties reach synthesis-a middle ground where they drop their weapons and agree.

Single-paragraph example of persuasion. This paragraph would be one of several paragraphs attempting to discredit the recycling movement.

You should be aware too of the logical fallacies commonly found in persuasive efforts:

Hasty generalizations. When you draw a conclusion based on too little evidence, that's a hasty generalization. For example, if you conclude that there is a big social trend to return to the 70's look because you see two or three bellbottoms and paisley shirts one day, you've drawn a hasty generalization based on a very limited, incomplete sample.

Irrelevant, ad hominem arguments. When you base all or part of your persuasive effort on your opponent's character, behavior, or past, that's an ad hominem argument (meaning "to the man" in Latin). If a middle-aged political candidate were attacked for smoking marijuana in college, that might be an irrelevant personal attack.

Bandwagon effect. If you base all or part of your persuasive effort on the idea that "everybody's doing it," you're using the bandwagon effect. Commercial advertisement commonly uses this tactic: everybody's buying the product-so should you!

False causality. If you argue that because one event came after another, the first event caused the second, you may be making an argument based on false causality. For example, imagine that your father joined IBM in 1984 as a low-level regular employee and shortly thereafter the company began its historic slide to near-extinction. Imagine further that in 1995 he left the company, at which time the company began its remarkable comeback. Was it your dad who nearly brought the company to its knees? Did his departure save the company?

Oversimplistic, either-or arguments. If you reduce the choices to the one you favor and to a totally unacceptable one, you are using an oversimplistic, either-or argument. Advocates of the nuclear power plant might argue that either we build the thing or we go without electricity

False analogies. When you compare a situation to a simple object or process, that's an analogy. When you base an entire persuasive effort on an analogy, you may have problems. Some analogies are just wrong to begin with. And, at some point, all analogies break down. For example, arguments relating to global warming often use the analogy of how a car heats up when the windows are rolled up. The Vietnam war was justified using the analogy of how dominoes all topple over when they are lined up. Analogies can help readers understand, but not justify an argument.

Here are guidelines on writing persuasively in a technical-writing content:

As for recycling programs, you must address the standard objections. Address any counter-arguments. It's a good idea to address counter-arguments-objections people might raise in relation to your argument. Imagine people out there saying "but-but-but-!" Discuss their counter-arguments and show how they are wrong, how they can be addressed, or how they are irrelevant to your main point. Notice that the persuasive document advocating recycling is structured on counter-arguments: Recycling: Not a Waste of Money or Time!

It's a hassle. Your might counter-argue that recycling is no more of a hassle than taking out the garbage. It's a hassle sorting everything and keeping in separate bins. That one is easy--most recycling programs don't require sorting. It's messy and attracts pests. Hmmm, that's a hard one--time for some research.

Here are a few suggestions on format as they relate specifically to persuasive documents.

. If you structure your persuasion by individual arguments, then the subheadings can be related to those arguments. Notice that the headings in the example persuasion address the counter-arguments: Recycling: Not a Waste of Money or Time!

. Factual information-data-supplies a great deal of the legitimate support for your presuasive effort. Make that data more dramatic and vivid by creating tables, charts, and graphs. Graphics-illustrations, drawings, photos-can also supply that essential logical support-but also the emotional support mentioned earlier.

I would appreciate your thoughts, reactions, criticism regarding this chapter: response- David McMurrey

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technical writing degrees and certificates

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Business & Technical Communications at Austin Community College, offered as online regular credit and continuing education, features courses in basic technical writing, graphics for technical writers, HTML, CSS, XML, DITA, WIKIs, web content management systems, web pages, web sites indexing technical editing, business communication, career building, desktop publishing; courses featuring

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An argument must, by definition, take a stance on an issue and provide evidence for a particular conclusion. However, writers may neglect the next step, which is just as important: discussing opposing viewpoints and providing counterarguments.

Just as a criminal trial is ostensibly about finding out the truth of what happened during the crime, consider that the aim of your paper is to get to the truth of the issue you're addressing. There is far less satisfaction in making a convincing argument if objections are left unanswered and evidence is swept under the rug. You wouldn't want your verdict to be overturned on appeal!

The best way to counteract an opposing viewpoint is to anticipate what an opponent might say. When researching the topic, then, don't limit yourself to sympathetic sources; find sources that disagree with your argument. Take note of their rationale and use of evidence. That way, you will be familiar enough with these opposing viewpoints to argue against them. When you encounter dissenting opinions, try to figure out why smart and rational people would hold those positions. What evidence do they look at? How do they interpret that evidence? Why might they disagree with your point of view?

When we're passionate about a topic, emotions can sometimes cloud our rationality. We tend to have disdain for opposing arguments and aren't open to even hearing what those on the other side have to say. To move yourself out of this emotional realm and back into the realm of the well-reasoned argument, try taking a strategy from debate tournaments. Debaters prepare for tournaments by gathering information on both sides of a topic. They actually don't know which side they'll be arguing until the debate begins, and so they must be just as prepared to argue the side they don't agree with as the one they believe in. As you're researching, then, take the debater's approach to gathering information so you'll be very well-informed about the opposing views.

When you encounter these dissenting opinions, get curious. Try to figure out why smart and rational people would hold those positions. What evidence do they look at? How do they interpret that evidence? What life experiences might lead them to disagree with your point of view?

For example, a person who has grown up hunting in a community that has never experienced gun violence might have a very different perspective on gun control than someone whose child was the victim of a shooting. During the research phase, you'll want to have a respectful vision of both these people in your mind to build an argument that might help increase the understanding of where the other is coming from.

Then, when you begin structuring your argument, imagine how your skeptical reader might react to your thesis statement and each of your claims. Imagine that this reader is smart, informed, has thought carefully about the issue, and has reached a totally different conclusion. Try to persuade this reader; work hard to demonstrate why your position is more convincing than the alternatives.

For example, to begin discussing the legalization of physician aid-in-dying with an audience that may be initially averse to the idea, you might begin with something like this: "The impending death of a loved one, particularly a person who can no longer communicate for herself, can pose intense ethical and emotional questions for those designated to make medical decisions for the patient. Hastening death can seem antithetical to the goals of medicine, and the artificial extension of life through invasive and/or risky medical procedures often does not provide an easier alternative. So, how might one go about making such fundamental decisions?"

Introducing opposing viewpoints is necessary, but do not stop there. The burden of proof is on you, as the author of the argument. If you fail to neutralize a common objection, readers will have an excuse to reject your argument. Just as you built your own argument, to refute opposing views, you'll need to include evidence from research studies, statistics, and quoted opinions from experts.

The strongest arguments are those which carefully consider all perspectives in an attempt to find the most reasonable view of the issue. Your readers will deeply appreciate your efforts because they show respect for both the seriousness of your mission and for the readers themselves. Enjoy the process!

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The Importance of Addressing Opposing Views

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An argument must, by definition, take a stance on an issue and provide evidence for a particular conclusion. However, writers may neglect the next step, which is just as important: discussing opposing viewpoints and providing counterarguments.

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One of the best ways to ensure your manuscript stands out from the competition is to verify that your arguments are free of logical fallacies. What are logical fallacies, you ask? According to Purdue University's Online Writing Lab (OWL), "Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument. Fallacies can be either illegitimate arguments or irrelevant points, and are often identified because they lack evidence that supports their claim." The fallacy I'll be discussing in this post is the argument to logic ( argumentum ad logicam).

According to Glen Whitman at California State University Northridge, the argument-to-logic fallacy assumes that a standpoint is false because the standpoint uses flawed reasoning. Now, normally, flawed reasoning is a great reason to discredit an argument, right? As Whitman notes, the problem with the argument to logic, though, is that while the standpoint you're deconstructing may be based on a false premise, another argument based on solid proof may actually support the original standpoint. You'll notice there are two key elements in this definition: (1) we assume a standpoint is false because the reasoning is flawed; however, (2) this false reasoning doesn't necessarily discredit the standpoint.

Let's say a library has just suffered a budget cut, and the director has to explain why staff members won't be getting pay raises this year. The director says that because staff members have received generous raises in the past, they won't be receiving raises this year. Furthermore, if staff members did receive a raise this year, the library wouldn't have enough money for circulation materials, equipment, etc. A disgruntled staff member accuses the director of being "cheap" because the library has been able to give staff members raises in past years. The staff member assumes the director's standpoint is flawed because the director's reasoning is flawed. The director was bring truthful when he said he wouldn't be able to afford needed resources if he also gave raises, but his rationale for not giving raises is flawed.

Specifically, the budget was slashed this year in response to a cut in city funding, as opposed to generosity with staff raises in the past. Thus, the library director's conclusion is based on the false premise that the library can't afford to give staff raises this year due to generosity with raises in the past. However, this false premise is not sufficient evidence for the disgruntled staff member to say the library can afford to give its staff members a raise this year. In other words, the disgruntled staff member has committed the fallacy of argument to logic. The solution, then, would be for the director to make it clear that the library can't afford raises because of government funding cuts, rather than relying on the false premise that pay raises would cause budget issues.

Identifying fallacies in your writing can be deceptively difficult. Taking some time to familiarize yourself with the types of logical fallacies, as well as having another person read over your paper (preferably someone who's familiar with philosophy), can help alleviate this difficulty.

Next week, we'll look at some more fallacies, specifically, "appeal to authority" and "either/or."
Image via Ron and Joe.

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Avoiding logical fallacies in your writing: "Argument to logic"

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One of the best ways to ensure your manuscript stands out from the competition is to verify that your arguments are free of logical fallacies. What are logical fallacies, you ask? According to Purdue University's Online Writing Lab (OWL), "Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument.

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Claims

Your claim is your main point. It should either seek to change how the audience thinks or how the audience acts.

The audience should be able to agree or disagree with your claim, and they should understand the need for the claim. Sometimes a claim can seem more serious and necessary than it actually is. For example, take the claim that the Fourth Amendment should not be repealed. While technically a claim, it isn't a claim that carries much significance because there is no serious debate in the U.S. concerning the repeal of the Fourth Amendment. There is a serious debate, however, concerning the meaning, spirit, and breadth of the Amendment, with serious debates centering on specific issues within the topic of gun control.

It's your job to communicate the exigency, or necessity, of the claim to your audience. They should know what is at stake. Stating your claim clearly and concisely will help, but you must also help the audience understand how your claim responds to a situation that needs a solution.

Good claims are seldom broad; instead, they tend to have a narrow focus and are moderated by qualifiers like "many, "most," and "often, while avoiding words like "all" and "always."

Reasons and Evidence

You need reasons and evidence to convince audiences. Reasons and evidence answer the fundamental question: Why are you making this claim?

The evidence should support your reasons, and your reasons should be appropriate to your audience. You should choose the reasons and evidence that are also the most likely to convince your specific readers or listeners. Knowing the general values and priorities of your readers will help you determine what they will count as compelling reasons and evidence.

Evidence should also be reliable and based on authoritative and trustworthy sources. It should be appropriately cited and ample enough to convince, designed to appeal to your target audience's values and priorities.

Here are some useful strategies for using evidence to support your arguments:

Build on what readers already know.

Present evidence from general to specific.

Keep support appropriate and clear.

Rely on authoritative sources.

Use diagrams, graphs, and other visuals when appropriate.

Don't assume that evidence speaks for itself. Explain its significance to your audience.

Warrants

Warrants express justifying principles, shared beliefs, or general assumptions. They are the spoken or unspoken logic that connects your reasons to your evidence.

Take, for example, the argument:

I need new shoes because these ones have holes in them and it's the rainy season.

​

One who accepts this argument is one who likely shares the following warrant (shared belief):

When shoes can no longer protect the feet, they need to be replaced.

​

To some, this is common sense that justifies the claim for new shoes. But even in cases where your audience shares your warrant, evidence is still needed to connect the warrant with the claim. In other words, the evidence must show that the shoes are indeed in bad condition for the audience to agree.

Sometimes an audience will share the same warrant as you but disagree with the evidence you present. For example, the audience might not believe that the shoes are in as bad of shape as the arguer believes. In that case, the argument is likely to fail for lack of convincing evidence.

Other times, an audience won't share a warrant with you. For example, a person might not believe in replacing damaged shoes, but rather repairing them. One who has a fix-it-first attitude might respond in the following way: "Who says you need to buy new shoes? I can get those repaired for a fraction of the price."

As you see, warrants are important for getting an audience to accept specific conclusions. For this reason, warrants may need their own evidence, or backing, to make your audience more likely to accept them. To learn more about warrants, see the post on the Toulmin Model.

Acknowledgment and Response

Acknowledging and responding to opposing viewpoints can help your argument in a few ways:

It helps you build trust with your audience

It gives your argument additional context.

It challenges you to moderate or qualify your claim

It invites you to find common ground

When stating the opposing viewpoint, it's important to do so fairly. Misrepresenting the opposing viewpoint is not just unethical, but it will likely cause your audience to lose trust in your argument.

After stating the opposing viewpoint, look for parts of the argument that actually seem right-try to acknowledge valid concerns. Doing so may lead you to make concessions to the other side, which will challenge you to moderate your claim and encourage common ground.

Of course, you also have the opportunity to respond to points you feel are not valid from the opposing viewpoint through refutation and counterpoints. Counterpoints should include their own supporting evidence as well.

Thinking about the five parts of an argument is an important first step toward persuading your audience. Check out the next post for tips on evaluating the quality of your own argument.

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The Five Parts of an Argument - EnglishComposition.Org

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Your claim is your main point. It should either seek to change how the audience thinks or how the audience acts. The audience should be able to agree or disagree with your claim, and they should understand the need for the claim. Sometimes a claim can seem more serious and necessary than it actually is.

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Here you'll find extensive support for APA, MLA, and Chicago documentation styles. This section features instructional videos that show you how to set up your papers in APA, MLA, and Chicago formats, interactive checklists, and visual support for both in-text documenting and referencing at the end of your paper.

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American Psychological Association rules for formatting papers, in-text citations, and end references. Examples based on the sixth edition of the Publication Manual from the APA. By Alexis Carlson American Psychological Association rules for formatting papers, in-text citations, and end references. Examples based on the sixth edition of the Publication Manual from the APA.

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Watch this video about the different types of arguments. Which do you think you should use for your essay?

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Why do we argue? To out-reason our opponents, prove them wrong, and, most of all, to win! Right? Philosopher Daniel H. Cohen shows how our most common form of argument -- a war in which one person must win and the other must lose -- misses out on the real benefits of engaging in active disagreement.

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An overview of the argumentative essay and its parts.

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An argumentative essay is a type of writing that prompts the student to investigate a topic, as well as find, collect, and evaluate evidence (quotes from sources), and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner (create a thesis statement). It is crucial to remember that when you create a thesis statement:

Your thesis statement should be one to two sentences.

Your thesis statement should clearly present the main idea of your essay and make some kind of assertion (even if that assertion is about bringing two sides together).

Your thesis should not make an "announcement" about what your essay will cover. Instead, it should just present your assertion.

For example, a thesis that makes an announcement would look like: "In this paper, I will persuade you to vote for candidates who support education reform."

While there is no such thing as a "required" place for your thesis statement, most academic essays will present the thesis statement early on, usually near the end of the introduction. There is a reason for this. Audience members are more likely to understand and absorb each point as readers if you have told them, in advance, what they should be getting out of your essay.

*Your thesis statement is the most important sentence in your essay. It's your chance to make sure your audience really understands your point. Be sure your assertion and your writing style are clear.

First, you'll begin with an introduction. Here, you'll create a topic sentence that alludes to what you'll be talking about, then, you'll introduce background information about the topic, and you'll do so in a way that captures your reader. Next, you'll introduce your claim (your thesis statement).

EX Introduction: Weight in society has always played a role, but in more recent years, the stigma behind this has escalated to a whole new realm in regard to body shaming. The media, in its entirety, has managed to manipulate the public into perceiving beauty to be a certain way. Although beauty is subjective, the term in the media, has a razor thin line for its qualifications, and because of this, people are subjected to jumping to drastic extremes of dieting in order to meet its standard.

You'll follow your introduction with body paragraphs. These paragraphs are where you'll introduce your points (the claims you've made in your thesis), followed by specific evidence (quotes) that support them.

Within your conclusion, you'll summarize your thesis and comment on the significance of your topic, tying everything together.

Adapted from: Argument and Critical Thinking - Excelsior Online Writing Lab

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The Argumentative Essay (and its components)

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An argumentative essay is a type of writing that prompts the student to investigate a topic, as well as find, collect, and evaluate evidence (quotes from sources), and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner (create a thesis statement).

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Is social media more of a negative or positive influence on society? Why?

Comment with your answer below.

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Read the article and answer these questions:

What are the components of an effective argumentative essay?

Why is gathering evidence important to the argumentative essay?

In an argumentative essay, what is the purpose of the thesis statement?

Why should you present both sides of the argument?

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Tips on How to Write a Solid Argument Essay

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Time-tested methods for writing an effective argumentative essay can help you present solid and convincing evidence to support your stance.

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Watch this video to learn more about counterarguments.

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Learn how to create a delicious argumentative thesis statement.

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This video explains the basics of an argument and the steps to write one.

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Check out this article about argumentative writing with a sample essay.

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Here's a helpful video for writing the argumentative essay.

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How to Write an Argumentative Essay by Shmoop

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This rubric shows how I will grade your essay.

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Here are the requirements for your essay.

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This is a nice outline for structuring your argumentative essay.

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How confident do you feel about writing a strong argumentative thesis statement (1-not confident at all, 5-totally confident)?