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Esta capitulo esta enfocado en el usado del español en los EEUU. Un concepto importante en este capitulo es el usado de palabras jergas. Jerga o “slang” es un parte importante de formar un identidad mexicano para inmigrantes aquí en los EEUU. Este artículo de Wililengua se describe algunas de estas palabras y sus traducciones. Además, este video de Youtube describe otro fenómeno en idioma que se llama cognados y cognados falsos. El concepto de code-switching es un parte de cultura muy importante para inmigrantes. “Code switching” esta prominente en comunidades inmigrantes y es usado para situaciones formales y informales entre familia, amigos, y otros en sociedad. Este recurso de owlcation describe mas en detalle los tipos de codeswitching y otras citas.

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Seçkin Esen is working as an English language teacher in Turkey. He obtained his Bachelor's degree in ELT from Hacettepe University in 2010.

Code Switching in Speech

The ability to communicate our thoughts, emotions, and opinions to others is truly a remarkable skill. But not only does our language communicate who we are, but our use of language can influence our self-concept and identity. It goes both ways: Cultural influences are reflected in our language and also influence how we conceptualize who we are and where we come from. (The social aspect of language is studied by sociolinguistics, a subdivision of linguistics which studies social factors.)

Bilingual communities use certain strategies to make communication more effective and meaningful. One of these tricks is "code switching," which we can observe mostly in second- or foreign-language classes. Code switching refers to the use of two languages within a sentence or discourse. It is a natural conflation that often occurs between multilingual speakers who have two or more languages in common.

Here, we will focus on the definition of code switching, the reasons for using code switching, the types of code switching and their definitions, and examples and suggestions for teachers using code switching to teach a foreign or second language.

What Is Code Switching?

Code switching is when a speaker alternates between two or more languages (or dialects or varieties of language) in one conversation. This phenomenon can be observed in the following examples.

What Are Some Examples of Code Switching?

If you have an exam next week, şimdiden çalışmaya başlamalısın. (English + Turkish)

Gracias for the lovely gift. Está awesome! (Spanish + English)

Pwede ba tayo mag dinner sa Barney's Burgers later? I want protein! (Tagalog + English)

Are we eating chez ta mère demain? (English + French)

Saweyti l-homework tabaa'ik? (Arabic + English)

Nó còng đang celebrate cái sinh nhật. (Vietnamese + English)

Ní yào qù get pizza with me ma? (Mandarin + English)

Who Uses Code Switching?

Code switching occurs mostly in bilingual communities. Speakers of more than one language are known for their ability to code switch or mix their language during their communication. As Aranoff and Miller (2003:523) indicate, many linguists have stressed the point that switching between languages is a communicative option available to a bilingual member of a speech community, just as switching between styles or dialects is an option for the monolingual speaker.

Does the Term "Code Switching" Refer Only to Speech, or Does It Include Actions Also?

Since its inception, the term "code switching" has expanded to encapsulate any situation in which speakers finds themselves switching from one accepted vocabulary, cadence, style, or set of rules to another. For example, you'd probably speak to a potential employer differently than you would address a close friend, so you might switch from casual language to professional-speak in certain settings. Another example is how many African Americans describe playing different roles in different settings and with different micro-cultures, and talk about how they must be very careful to speak with an academic vocabulary and cadence in any interaction with a police officer.

What About Code Switching With Dialects?

Yes, someone might code switch within one language by mixing dialects or types of vernacular. You can mix academic-speak with street-speak, for example, or slip mid-sentence into baby-talk.

Reasons Speakers Use Code Switching

There are a number of possible reasons for switching from one language to another; three are described below.

To Fulfill a Need. A speaker who may not be able to express him/herself in one language might switch to another to compensate for the deficiency. As a result, the speaker may be triggered into speaking in the other language for a while. This type of code switching tends to occur when the speaker is upset, tired, or distracted in some manner, or when they are less fluent in one language.

To Express Solidarity. Switching also commonly occurs when an individual wishes to express solidarity with a particular social group. Rapport is established between the speaker and the listener when the listener responds with a similar switch.

To Exclude Others. Code switching may also be used to exclude others from a conversation who do not speak the second language. For example, if two people in an elevator in an English-speaking place spoke Spanish, then not only would the others on that elevator who do not speak Spanish would be excluded from the conversation, but also a degree of comfort and intimacy would be established between the Spanish-speakers due to the fact that not all those present in the elevator can listen to their conversation.

Is Code Switching a Bad Thing?

As Skiba (1997) comments, code switching is not a language interference on the basis that it supplements speech. Where it is used due to an inability of expression, code switching provides continuity in speech rather than presenting an interference in language.

When is code switching helpful?

The socio-linguistic benefits of code switching include communicating solidarity with or affiliation to a particular social group, so code switching can be viewed as a means of providing a linguistic advantage rather than an obstruction to communication.

Furthermore, code switching allows a speaker to convey more nuanced attitudes and emotions by choosing from a bigger pool of words that is available to a bilingual person, much like how one might use font, bolding, or underlining in a text document to emphasize points.

Utilizing the second language, then, allows speakers to increase the impact of their speech and use it in a more effective manner.

When is code switching harmful?

If a dominant culture requires all citizens to conform to the dominant language and manner of speaking, or if subcultures are punished in any way for not conforming completely to the language majority, this is harmful.

Code Switching as a Language Interference

In certain settings, code switching might be a barrier to communication rather than an aid. In the classroom, for example, code switching can be seen as language interference since it might impede learning. Although students may see code switching as an acceptable form of communication in society and may feel comfortable switching languages in everyday normal conversation, in some other settings, this type of communication would put those who are not bilingual at a disadvantage, because they would not be able to understand. Therefore, code switching can be both beneficial and a possible language interference, depending on the situation and the context in which it occurs.

Is Code Switching Deliberate or Accidental?

Sometimes, speakers flip from one language to another accidentally, but in many situations, code switching is done deliberately to both create unity or to exclude someone from a conversation. It is seen as a sign of solidarity within a group, and it is also assumed that all speakers in a conversation must be bilingual in order for code switching to occur. Bilinguals do not usually translate from the weaker language to the stronger one. Code switching is used most often when a word doesn't "come."

Types of Code Switching

1. Inter-Sentential
In inter-sentential code switching, the language switch is done at sentence boundaries-words or phrases at the beginning or end of a sentence. This type is seen most often in fluent bilingual speakers. For example: If you are late for the job interview, işe alınmazsın.
2. Intra-Sentential
In intra-sentential code switching, the shift is done in the middle of a sentence, with no interruptions, hesitations, or pauses to indicate a shift. The speaker is usually unaware of the shift. For example: You are sleepy coğu zaman, because you spend a lot of saat in your bed. Different types of switches occur within the clause level and within the word level.
3. Extra-Sentential or Tag Switching
This is the switching of either a single word or a tag phrase (or both) from one language to another. This type is common in intra-sentential switches. It involves the insertion of a tag from one language into an utterance in another language. For example: " Él es de Oaxaca y así los criaron a ellos, if you know what I mean." Another example is how Turkish students use some boundary words like ama (but) or yani (I mean) while speaking English.

Is Code Switching the Same as Code Mixing?

Both involve creating hybrid words or switching between two or more language within phrases, clauses, or from one complete sentence to the next. Some use the terms "code mixing" and "code switching" interchangeably, especially those who study morphology, syntax, and other formal aspects of language, but other areas (like subfields of linguistics, communication, or education theory) have their own extremely specific definitions for code mixing.

The main difference can be summarized like this: Code switching is something speakers do intentionally because they want to express themselves with a personal style or flavor, but code mixing is something speakers might do unintentionally simply because they don't know the correct word or phrase.

What If Speakers Mix Languages Because They Are Not Fluent?

Some researchers call this need-based conflation of languages "code mixing" rather than code switching.

Is Spanglish a Kind of Code Switching?

Linguists regard Spanglish (Spanish + English) as a hybrid language, and many refer to Spanglish as "Spanish-English code-switching," although it also includes lexical and grammatical shifts as well. In Spanglish, speakers are allowed to switch back and forth without following rules.

However, a speaker is misguided to think that they can make up new words that sound kind of like another language in order to fit in with that other culture. " Mi housa es su housa" for example, is just silly (and possibly insulting).

Here are some other hybrid ways of speaking:

Taglish (Tagalog + English)

Franglais (French + English)

Hindinglish (Hindi + English)

Germanglish (German + English)

Is Code Switching the Same as Speaking a Pidgin Language?

Code switching and pidgin are not exactly the same. The difference is that code switching generally occurs when both speakers are fluent in both languages used in the conversation, while a pidgin language is a grammatically simplified way of talking that develops between two or more groups that don't share a language. Pidgin is more like a third dialect that evolves when speakers do not share a common language. Usually, in pidgin, a speaker draws from two or more languages but vocabulary and grammar are simplified and reduced.

How to Use Code Switching in the Classroom

Allow language-learners to code switch when they have difficulty continuing a conversation in the new language.

If a student pauses mid-sentence trying to remember a word, it will be helpful if the teacher allows her to substitute the word with one from her native language in order to continue. If rules strictly prohibit code switching, classroom rapport and learning will be thwarted.

If students find the need to resort to code switching, it's the teacher's job to use those events as opportunities for learning. Teach the vocabulary, offer synonyms, and model other things students might do to continue conversations without resorting to code switching.

Should a teacher explain instructions in both the native and the new language?

It's best to explain instructions in the language you're trying to teach, and to avoid repeating those instructions in the native language afterward. If students know that you will explain it in their native tongue later, they are less likely to listen to and learn the new language.

Is there any situation where code switching should be avoided in the classroom?

Try to avoid code switching in classrooms where students speak different native tongues. If all your students are native English speakers occasional code switching may be helpful, but if your classroom includes students from different linguistic backgrounds, it will confuse the class and prevent learning.

Suggestions for Teachers

The teacher can use code switching to help promote learning, especially while teaching new vocabulary. Here are some suggestions for teachers of intermediate level students learning English. These examples set the lesson in a classroom of native Turkish speakers, but you could do something like this in any classroom full of students who share any native tongue.
Activity #1:
The teacher shares a written dialogue which includes an English statement for which the students don't know the Turkish meaning.

Joselyn: Babs, Babs, Oh there you are!

Babs: Calm down. What's the rush?

Joselyn: (I've been bursting to tell you.)

Babs: Tell me what? It's obviously got you excited.

Jocelyn: Well, Heather just told me that Mandy has dumped Gordon and got a new boyfriend.

Babs: Oohh, fancy that. Who is he?

The teacher wants the students to learn the meaning of the new word " bursting." Have the class brainstorm to guess what it means in context (hopefully they'll come up with something like Sana söylemek için can atıyorum), then the teacher introduces the new word: To burst.
* Activity 2:
The teacher gives another dialogue to the students and wants them to guess the meaning of the words which are written in bold.

John: Would you like to go out to dinner or to a movie?

Karen: Either one, it's up to you.

John: What would you prefer?

Karen: I really don't care; I just want to get out of the house.

John: Well, then how about dinner and a movie?

Karen: That's a great idea!

Students try to guess the meaning of it's up to you from the context. And after finding the its meaning as ' sana bağlı' , they are asked to put those words in the dialogue and read it again.

Conclusion

Code switching is a phenomenon that is inevitable in bilingual communities. It occurs naturally in second- or foreign-language classrooms and it can be used beneficially in many classroom activities. Although it is sometimes seen as a sloppy or presumptive way to speak, it is natural and can be turned to a purposeful and useful activity in language classes.

References

Aranoff, M. and Rees - Miller, J. (2003). The Handbook Of Linguistics. Blackwell Publishers: Oxford

Crystal, D. (1987). The Cambridge Encyclopedia Of Language. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge

Romaine, S. (1992). Bilingualism. Blackwell Publishers: Cambridge

Saunders, G. (1988). Bilingual Children: From Birth To Teens. Multilingual Matters Ltd: Clevedon

Skiba, R. (1997). Code Switching As a Countenance of Language Interference. The Internet TESL Journal. Vol. III. No: 10.

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Code Switching: Definition, Types, and Examples

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Seçkin Esen is working as an English language teacher in Turkey. He obtained his Bachelor's degree in ELT from Hacettepe University in 2010. The ability to communicate our thoughts, emotions, and opinions to others is truly a remarkable skill. But not only does our language communicate who we are, but our use of language can influence our self-concept and identity.

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Monday, April 8, marked the launch of Code Switch, our new blog covering race, ethnicity and culture. To commemorate the blog's launch, all week we solicited stories about code-switching - the practice of shifting the languages you use or the way you express yourself in your conversations.

People sent us hundreds of stories illustrating the many ways we code-switch and the many reasons for doing it. Five of those motivations came up again and again in the stories we read:

Eventually, I started code-switch-screaming English profanities.

1) Our lizard brains take over: The most common examples of code-switching were completely inadvertent; folks would slip into a different language or accent without even realizing it or intending to do it. One such story came from Lisa Okamoto, who told us she was born and raised in Los Angeles by two parents from Japan, a place she's visited all her life. This trip was particularly memorable (warning, profanity euphemisms ahead):

If you ever watched the original Ring movie, I think you will understand this: the Japanese take horror stories pretty seriously, but in a very creepy quiet way. I find Japanese horror movies and haunted houses to be ten times scarier than the American counter-part.

I went back to Japan with a friend during the summer of 2009, the height of haunted house season in Japan. (The Japanese have this concept that the summertime is the best time to tell scary stories, because the chill you feel from fright will cool you down during the humid months.) My friend loves scary stories, and she wanted to go into a haunted maze when we were visiting Yokohama. I protested and protested but eventually she convinced me to go through the haunted maze, instead of making her go through it alone.

The premise of the haunted maze was the following: The setting was a haunted middle school, where a little girl named Mi-chan died a tragic death. She died so suddenly that she didn't properly enter the after world, and her spirit was still lingering at the school. You were supposed to go through this maze with an amulet, find Mi-chan, and place it on her so that she can properly enter the afterlife.

We were handed a flashlight and an amulet prop, and entered into the maze. I already knew I was getting myself into trouble, but I didn't expect how scary it was going to be. It was terrifying. Periodically, you would hear quiet scratches and taps on the walls of the maze, with a voice saying, " Watashi wa Mi-Chan" - translation: I am Mi-Chan.

I was talking in Japanese when entering the maze, but I started losing control because I was just so scared. Eventually, I started code-switch-screaming English profanities - "OH MY F-ING GOD, GET ME THE F OUT OF HERE!" - etc., etc. You can fill in the blanks with your imagination. I consider myself fully bilingual, but I realized at this moment that, when I'm in a fight or flight/survivor instinct situation, my mind switches to English. (This is probably because I've lived in the US all my life, and never lived in Japan.)

I was yelling and screaming in English throughout the whole maze, and still hearing the " watashi wa Mi-Chan" voice here and there. But suddenly the voice said, " Watashi wa Mi-Chan... watashi wa... I am... My name is Mi-Chan," in the most awkward, Japanese-accented English possible. The staff had taken such pity on my rude profanity-stricken fear that they also code-switched for me. When I heard that awkward English, I literally fell to the floor and cried and laughed at the same time. I was so scared, but the English took me by such surprise, and I felt the oddest combination of release.

2) We want to fit in: Very often, people code-switch - both consciously and unconsciously - to act or talk more like those around them. While this can be effective, it can also be perilous, as John Davis told us:

I am a Spanish teacher in a high-needs school in Nashville. I grew up in a homogenous town in rural Pennsylvania. Foreign languages came easily for me, so I majored in Spanish and minored in French at the University of Pittsburgh. When I moved to my school in Nashville, I had to learn another language: Southern, African American English. I entered my learning experience with fervor. My students taught me almost as much as I taught them in my first years. Now that I am well versed in the language, I have trouble code switching back to Standard American English.

One day my principal walked into my room and asked me, "Mr. Davis, I didn't receive your editions to the School Improvement Plan." I replied, "Nah, you flaugin' bruh, I put that on your desk yesterday." My boss froze, with his jaw dropped and one eyebrow raised. After a moment he shook his head and said, "you're spending too much time with the kids." "My bad."

In our pitch to users for stories about code-switching, we asked jokingly whether anyone learned Farsi to eavesdrop on their in-laws. And sure enough, in came this story from Amy Proulx:

Yes, I actually did secretly learn Farsi to snoop on the in-laws. I married an Iranian-Canadian, and after torturing myself trying to learn through the standard language tapes and computer programs, I sort of gave up, and instead, started watching Iranian soap operas. Oh the drama, the intrigue, the suspicion and suspense! What a way to learn Farsi, through the vice of sappy television.

My bad habit lead to good Farsi skills, but my handle on slang and colloquial language was the real kicker. When at a memorial ceremony for my late-father-in-law, I proceed to intone a rather dramatic, but reasonably common Shi'ite prayer (courtesy of my TV watching). My brother-in-law, in the middle of this most dramatic and somber moment, nearly fell over laughing. He declared that I proclaimed this Shi'ite prayer with perfect diction and pronunciation, and that I was a model of a perfect daughter and sister-in-law. I was in the in-crowd with the in-laws, thanks to soap operas.

3) We want to get something: A lot of folks code-switch not just to fit in, but to actively ingratiate themselves to others. We can not tell you how many dozens of stories we got from people who work in service industries who said that a Southern accent is a surefire way to get better tips and more sympathetic customers. Apparently everyone who works in a restaurant picks up "y'all" immediately upon arriving at their job. If you can pull off the right accent in the right context, you can get all kinds of favors, as this story from Patti Hollingshead illustrates:

We lived in Ireland some years ago and noticed there were often two prices for goods and services - reasonable prices for the locals and much more expensive costs for others (Americans). It was not easy, but I practiced my Irish accent until we qualified for 'local pricing'. Still, they would often ask me where I was from, as my accent was anything but flawless. But I'd come up with the name of some obscure town hundreds of miles away, which explained my 'odd' Irish accent and usually satisfied them. Once, to my, "Ack, I'm from dahn twards Clara Bog," the guy responded in Gaelic.

I had no idea what he was saying. I continued to smile, laugh, and nod at what I hoped were appropriate times as he excitedly talked on and on. Finally, another English speaking customer entered the shop and he flipped back to English then whispered to me, "We need to be careful here (in Northern Ireland) about speaking Irish." "Oh, aye," I replied.

I pulled my wallet out to pay for my my flowers and he held up his hands, "No, me lass, keep yer money. 'twas a pleasure speakin' to ya."

4) We want to say something in secret: We collected many sweet stories of people code-switching in order to hide in plain sight, a habit most common among people in love. Because this tactic often relies on assumptions, it can get one in trouble, as Veronica Rodriguez can attest:

I am from Venezuela and speak Spanish and English fluently and without an accent in either language. However, I look what most would describe as "Middle Eastern," this means that not only do people assume that I am from Turkey or Lebanon and try to speak to me in Farsi or Arabic and become very disappointed when I don't, but many times Hispanic people assume that I don't speak Spanish. This ultimately leads to someone speaking very candidly around me thinking that I cannot understand what they are saying.

I also speak French fluently enough to get myself into trouble. Living in Chicago during college I encountered lots of interesting people on the L. We often chose to comment on some of these people in French rather than English or Spanish since it was far less likely that someone would understand us. One rainy afternoon a very nice-looking man ran into the train, and my friend and I made some comments to each other in French about how handsome he was. To our surprise, he answered back, " Merçi!" - in perfect French.

Suffice to say,we were both extremely embarrassed and decided that maybe we would keep our comments to ourselves from then on.

5) It helps us convey a thought: Certain concepts need that perfectbon mot to come across effectively. Many people switch languages or employ colloquialisms to express particular ideas, as in this story from Jennifer Monahan:

I ... work in a bilingual school, and my coworkers and I code-switch constantly. Here ... code-switching centers around lexical gaps: Nonprofit fundraising is a very American idea, so the French speakers tend to switch to English when that's the topic. Same with technology; if I learned about a piece of equipment or software in English I have a hard time discussing it in French. It's not just a language proficiency issue, my coworkers who are native French speakers follow the same pattern. So we tend to talk about "le smartboard" or "un programme de planned giving." And some concepts just don't translate. French kids eat lunch in the school cafeteria; the notion of bringing lunch from home is, well, foreign. So is the notion of having a designated container to bring your lunch from home. So we all refer to "le lunchbox."

The reasons people code-switch and the ways in which they do it are far more numerous than the few examples we've listed here. While many people told us they code-switched to fit in, for example, several also told us they did it to stand out. What the stories reiterated most of all, though, is what our colleague Gene Demby pointed out in his inaugural post: No matter your race, ethnicity, class or cultural background, you probably do it.

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Monday, April 8, marked the launch of Code Switch, our new blog covering race, ethnicity and culture. To commemorate the blog's launch, all week we solicited stories about code-switching - the practice of shifting the languages you use or the way you express yourself in your conversations.

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Video explicativo sobre los cognados y falsos cognados en el idioma inglés.

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Esta capitulo esta enfocado en las variaciones lingüísticas que existen entre dialectos en Español. Hay varios tipos de variedad lingüísticas incluyendo variedad social, histórica, regional y variedad socioeconómico. Este articulo de PBS se describe la ciencia de social lingüísticas usando el ejemplo de ebonics en los EEUU y como el estatus social afecta el lenguaje. En concordancia con este tema, hay muchas variaciones en dialectos españoles. Por ejemplo, este video de Youtube demonstrar la diferencia entre español de España y América Latín.  Este blog describe en detalle como los diferencias entre los acentos puede decir la historia de los países. Un articulo adicional describe mas en detalle los diferencias fonéticas incluyendo los usos de /s/ y /ll/ sonidos.

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Do You Speak American . Words That Shouldn't Be? . Sez Who? . Social Setting | PBS

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Many African Americans do not speak Black English; many non-African Americans who live in inner cities do. Complicating matters further, African American influence - music, fashion, language - on American culture is very strong. As a result, some white American teenagers from the suburbs consciously imitate Black language features, to express their own group identity and shared opposition to mainstream culture.

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Are There Differences Between Spanish In Latin America And Spain?

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Ambitious language learners the world over are devoting hours and hours every week to learning Spanish, but most of them have never spared a thought for which Spanish.

Last week we posted about European vs Latin American Spanish, but the differences don't stop there. Spanish, like its distant cousin English, is a pluricentric language, meaning that it has multiple national and regional standards that often vary greatly in pronunciation, word choice, idiom, and even grammar.

It's true that, like in English, most native speakers of the many different dialects of Spanish understand each other with relative ease or by listening just a bit more closely. But also like a non-native learning English in New York City will struggle to understand a thick Scottish brogue, dialects of Spanish often feature differences that present challenges for learners.

There are countless linguistically discrete dialects in every country, region, and even city of the Spanish-speaking world, but whatever variety of the language you're learning, it probably falls into one of these five broad categories:

1) Español Mexicano y Centroamericano

Mexico is by far the world's largest Spanish-speaking country, and also the heart of the Latin American foreign film and media world. More for these reasons than any inherent features of the language, Mexican Spanish is often considered one of the 'clearest' Latin American dialects, and it has greatly influenced the Spanish spoken in Central America and the rest of Latin America as well.

Mexican Spanish is known for its strong pronunciation of most consonants, tuteo (use of tú rather than vos), and the famously rich Mexican slang. As you move further south through Central America the language use will change gradually, and in Costa Rica and Panama especially will feature more of its own local quirks.

2) Español Andino

Another Latin American dialect frequently described as 'pure' or 'clear', Andean Spanish is the language spoken by city-dwellers in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and parts of Venezuela and Bolivia. This collection of dialects is influenced by its European heritage as well as local indigenous languages like Quechua and Aymara. While it includes a wide variety of differing pronunciations, one feature learners will appreciate is that most consonants are firmly and prominently pronounced in the Andes.

Andean dialects have their own distinctive features, but most of them shouldn't complicate comprehension for Spanish learners. In Colombia for example, the diminutive ending -ico is often used in place of -ito to make something small or cute, and each country, region, and even city often has its own trademark phrases and pronunciations.

3) Español Rioplatense

The Spanish spoken in the Southern Cone of South America is often described as sounding exotic and intriguing even to native Spanish speakers from other regions. The speech of Argentina and Uruguay (and to a lesser extent Chile, with its own distinctive but Argentinian-influenced dialect) is one of the most distinct dialect families of Spanish, and most learners will either love it or hate it.

The trademark feature or Rioplatense is use of the /sh/ sound for the ll: when an Argentine is bringing chicken and onion to the potluck, they'll tell you that " sho shevo cebosha y posho" ( yo llevo cebolla y pollo). Rioplatense also uses the voseo, which means that in place of the perhaps more familiar tú, you'll hear vos and its corresponding verb conjugations, for example, " Y de dónde sos vos? " ("And where are you from?").

4) Español Caribeño

Caribbean Spanish can be one of the most difficult to understand for learners who aren't used to its speed, sounds, and many distinctive words and phrases. From the Caribbean coasts of Venezuela and Colombia, through Panama and coastal parts of Central America, and throughout the Caribbean islands, Caribbean Spanish is like its own little language in the region.

More so than in other dialect groups, Caribbean Spanish often drops pronouncing the /s/ sound anywhere other than at the beginning of a word, and /r/, /d/, and /b/ are also frequently swallowed up by their surrounding vowels: a well-meaning Cuban is likely to greet unsuspecting tourists by asking " De dónde eh uhte?" ( de dónde es usted?). Watch out for even more confusing letter swaps on islands like Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, where /l/ often replaces /r/ in the middle of words, but go ahead and order the celdo con velduras ( cerdo con verduras) for dinner, even if it sounds funny.

5) Español Ibérico (o Español Europeo)

Spanish in the mother country differs greatly from its Latin American cousins, but the Spanish of the Iberian Peninsula should still in most cases be relatively easy to understand for speakers and learners of other varieties. Some of its trademark features are the ceceo, often described as a 'lisp' in the way the Spaniards pronounce the letter c, and a noticeably harder, guttural pronunciation of the j that sounds like it'd be more at home in Dutch or Arabic.

The majority of vocabulary and grammar differences in the Spanish-speaking world are between European Spanish and the Latin American dialects. Most native speakers know that words like zumo and jugo mean the same thing and that the first is preferred in Spain, but others may cause comical mix-ups. Other usage differences, like Spain's favored vosotros for addressing groups of familiar people (instead of ustedes, which is reserved for groups of unfamiliar people), mark its distinction from Latin American Spanish.

As you start or continue to learn Spanish, take a moment to consider what variety you're learning, where it's spoken, and in what parts of the Spanish-speaking world you may encounter communication barriers.

The good news is, the longer you keep listening to and speaking in the language, the greater your tolerance will become for understanding differences in pronunciation and usage. Don't despair if your Mexican immersion trip leaves you feeling lost trying to understand Cubans, Chileans, or Spaniards - the only thing to do is keep listening, keep talking, and eventually you'll find yourself able to converse with hispanohablantes the world over!

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The Many Dialects of Spanish (and What They Mean for Language Learners)

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Ambitious language learners the world over are devoting hours and hours every week to learning Spanish, but most of them have never spared a thought for which Spanish. Last week we posted about European vs Latin American Spanish, but the differences don't stop there.

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Este capitulo esta enfocado en la semántica. La semántica estudia el significado de las palabras, de las frases y de las oraciones. Un concepto importante es la sinonimia que se refiere a la identidad de significado, palabras que comparten el mismo significado. Este video describe en mas detalle. Este articulo de Wikilengua describe y explica los homonimias que se refiere a la relación entre palabras que se pronuncian de la misma manera. Este powerpoint de Slideshare describe otro concepto importante in semántica lo cual esta la relación entre paciente y agente. Finalmente, este video de Youtube se explica actos locutivos, ilocutivos y todos esos.

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Actos locutivos, ilocutivos y perlocutivos

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Este capítulo está enfocado en la historia del español y de la lengua. Este artículo de Rocket Languages se explica los orígenes del español y otros idiomas románticas. Español es derivada de un idioma se llama castellano, originalmente de la norte de la España. Con los conquistadores, castellano y entonces lo que ahora se conoce como español se extendió a las Américas. Los idiomas romances se convirtieron gradualmente del latín. Esto se puede estudiar más lejos examinando documentos en viejos textos. Este recurso de Yale tiene muchos documentos viejos del idiomas diferentes. Es muy interesante para examinar como estos lenguajes ha cambiado por tiempo. Hay muchos distintos aspectos de la fonética, grafías, morfosintaxis, y léxicos en estos idiomas y su desarrollo y este articulo se describe en mas detalle.

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Avalon Project - Medieval Documents : 400 - 1399

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La lengua literaria (norma culta) que para finales del siglo XIV -como dec&iacuteamos en el apartado anterior- se hab&iacutea configurado y consolidado, reflejaba la variedad de las zonas lingü&iacutesticas del castellano, principalmente la burgalesa y la toledana.

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All Romance languages are descendants of Vulgar Latin dialects spoken by the common people in the Roman Empire. Spread of the Romance languages occurred in two main stages: The first stage occurred in 240-100 BC, owing to the expansion of the Roman Empire over a good part of Europe, England, Northern Africa and portions of the Middle East. After the breakup of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, the dialects spoken in different parts of its territory started to diverge from each other and eventually evolved into dozens of distinct languages by the 9th century AD.

The second stage began in the 16th century AD as a result of the expansion of Romance-speaking European powers into the Americas, Africa, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia. The empires of Spain, Portugal and France spread Romance languages to the these continents to such an extent that well over half of all Romance speakers are now outside Europe.

The table below lists major Romance languages/dialects with over 100,000 speakers, based on the Ethnologue list of 47 Romance languages.

Status
Many Romance languages have official or co-official status in one or more countries.

Spanish
Spanish is the official language of 22 countries: Argentina, Bolivia (withQuechua and Aymara), Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea (with French), Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay (with Guarani), Peru (with Quechua and Aymara), Puerto Rico (with English), Spain (co-official in some regions with Catalan, Galician and Basque), Uruguay, Venezuela, and Western Sahara (with Arabic). Spanish is one of six official working languages of the United Nations and the European Union. In the United States, Spanish is the most studied foreign language in schools and universities. Spanish has co-official status in the state of New Mexico, and in Puerto Rico.

Portuguese
Portuguese is the national language of Portugal, Brazil,Angola, Cape Verde Islands, Guinea-Bissau, and Mozambique. Portuguese is one of the official languages of the European Union.

French
French is the official or co-official language of 26 countries. Four of them are in Europe: France, Belgium, Switzerland, and Luxembourg. Two are in the Americas: Canada and Haiti. There are also two overseas departments of France: Martinique and Guadeloupe. The rest are former French colonies in Africa and in the islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. French is a major second language in Arabic-speaking Algeria, Tunis, and Morocco. French is one of the official languages of theUnited Nations (UN), North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and the European Union.In the US, French is the second most-studied foreign language in schools, after Spanish.

Italian
Italian is the official or co-official language of Italy,San Marino, Vatican City, Switzerland, and some areas of Slovenia and Croatia.

Romanian
Romanian is the official language of Romania and Moldova.

Catalan
Catalan is an official regional language of Spain, the official language ofAndorra, the co-official language in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands,Valencia region of Spain, and in the Sardinian city Alghero.

Dialects

European Romance languages have many local dialects which form a continuum of varieties that cross country borders and stretch from Portuguese in the west to Romanian in the east. Purely linguistic criteria to distinguish between language and dialect are hard to apply systematically, and decisions are often made on political, cultural, and literary grounds. Some varieties are particularly difficult to classify. For instance it is difficult to decide whether Galician is a separate language or a Spanish-influenced variety of Portuguese.

Spanish
The classic division is usually made between Spanish from Spain - Castilian Spanish - and Spanish from Latin America. Within each division there are variations involving pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and intonation. Despite many regional differences, speakers of Spanish from different countries can understand each other without much difficulty.

Portuguese
There are two main groups of dialects: those of the Iberian peninsula and those of Brazil. The differences between the two involve pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. Portuguese varieties spoken in Africa and Asia are closer to those of Portugal than of Brazil.

French
French has a number of major dialects
European French is usually divided into two major dialects which, in turn, subsume many regional varieties. The two major divisions are Northern and Central varieties of French, (language d'oil), as opposed to Southern varieties of French (langue d'oc).Canadian French varieties differ from Standard French in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. Canadian French is usually divided into three varieties:Québécois, Franco-Ontariens, and Acadiens.African French varieties are spoken in 31 African countries by well over 100 million 1st and 2nd language speakers. They all differ from Standard French in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. They are usually divided into three groups: (1) Western, Central, and East Africa, (2) Northwest Africa, and (3) Islands in the Indian Ocean.

Italian
Italian dialects form a continuum of intelligibility, although geographically distant varieties are not mutually intelligible. In modern Italy, people communicate mostly in regional dialects, although standard Italian is the only written language.

Romanian
Romanian is traditionally divided into three dialects: (1) Eastern Romanian, including Moldovan; (2) Western Romanian, including Transylvanian; (3) Southern Romanian, including Muntenian/Wallachian adopted as a national and standard language.

Catalan
Catalan is usually broken into two major mutually intelligible dialects: Eastern Catalan and Western Catalan.

Structure

Sound system
The sound systems of Romance languages differ in a number of ways that make generalizations difficult.
Vowels

South-central Romance languages, e.g., Spanish and Italian, have simpler vowel systems than northern, e.g., French, western, e.g., Portuguese, or eastern, e.g., Romanian.

Only French and Portuguese have nasal vowels.

Only Romanian has a close central vowel [ɨ], similar to that found in Slavic languages.

Only French has front rounded vowels.

Consonants

/p, t, k/ are unaspirated, i.e., pronounced without a puff of air.

There is a strong tendency towards syllables, that end in a vowel, nasal, lateral, [r], or approximant, with limited consonant clusters in initial and medial positions.

Only Italo-Romance languages, e.g., Italian, have geminated double consonants.

Stress
The rhythmic structure of Romance languages tends to be syllable-timed, i.e., every syllable is perceived as taking up roughly the same amount of time, unlike strres-timed languages, such as English, in which syllables may last different amounts of time and in which unstressed vowels are reduced.

Grammar
Despite many differences, Romance languages are characterized by a number of common grammatical features. All have a system of word inflections to indicate syntactic relationships between words in sentences.

Nouns, adjectives, articles, pronouns
Romance nouns have the following grammatical categories:

two genders, masculine and feminine, except for Romanian which also has neuter gender

two numbers: singular and plural

grammatical relations between nouns are mostly expressed by prepositions with no case inflections, except for Romanian which has five cases

modifiers agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number and case (in Romanian)

modifiers follow the nouns they modify

indefinite and definite articles that precede nouns, except for Romanian in which articles are suffixed to nouns

an informal and formal forms of address (T-V distinction), such as the tu/vous contrast in French, the tu/Usted in Spanish or the tu/Lei in Italian

Verbs

Verbs agree with their subjects in person and number.

Verbs have largely preserved the conjugation system of Latin.

Simple tenses are marked by suffixes, compound tenses use auxiliary verbs.

There are two basic aspects: imperfective and perfective which may be supplemented by other aspectual distinctions.

There are at least two voices: active and medio-passive.

There are four moods: indicative, conditional, subjunctive, imperative

Most Romance languages make a distinction between two copula verbs corresponding to the English verb to be. One verb is derived from the Latin stare expressing a temporary state, and the other from the Latin esse expressing an inalienable attribute, e.g., Spanish verbs estar and ser. Some languages, such as French, lost this distinction.

Personal pronouns in subject position are generally dropped since the verb inflection carries information about person and number.

Word order
The normal word order in Romance languages is Subject-Verb-Object.

Vocabulary
Romance languages have a high degree of lexical overlap (up to 40%) having originated in Latin roots. Some lexical differences among Romance languages may be traced back to the times of the Roman Empire, when Roman provinces may have developed their own local vocabularies. Some are the result of later borrowings from each other, and from non-Romance languages, especially German (in the case of French), Arabic (in the case of Spanish and Portuguese), and Slavic languages (in the case of Romanian), as well as localized innovations.

Below are a few common lexical items in seven Romance languages, Including Latin.

Below are the numerals 1-10 in seven Romance languages, including Latin.

Writing

The evolution of Vulgar Latin into different languages in various parts of the Roman Empire is poorly documented up to the 10 century AD because the written language was Classical Latin. However, eventually people in different parts of the Roman Empire started to write in their own languages instead of Latin. Sporadic written texts in Romance started to appear in the 8th century, but the earliest continuous texts began to appear in the century later: French in the 9th century, Spanish and Italian in the 10th century, Portuguese in the 12th century, Catalan in the 13th century, and Romanian as late as in the 16th century.Theswitch from Latin to writing in the vernacular was greatly facilitated by local poets and writers.

All Romance languages are written with slightly modified versions of the standard 26-letter Latin alphabet, although the Moldovan dialect of Romanian is also written in the Cyrillic script.

In all Romance languages, the letters k and w are used exclusively in borrowed words and foreign names.

Difficulty

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All Romance languages are descendants of Vulgar Latin dialects spoken by the common people in the Roman Empire. Spread of the Romance languages occurred in two main stages: The first stage occurred in 240-100 BC, owing to the expansion of the Roman Empire over a good part of Europe, England, Nor...

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Most of the Spanish spoken in South America actually comes from a language called Castellano, which originated in Castilla, Spain. Around the end of the fifteenth century, the monarchs of Castilla combined forces with the monarchs of Aragon, and proceeded to take control of a large part of the Iberian peninsula. Once in control, they imposed the language of Castilla (Castellano) over the citizenry.

In 1492, when the conquistadors and missionaries arrived in the Americas, they brought Castellano with them and imposed it, in turn, on the native populace. Castellano became the official imperial language of the New World.

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Most of the Spanish spoken in South America actually comes from a language called Castellano, which originated in Castilla, Spain. Around the end of the fifteenth century, the monarchs of Castilla combined forces with the monarchs of Aragon, and proceeded to take control of a large part of the Iberian peninsula.

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Este capitulo esta enfocado en el sintaxis. Un importante componente de sintaxis es la estructura de constituyentes. Hay dos maneras básicas de demostrar que un conjunto de palabas forma constituyente sintáctico: sustitución y movimiento. Este video para niños se demonstrar simplemente como nosotros podemos explicar oraciones ambiguas. Un otro concept es determinantes, una clase que incluye a los artículos, los llamados posesivos, y otros. Este articulo explica que son determinantes y porque los necesitamos. Para clarificar todos de estos reglas, tenemos diagramas sintagmáticos. Estos arboles nos sirven para mostrar que una oración es. Este articulo discutir mas en detalle sobre como creamos y usamos esos diagramas. Finalmente, la teoría con la X-con-barra establece que existen ciertas similitudes estructurales en todos los tipos de sintagmas de todas las lenguas humanas. Este video demostrarla.

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Análisis Sintáctico de Oraciones | Videos Educativos Aula365

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precisan o limitan su significado. La palabra "llave", puede referirse a cualquier llave; pero si decimos "nuestra llave" estamosdeterminando su significado.

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La sintaxis tal como la concebimos en este blog resultará un poco extraño para la mayoría de los que no están acostumbrados a tratarla desde un punto de vista lingüístico y mucho más aún si el concepto que recordamos de sintaxis es el de la escuela. Pues bien, esta última idea de sintaxis es de naturaleza descriptiva Ej: En inglés se prohíbe la separación del infinitivo, por la que se condena to boldly go frente a to go boldly, la razón de esta distribución son históricas en parte y también sociológicas.

La sintaxis no se ocupa de la distinción entre una variable correcta y otra tolerable, aunque no aconsejable. Sino, la sintaxis se ocupa de las frases posibles e imposibles de cualquier lengua natura l y esto incluye al hablante y su certeza de si una oración A es posible y otra oración B no resulta aceptable en una determinada lengua.

Una de las teorías que debemos destacar entre otras cosas por ser pionera en lo que se concibe como sintaxis desde un punto de vista teórico es Noam Chomsky y su Gramática Generativa cuyo punto de vista se centra en el modo de generar oraciones. Para Chomsky los hablantes sabemos una colección de palabras y de reglas con las que generamos cadenas de esas palabras que llamamos oraciones de nuestra lengua. Es decir, a partir de un número finito de elementos por medio de la recursividad accedemos a un número infinito de posibilidades.

Para Peter Sells una teoría sintáctica debe proporcionar un ámbito descriptivo dentro del cual quede prevista con precisión la gama de variaciones que cabe encontrar de una lengua a otra.Es decir, nos interesa disponer de una teoría suficientemente flexible que sea capaz de caracterizar las variaciones más sutiles que cabe encontrar, pero aun así que impida incluso tomar en consideración otras determinadas posibilidades.

Por tanto ¿una teoría sintáctica debe considerarse como una muestra directa de nuestro saber lingüístico o como la descripción de un sistema cuyo comportamiento modela simplemente nuestro comportamiento lingüístico?
Reglas de estructura sintagmática:
¿Cómo nos dice una teoría sintáctica qué estructuras están bien formadas y cuales no? Una respuesta muy elemental es que se crean un conjunto de reglas que generan árboles y que nuestro conocimiento de la sintaxis consiste justamente en saber cuáles son estas reglas.

Antes de adentrarnos en las diferentes reglas sintagmáticas que constituyen una lengua, considero preciso detenerme y aclarar que la tarea de la sintaxis no consiste solo en caracterizar cadenas de una determinada lengua, sino también en asignarles una estructura adecuada. Por lo general hay un acuerdo bastante extendido entre las diferentes teorías sintácticas, sobre la estructuras que hay que asignar. La diferencia radica sobre la información que contienen las estructuras y sobre cómo se las arregla la teoría para relacionar las estructuras presentes en la lengua con las ausentes.

Estas estructuras se pueden representar de dos maneras:

Diagramas arbóreos o árbol: representa la estructura sintáctica de la oración o del sintagma en cuestión. Está compuesto por:

Una oración de la lengua es una cadena que lleva asignada una estructura sintáctica cuya raíz se encuentra en la categoría O ( =rótulo de categoría más alto). Puede haber otros caso de O dentro de la O inicial.

El nudo O es "la madre" de SN y SV, y SN y SV son "hermanas". Adviértase que N y V no son hermanas.

Un constituyente es todo sector del árbol que tiene una sola madre

Ej: Los niños pequeños estudian pocas horas

2. Parentización rotulada: Contiene la misma información que el árbol si bien representada en forma lineal:

[O [SN [det [los]] [N [niños]] [adj [pequeños]]][SV [V [estudian]][SN [adj [pocas]] [N [horas]]]]]

Las reglas sintagmáticas que constituyen el árbol y la parentización rotuladas son las siguientes:

O → SN SV

SN → Det N Adj

SV → V SN

SN → Adj N

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Las interrogativas en diversos formalismos

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La sintaxis tal como la concebimos en este blog resultará un poco extraño para la mayoría de los que no están acostumbrados a tratarla desde un punto de vista lingüístico y mucho más aún si el concepto que recordamos de sintaxis es el de la escuela.

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Aula 1 sobre Teoria X-Barra da disciplina Teorias Linguísticas I do curso de Letras da UFPB. Professor: Márcio Leitão Tutora: Gitanna Bezerra

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Este capítulo está enfocado en la morfología de español. Un concepto muy interesante de este capítulo es el concepto de palabras que son siempre plurales. Esta lista de Wiki lengua es una lista de muchas palabras como el portaaviones/ los portaaviones. Palabras similares de este incluyen lavacoches, sacacorchos, y saltamontes. También examinamos la raza de palabras. Este video de YouTube analiza la morfología en detalle y como las palabras se construyen con raíces y afijos. Un otro concepto interesante es derivación. El video demontre como palabras son interconectados. Por ejemplo criminal es derivado de la palabra crimen. Finalmente, el artículo de hispanoteca discutir el concepto de flexión género. Por ejemplo, palabras como melón y zapato no tiene un género concreto.

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Flexión de género y número de los compuestos

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HISPANOTECA - Portal de lengua y cultura hispanas. Lingüística contrastiva español y alemán. Para estudiantes y profesores de lengua y cultura hispanas

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Qué son las palabras derivadas . Si quieres practicar lo que has aprendido en este vídeo puedes descargarte ejercicios con sus soluciones en http://www.unprofesor.com/lengua-espanola/que-son-las-palabras-derivadas-248.html - Además podrás hacer preguntas al profesor que ha hecho el vídeo. Seguimos con los vídeos sobre las palabras.

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Palabras invariables en plural - Wikilengua

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Son palabras que solo tienen marca morfológica en plural o que, pese a tener una forma en singular, el uso habitual es en su forma plural.

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Este capítulo está enfocado en la estudia y clasificación de sonidos consonánticos o consonantes y sonidos vocálicos o vocales. Este diagrama muestra los diferentes puntos de articulación. Todos estos puntos nos ayudan a crear diferentes sonidos para formar palabras. Otra cosa importante es el modo de articulación. Estos modos de articulación pueden incluir modos fricativos, oclusivas, y nasales también. Este video de YouTube describe como todos de estos métodos diferentes formar palabras en idiomas diferentes. Una otra distinción es entre sorda y sonora. Este diagrama es un método fácil para aprender la diferencia. Sordas son asociados con una vibración. Sonoras no tienen esta vibración.

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Where in our mouth do we pronounce our sounds? In what ways do we let the air escape? This week, we talk about places and manners or articulation: all the different places in the vocal tract we can make sounds, the different methods for restricting air flow that we use, and some of the variation we see between languages for making consonants.

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En el estudio de desarrollo cognitive, es muy util estudiar el desarrolo del lenguaje en los niños. Jean Piagget y Noam Chomsky fueron pionereos en el desarrolo de esta teoria del lenguaje.En la forma mas basica, la ciencia cognitva asume que el lenguaje es un sistema cognitivo que es la estructura mental.
Las reglas prescriptivas se refiere las reglas que prestan normas de uso para un lenguaje especifico. Las reglas descriptivas describir el uso actual de la lengua. Son conceptos diferentes.
El el video, Chomsky disipa muchas errores y ideas sobre como los seres humanos intrepretan lenguaje y como nuestro cerebro interpreta lenguaje.

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Language: The Cognitive Revolution - Noam Chomsky

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Professor Noam Chomsky delivers the 20th annual James R. Killian, Jr. Faculty Achievement Award and Lecture, titled "Language: the Cognitive Revolutions," on April 8, 1992. The Killian Award was established in 1971 to recognize extraordinary professional accomplishments by full-time members of the MIT faculty.

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La teoria cognitiva de Chomsky