# data[].attributes.body
-1979 Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania
-1989 Chernobyl, Ukraine

# data[].attributes.headline
Why Has Nuclear Production Grown So Slowly?

# data[].attributes.subject
Why Has Nuclear Production Grown So Slowly?

# data[].attributes.body
-Multibillion-dollar construction cost overruns
-High operating costs
-More malfunctions than expected
-Poor management
-Low net energy of nuclear fuel cycle
-Public concerns about safety and stricter gov.t safety regulations

# data[].attributes.body
-France
-Japan
South Korea

# data[].attributes.body
-Mining of uranium
-Processing and enriching uranium to make fuel
-Using it in reactor
-Safely storing radioactive wastes until it falls to safe levels
-Decommission of reactor after 15 years when its useful life ends

# data[].attributes.body
-Fuel rods: hold pellets of uranium
-Fuel assemblies: groups of fuel rods

control rods: moved in and out of reactor core to absorb neutrons; regulates rate of fission and amount of power produced

-Coolant: circulates through reactor's core to reduce heat and keep materials from melting and releasing radiation
-Containment shell: surrounds reactor core to contain radioactive materials
-Water-filled pools and dry casks: store spent fuel rod assemblies outside of reactor building

# data[].attributes.body
-Canadian company utilized General Mining Act of 1872 to purchase land cheaply
-Used highly toxic chemicals to extract ore and then declared bankruptcy and abandoned the site w/o cleaning up the site

# data[].attributes.body
-Smelting

releases many air pollutants like SO2 and suspended particles

-2 components

ore mineral: the desired metal

gangue: waste material which produces tailings

-Particles of toxic metals blown by the wind or leached from tailings by rainfall can contaminate surface water and groundwater
-After removal of the gangue, a solvent is used to release metals from the ore

# data[].attributes.body
-Scarring and disruption of land surface
-Deposited overburden destroys forests and buries streams
-Toxic waste water stored in valleys behind sludge dams that can collapse
-Leaves spoils banks (hills of rubble)

# data[].attributes.body
-Top of mountain removed to seams of coal
-Usually in Appalachian Mtns

# data[].attributes.body
-Extract deposits that lie close to the surface in horizontal beds
-Area Strip Mining: terrain is flat and equipment removes overburden and mineral deposit before filling the resulting trench back up with overburden
-Contour Strip Mining: used to mine coal on hilly terrain

# data[].attributes.body
-Type of surface mining where machines dig holes and remove ore, sand, gravel, and stone

# data[].attributes.body
-Removes shallow deposits whereas deep deposits are removed by subsurface mining
-Gigantic equipment strips away the overburden (soil and rock overlying a mineral deposit

deposited as a waste material called spoils or tailings

-Used to extract 90% of nonfuel minerals and 60% of rock resources in the US

# data[].attributes.body
-Advantages

generates income and national revenue

provides jobs

-Disadvantages

takes large amounts of energy

disturbs land, erodes soil, produces solid waste, causes pollution

# data[].attributes.body
Surface mining--> metal ore--> separation of ore from gangue--> smelting--> melting metal--> conversion to product--> discarding of product

# data[].attributes.body
-Concentration of naturally occurring material that can be extracted and processed into useful products or raw materials at an affordable cost
-Includes fossil fuels, metallic mineral, nonmetallic minerals
-Ore: rock that contains a large enough concentration of a particular mineral (usually metal) to make a profit

High Grade Ore: contains a large amount of the desired nonrenewable resource

Low Grade Ore: contains smaller amount of the desired resource

-Mineral Resource Reserve: estimate of a mineral resource's supply based on the ability to still turn a profit at current prices

# data[].attributes.body
-Chemical and physical process that changes rocks from one type to another
-Recycles the earth's three types of rocks over millions of years
-Slowest of all earth's cyclical processes

# data[].attributes.body
-Mineral: element or inorganic compound that occurs naturally as a solid

ex. silver, gold, diamond

-Rock: solid combination of 1 or more minerals
ex. limestone, granite, quartzite
-Sedimentary Rock: made up of dead plant and animal remains as well as existing rocks eroded into tiny particles

ex. sandstone and shale

-Igneous Rock: forms on or below earth's surface when magma wells up and cools

ex. granite

-Metamorphic Rock: preexisting rock subjected to high temperatures, pressure, or chemically active fluids

reshape internal structure, physical properties, and appearance

ex. slate, marble, anthracite

# data[].attributes.body
-Series of large waves generated when ocean floor suddenly rises or falls or when an underwater earthquake occurs
-Detected by ocean buoys
-December 2004: tsunami in Indian Ocean

earthquake = 9.15 magnitude

waves 31 feet high

Mangrove Forests reduced the death toll by protecting buildings and people from the force of the waves

# data[].attributes.body
-Caused by formation of a fault or an abrupt movement on a preexisting fault
-Seismic Waves: vibrations that move in all directions
-Focus: place where the earthquake begins, often far below earth's surface
-Epicenter: found on earth's surface directly above focus
-Magnitude: measure of ground motion the earthquake causes
-Amplitude: size of the seismic waves
-Richter Scale: each unit has an amplitude 10x greater than the next smaller unit
-Aftershock: instances of ground movement that occur after each earthquake and gradually decrease in frequency

# data[].attributes.body
-Form from tectonic plate movement, usually found along plate boundaries
-Occurs when magma reaches earth's surface through a central vent, or fissure

Lava: magma that reaches earth's surface

eruption releases large chunks of lava, liquid lava, ash, carbon dioxide, and sulfur monoxide

-Benefit: highly fertile soil from weathering of lava
-Mt. Pinatubo 1991: reduced solar energy and cooled atmosphere for 15 months
-Mt St Helens 1980: worst eruption in history

# data[].attributes.body
-Driven by energy from the siun

ex. wind and flowing water

-Influenced by gravity that tends to wear down earth's surface

weathering: breaking rocks into smaller pieces to build soil

erosion: material loosened or worn away (possibly by glaciers) and deposited somewhere else

# data[].attributes.body
-Generated by heat from the earth's interior
-Typically build up the earth's surface in the form of continental and oceanic crust

ex. mountains and volcanoes

# data[].attributes.body
-US Dep.t of Agriculture: manages programs related to food, agriculture, natural resources, nutrition, and rural development
-Bureau of Land Management: administers 1/8 of US land mass
-Environmental Protection Agency: protects human  health and environment by making legislation to enforce laws passed by Congress
-Food and Drug Administration: provides health-related services
-National Oceanic and Atmospheric Organization: scientific agency focused on conditions of ocean and atmosphere
-US Fish and Wildlife Service: dedicated to management of fish, wildlife, and natural habitats
-US Geological Survey: scientists study landscape, natural resources, and natural hazards
-Department of Energy: concerned with safety in handling nuclear material

# data[].attributes.body
-Geology: study of dynamic processes occurring on  Earth's surface and within its interior
-Convection Currents move large volumes of rock and heat in loops within the mantle
-Tectonic plates move very slowly atop the denser mantle on hot, soft rock

occurs in lithosphere

plates composed of oceanic crust, continental crust, and the outermost part of the mantle

-Divergent Plates

ex. oceanic plates move apart from one another

magma flows up through cracks, creating ridges

-Convergent Plates

ex. an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate

continental plate goes over denser oceanic plate and pushes it into the mantle (subduction)

a trench forms

ex. two continental plates collide

push up mountain ranges

Transform Fault: plates slide past one another along a fault

# data[].attributes.body
-6 tons of mineral waste created to make 2 gold wedding rings
-Cyanide Heap Leaching: cyanide salts are sprayed on rock heaps to extract gold; solution drains into storage ponds and can threaten health of those who consume it

# data[].attributes.body
-6/7 marine species of turtles are endangered
-Human Impact

trawlers destroy coral reefs that serve as turtle feeding grounds

turtles can drown after becoming entangled in fishing nets/ lines or lobster/ crab traps

# data[].attributes.body
-Cetaceans = porpoise, blue whale, orca
-Easy to kill bc they have to surface to breathe
-Blue whales were brought to the brink of extinction by overharvesting for their fat (oil), meat, and bone
-International Whaling Commission 1946

mission to regulate whaling by setting a quota

quotas were based on inadequate data and were ignored by whaling countries

-1970- US stopped all commercial whaling and banned all imports of whale products
-Iceland, Japan, Norway, and Russia continue to hunt whales

# data[].attributes.body
-Bycatch: when non-target species are caught in large nets meant to catch other species
-Trawlers: scrape ocean floor, destroying habitats

target fish and shellfish

catch shrimp, scallops, cod, and flounder

-Long Line: hook endangered sea turtles, dolphins, and sea birds

target bottom fish and open-ocean fish

catch swordfish, tuna, halibut, cod, sharks

-Purse Seine: high risk of bycatching, especially involving dolphins

target surface-dwellers

catch tuna, mackerel, anchovies, herring

-Drift (Gill) Net: overfishing by trapping and killing large quantities of non-target species

# data[].attributes.body
-Greatest marine biodiversity found in coral reefs, estuaries, and on the deep-ocean floor

greater variety of habitats and food sources on ocean floor

-Higher near coasts than in open sea bc of greater variety of producers and habitats
-HIPPCO

Habitat Loss and Degradation

dredging operations

trawler fishing boats

dams and excessive water withdrawal

Invasive Species

water hyacinth in Lake Victoria

Asian swamp eel in South FL

purple loosestrife everywhere

Population Growth and Pollution

coastal population growth destroys aquatic habitats and increases pollution

pollution leads to cultural eutrophication

industrial and urban areas dump exotic pollution

Climate Change

causes sea levels to rise

drowns coral reefs, low islands, coastal wetlands, coasts, and mangrove forests

Overfishing

modernization of fishing industry and demand outgrowing sustainable yield

commercial extinction: no longer profitable to continue fishing affected species bc recovery times are too low

domino effect collapses other species

# data[].attributes.body
-Dams and canals fragment rivers
-Levees and dikes along rivers disconnect rivers from floodplains, destroy aquatic habitats, and reduce functions of nearby wetlands
-Cities and farms cause pollution
-Drain and fill inland wetlands to grow crops or build things

# data[].attributes.body
-Land located away from the coast and covered with fresh water
-Marshes, swamps, prairie potholes
-Filter and degrade toxic wastes and pollutants
-Replenish stream flows during dry periods
-Recharge groundwater aquifers

# data[].attributes.body
-Coastal deltas, mangrove forests, and coastal wetlands provide natural protection against coastal storms, hurricanes, tsunamis, and typhoons
-Dams and levees trap sediments and reduce flooding along rivers

also causes river delta to sink and no longer provide protection bc too much water has been funneled through wetlands

building taller levees would only add greater weight and channel more water

would increase pressure on deltas

larger storms would eventually overwhelm them

# data[].attributes.body
-Streams join into wider and deeper rivers that flow across broad, flat valleys
-Water in this zone has a higher temperature and less dissolved oxygen
-Supports a large number of producers and aquatic plants
-Water is mulchy and contains a high concentration of silt bc of increased erosion and runoff from a larger area
-At its mouth, the river may divide into many channels as it flows through deltas

# data[].attributes.body
-Headwaters merge to form wider, deeper, and warmer streams that flow down gentler slopes with fewer obstacles
-More turbid, slower flowing, and have less dissolved oxygen
-Supports more producers and fish that have a lower oxygen demand

# data[].attributes.body
-Shallow, cold, clear, swiftly-flowing waters
-Dissolves large amounts of oxygen from the air
-Nutrients come mostly from organic matter
-Populated by cold-water fish that need lots of dissolved oxygen
-Algae and mosses have adapted to attach to rocks

# data[].attributes.body
-A drainage basin
-Delivers runoff, sediment, and dissolved substances to a stream

# data[].attributes.body
-Oligotrophic

small supply of plant nutrients, low NPP, few phytoplankton and fish

deep with steep banks

water supplied by glaciers and mountain streams

-Eutrophic

large supply of nutrients needed by producers

shallow, green-brown murky water and high turbidity

high NPP

-Mesotrophic: between Oligotrophic and Eutrophic

# data[].attributes.body
-Littoral Zone

shallow and sunlit; high biodiversity

expands from shore to where rooted plants stop growing

organisms include turtles, frogs, crayfish, bass, perch, and carp

-Limnetic Zone

open sunlit surface area from shore to depth penetrated by sunlight

organisms include phytoplankton and zooplankton

-Profundal Zone: deep open water too dark for photosynthesis, so there are low oxygen levels
-Benthic Zone

mostly decomposers, detritus feeders, and some fish

bottom of the lake

nourished by falling dead matter and sediment

# data[].attributes.body
-Include lentic (standing) bodies of water such as lakes, ponds, and inland wetlands
-Lotic (flowing) bodies of water such as streams and rivers
-Lakes are formed when precipitation, runoff, and groundwater seepage fill depressions in Earth's surface

depressions caused by glaciations, crustal displacement, and volcanic activit

# data[].attributes.body
-Major Threats to Marine Ecosystems

Coastal Development: destroys and pollutes coastal habitats

Overfishing: depletes populations of commercial fish species

Runoff of Nonpoint Pollution: includes fertilizers, pesticides, livestock wastes

Point Source Pollution: includes sewage from passenger cruise ships ans spills from oil tankers

Habitat Destruction: results from coastal development and trawler fishing boats dragging weighted nets across ocean bottoms

Rise in Sea Levels: flood coastal marshes and cities and destroy coral reefs, resulting in climate change

Climate Change by Fossil Fuels: warms oceans and makes them more acidic

-Human Impact on Coral Reefs

soil erosion

increased UV exposure

algae growth from fertilizer runoff

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-Sharp increase in water depth at the edge of the continental shelf
-Divided into three vertical zones based on sunlight penetration

Euphotic Zone

brightly lit

lots of phytoplankton

low nutrient levels

high amounts of dissolved oxygen

large, fast-swimming predator (swordfish, sharks, tuna)

Bathyal Zone

dimly lit

zooplankton and small fish

Abyssal Zone

dark and very cold

little dissolved oxygen

major life zone--> lots of nutrients

Marine Snow: showers of dead and decaying organisms

Deposit Feeders: extract nutrients from mud (ex. worms)

Filter Feeders: extract nutrients from water (ex. oysters, clams, sponges)

NPP is low in the open sea but upwellings bring nutrients from the ocean bottom

# data[].attributes.body
-Warm, nutrient-rich, shallow water that extends from the high-tide mark on land to the gently sloping shallow edge of the continental shelf
-Makes up greater than 10% of the ocean, but contains 90% of all marine species
-High NPP bc ample sunlight and plant nutrients flow from land and are distributed by wind and ocean currents
-Estuaries: where freshwater mixes with saltwater
-Coastal Wetlands: coastal land covered with water all or part of the year

includes river mouths, inlets, bays, sounds, and salt marshes in temperate zones and mangrove forests in tropical zones

Earth's most productive ecosystems bc of high nutrient inputs and their natural circulation from tidal flows as well as ample sunlight throughout shallow waters

sea grass beds are highly productive , help stabilize shorelines, and reduce wave impact

organisms must adapt to daily and seasonal changes in

tidal and river flows

water temperatures and salinity

runoff of eroded soil sediment and other pollutants from the land

-Mangrove Forests

found in tropical and subtropical regions

tree species can grow in saltwater where their roots can be seen at varying water levels where they can obtain oxygen

Ecological/ Economic Services

filter pollutants to maintain water quality

absorb waves and store excess water in order to reduce storm damage and coastal erosion

supply timber and fuelwood to coastal communities

loss of mangrove forests can lead to polluted drinking water

-Intertidal Zone: area between low and high tides

organisms must avoid getting swept away or crushed by waves

must be able to withstand immersion during high tides and dryness during low tides

changes in salinity

rocky shores = life in pools and other crevices

barrier beaches or sandy shores = burrow between the tides so that birds don't eat them when they are exposed

sand dunes protect the land from storms,floods, and erosion

# data[].attributes.body
-Ecological Services

climate moderation

CO2 absorption

nutrient cycling

waste treatment

scientific information

-Economic Services

pharmaceuticals

harbors and transportation routes

recreation

oil and natural gas

building materials

# data[].attributes.headline
Organisms in Saltwater and Freshwater Systems

# data[].attributes.subject
Organisms in Saltwater and Freshwater Systems

# data[].attributes.body
-Plankton: weak-swimming and free-floating

Phytoplankton= many types of algae (producers)

Zooplankton= primary consumers that feed on phytoplankton as well as secondary consumers that feed on other zooplankton (ex. jellyfish)

Ultraplankton= huge populations of photosynthetic bacteria

-Nekton: strong-swimming consumers

fish, turtles, whales

-Benthos: bottom dwellers

oysters, clams, worms, lobsters, crabs

-Decomposers: mostly bacteria
-Determinants of Types and Numbers of Organisms in each Layer of Aquatic Zones

Temperature

Dissolved Oxygen Content

Availability of Food

Availability of Light and Nutrients required for photosynthesis (carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous

# data[].attributes.body
-Saltwater covers 71% of Earth's surface
-Freshwater covers 2.2%
-Distribution of aquatic organisms is based on water's salinity

Saltwater and Marine Systems

estuaries are a mix of saltwater and freshwater but are considered marine

Freshwater

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-Found in the clear, warm coastal waters of the tropics
-Formed when massive polyp colonies secrete a protective limestone coating around themselves and the crust remains after the polyp dies
-Mutualism- zooxanthellone algae lives in polyp's tissue and provides food and oxygen from photosynthesis

gives reef color

aids in calcium carbonate production

polyps in turn protect the algae and give it some of their nutrients

-Ecological Services

remove CO2 from atmosphere, which regulates temperatures

protect coastlines from erosion

-Coral reefs are being destroyed by coastal development, pollution, overfishing, and higher temperatures

coral bleaching: when stress causes algae to die off, it leaves behind a white calcium carbonate skeleton

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-Interrupt prevailing winds and movement of storms so that they are forced upward where they cool, expand, and release moisture as precipitation
-Rain Shadow Effect: low precipitation on the leeward side of a mountain when prevailing winds flow up and over high mountains, created semi-arid and arid conditions on the leeward side of a high mountain range

# data[].attributes.body
-Created when heat is absorbed and released more slowly by water than by land

# data[].attributes.body
- Result from air circulation patterns, prevailing winds, and the geography of continents and oceans
-Six giant convection cells
-Warm, moist air rises and cools while cool, dry air sinks
-Causes irregular distribution of climates and biomes

# data[].attributes.body
-Prevailing winds in the tropical Pacific Ocean weaken and change direction every few years
-This causes above- average warming of Pacific waters and changes the distribution of plant nutrients
-Affects aquatic populations and alters 2/3 of Earth's weather for 1-2 years

# data[].attributes.body
-Determined by

uneven heating of Earth's surface by the sun

rotation of Earth on its axis

properties of air, water, and land

-Prevailing winds blowing over the ocean produce mass movements of water, called currents, which redistribute heat from the sun

prevailing winds and irregularly shaped continents cause currents to flow in roughly circular patterns

-When ocean water mixes vertically in shallow and deep currents, heat is distributed to different parts of the ocean

# data[].attributes.body
-Weather = hourly/ daily, short-term physical conditions of lower atmosphere
-Climate = general pattern of atmospheric/ weather conditions over long periods of time
-Varies in different parts of the world due to uneven distribution of heat and precipitation through patterns of global air circulation and ocean currents

# data[].attributes.body
-Indirect form of solar energy
-Part of circulatory system for heat, moisture, plant nutrients, soil particles, and air pollutants
-Without wind, the tropics would be too hot and everything else would be frozen
-Disadvantages

transport illegal pesticides

iron-rich dust produces algal blooms

air pollutants from other areas degrade air quality of other locations

# data[].attributes.body
-Determined by climate, long-term differences in temperature, and precipitation

# data[].attributes.body
-Dominated by a few long-lived plant species
-Stable and in balance with enviroment

# data[].attributes.body
-Ecological Succession: some species colonize area and become more numerous while other species decline and disappear
-Primary Succession: gradual establishment of biotic communities where there is no soil or sediment
-Secondary Succession: series of communities or ecosystems develop in places that do have soil/ sediment

# data[].attributes.headline
Patterns of Variation in Population Size

# data[].attributes.subject
Patterns of Variation in Population Size

# data[].attributes.body
-Stable: fluctuates slightly above/ below carrying capacity
-Irruptive: explodes and then crashes to more stable level
-Cyclic (Boom and Bust Cycles): regular fluctuations, rising and falling
-Irregular: no recurring pattern

# data[].attributes.body
-Number of individuals of a population found in a particular area

volume regulates population near carrying capacity

-Density-Dependent Population Controls: as population density increases, these limiting factors have a greater effect

ex. predation, parasitism, competition, infectious disease

-Density-Independent Population Controls:
mostly abiotic,; not dependent on density of population

ex. destruction, disaster, temperature

# data[].attributes.body
-Survival of small, isolated populations
-Founder Effect: a few individuals in a population colonize new, isolated habitat and limited genetic diversity threatens their survival
-Demographic Bottleneck: only a few individuals survive a disaster

decreased genetic diversity makes it harder to repopulate and increases frequency of genetic diseases

-Genetic Drift: changes in gene frequencies result in unequal reproductive success, which can help or hinder survival
-Inbreeding: individuals in a small population mate with one another

increases frequency of defective genes

affects long-term survival

# data[].attributes.body
-Competitor species (population near carrying capacity)
-Reproduce later in life
-Small number of offspring

require parental protection

born large and mature slowly

-Long life spans

# data[].attributes.body
-Capacity for high rate of population increase
-Many small offspring that do not need parental care
-Massive offspring losses
-Usually opportunist species

# data[].attributes.body
-Biotic Potential: capacity for population growth under ideal conditions
-Intrinsic Rate of Increase (r): rate at which population of a species would grow if it had unlimited resources
-Environmental Resistance: combination of all factors that act to limit growth of a population
-Carrying Capacity: maximum population of a given species that a particular habitat can sustain without being degraded
-Logistic Growth: rapid exponential population growth followed by steady decrease in population growth until population size levels off

# data[].attributes.body
(births + immigration) - (deaths + emigration)

# data[].attributes.body
-Population Dynamics: study of how distribution, numbers, age structure, and density change in response to shifts in environmental conditions
-Clumping

takes advantage of resource locations that are usually spread out

resources are easier to find; ex. predators can catch more prey

protection from predators

mating and caring for young

-Uniform dispersion
-Random dispersion

# data[].attributes.body
-Ex. bats echolocate moths, moths develop ears that hear bat frequencies so they know when to escape, bats change frequency of sound pulses, moths develop ability to emit high-frequency clicks and jam bats's system, bats turn of echolocation to track moths by their own

# data[].attributes.body
-Camouflage
-Chemical Warfare: poisons, irritants, odors, tastes
-Warning Colors

small + strikingly beautiful= poisonous

easy to catch + strikingly beautiful= deadly

-Mimicry: non-threatening species look and act like those that are
-Deceptive Looks: try to look threatening by puffing up or spreading wings
-Deceptive Behavior: living in large packs

# data[].attributes.body
-Interspecific Competition: members of two or more species interact to gain access to the same limited resources such as food, light, or space

the most common interaction between species

Competitive Exclusion Principle: no two species can occupy the same niche for very long

-Predation: a member of one species feeds directly on all or part of a member of another species

chemical warfare: venom may detect prey or deter other predators

predators are important because they kill the least fit organisms, facilitate natural selection, and control population sizes

-Parasitism: one organism feeds on the body of or energy used by another organism, usually by living on or in the host
-Mutualism: interaction that benefits both species by providing each with food, shelter, and some other resource
-Commensalism: benefits one species but has little effect on the other

# data[].attributes.body
-Shape communities and influence habitat to benefit other species
-ex. elephants clear trees to create forest openings in grasslands and woodlands

# data[].attributes.body
-Have large effect on types and abundances of other species in the ecosystem
-Critical role in structure and function of community
-ex. alligator is the top predator, so it regulates the populations of other species

# data[].attributes.body
-Provide early warnings of damage to a community or ecosystem
-Virtually everywhere, so changes in their behavior are easily noticed

# data[].attributes.body
-Migrate into or are deliberately/ accidentally introduced into new ecosystem
-Spread more rapidly if they find a new niche

don't face natural predators or diseases of domestic ecosystem

can out-compete native species

# data[].attributes.body
-Generalist Species

r-selected species

broad niches

live in many different places, eat a variety of foods, tolerate wider range of environmental conditions

high reproductive rate

have the advantage under rapidly changing conditions

ex. flies, roaches, rats, humans

-Specialist Species

k-selected species

narrow niches

one habitat, few types of food, narrow range of climate/ environmental conditions

more prone to extinction due to change

low reproductive rate

have the advantage in constant conditions because they have fewer competitors

# data[].attributes.body
-AKA species richness
-More species immigrate to larger islands closer to the mainland

smaller islands (smaller targets) at longer distances have the smallest populations and may have a higher extinction rate due to fewer resources

-Species-rich ecosystems are more sustainable

more producers provide more biomass

there are more ways to respond to environmental stresses

# data[].attributes.body
-Speciation: 2 species arising from one when groups are separated

geographic isolation: different groups of a population are physically isolated from one another and adapt to fit their new environments

reproductive isolation: mutation and natural selection operate independently within separated groups so that when they are reunited they can no longer produce fertile offspring

-Extinction

endemic species: found in only one area and, thus, more vulnerable to extinction

background extinction: species go extinct at a low rate

mass extinction: significant rise in extinction rates above the background level; may be caused by a widespread event in which large groups of species are wiped out

# data[].attributes.headline
Effect of Geological Processes on Evolution

# data[].attributes.subject
Effect of Geological Processes on Evolution

# data[].attributes.body
-Tectonic Plate Movement

locations of continents and oceanic basins affect the climate

continental shifts create need for species to move, adapt, and form new species

earthquakes create fissures on Earth's crust that separate and isolate populations

volcano eruptions destroy habitats and reduce or wipe out species

-Climate change shifts the location of ecosystems, determining where organisms can survive
-When one species goes extinct, another takes its place

# data[].attributes.body
-Variety of Earth's species, their genes, their ecosystems, and energy flow/ nutrient cycling
-Species Diversity: variety of Earth's life forms
-Ecosystem Diversity: storehouses for species and genetic diversity
-Functional Diversity: variety of processes that take place in an ecosystem as species interact

ex. matter cycling and energy flow

-Genetic Diversity: allows organisms to adapt to dramatic environmental changes

# data[].attributes.body
-Found in organisms, ocean sediments, soil, rocks, fossil fuels

amino acids and enzymes

sinks= terrestrial rocks and ocean sediments

-Human Interference

burning coal, natural gas, and fossil fuels leads to sulfur dioxide emission and acid rain (H2SO4 and SO4-

mining for coal and metals

# data[].attributes.body
-Cycles through water, earth's crust, and living organisms
-No gaseous form; only found in atmosphere as particles
-Sinks= terrestrial rocks and ocean sediments
-Leads to cultural eutrophication
Human Interference

deforestation adds phosphate to soil

mining, commercial fertilizers, and sewage discharge create phosphate runoff

# data[].attributes.body
-Nitrogen found in proteins (amino acids) and nucleic acids

most abundant gas in atmosphere although organisms cannot use it

limiting factor

-Nitrogen Fixation

fertilizer

lightning

nitrogen-fixing bacteria that turn nitrogen into ammonia

rhizobium (legumes)

blue-green algae

-Nitrification: turns ammonium into nitrates and nitrites
-Denitrification: anaerobic bacteria in anaerobic conditions
-Assimilation: nitrates incorporated into plant tissue
-Ammonification: bacteria and fungi transform expelled nitrogen back into ammonia
-Human Interference

burning fuel adds nitric oxide to atmosphere that can be converted to acid rain

nitrous oxide from livestock, waste, inorganic fertilizers warm atmosphere and deplete ozone layer

destruction of forests, grasslands, and wetlands release nitrogen into the atmosphere

addition of nitrates to bodies of water

harvesting, irrigating, and clearing land removes nitrogen from topsoil

# data[].attributes.body
-Carbon is a natural thermostat because it is a natural greenhouse gas
-2 largest carbon sinks= forests and oceans

marine plants in oceans hold large amounts of carbon for photosynthesis

diffusion of CO2 from the atmosphere to the ocean decreases CO2 levels in atmosphere

-Organic Compounds
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids all contain carbon
-Human Interference

deforestation: humans reduce number of trees faster than they can reproduce which decreases carbon sinks and keeps more CO2 in atmosphere

burning fossil fuels

# data[].attributes.body
-Importance: process through which water is renewed and restored

major form of transporting nutrients within and between ecosystems

-Percolation= passage of water through soil

infiltration= percolation of water through soil to refill aquifers

-Human Interference

withdrawing large amounts of freshwater at rates faster than nature can cleanse it again

clearing vegetation increases flooding when wetlands are drained

adding nutrients like fertilizer modifies water quality

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-Gross Primary Productivity: rate at which the producers of an ecosystem convert solar energy to the chemical energy found in the producer's tissues as biomass

all of the chemical energy the producer makes

-Net Primary Productivity: rate at which producers make and store chemical energy minus the rate at which they use some of this energy for aerobic respiration

the chemical energy available for consumers

NPP = GPP - R

R = energy used in respiration

-The terrestrial ecosystem with the highest NPP is the tropical jungle because it is closest to the equator, thus having access to the most solar radiation
-The aquatic ecosystem with the greatest NPP is an estuary because plant nutrients flowing from nutrient-rich rivers stir up nutrients in bottom sediments

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-Food Chain: how chemical energy and nutrients move from one organism to another through the trophic levels
-Food Web: a complex network of interconnected food chains
-Biomass: dry weight of all organic matter contained in an organism

the chemical energy stored in biomass is passed on to the next trophic level although a significant amount is lost as low quality heat

-Ecological Efficiency: the percentage of usable chemical energy transferred as biomass from one trophic level to the next

as you move up the food chain, usable energy decreases to about 10% of the amount available at the last trophic level

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-Microscopic species of bacteria, protozoa, fungi, and phytoplankton
-Break down the food we eat, decompose/ recycle organic wastes, and produce some foods
-Prevent diseases and slow the process of global warming

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-Aerobic Respiration: converting glucose back into water and CO2 by using oxygen

how all organisms get their energy, but only plants undergo photosynthesis

-Anaerobic Respiration: break down glucose in the absence of oxygen; fermentation

produces methane gas, ethyl alcohol, acetic acid, and hydrogen sulfide

decomposers

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-Feeding levels that depend on an organism's source of food/nutrients
-Producers: autotrophs such as green plants, algae/ aquatic plants, and phytoplankton
-Primary Consumers: herbivores that eat producers
-Secondary Consumers: carnivores that eat primary consumers
-Tertiary Consumers: higher-level consumers; carnivores that eat other carnivores such as tigers, wolves, and snakes
-Omnivores: organisms that eat both plants and animals such as foxes and pigs
-Decomposers: bacteria and fungi that return nutrients from dead organisms to the soil, water, or air

use enzymes to break bodies down to nutrient compounds such as water, CO2, and minerals

-Detritivores: scavengers that eat the waste and dead bodies of other organisms

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-Stunt population growth when they overwhelm or underwhelm a species despite range of tolerance
-ex. a population cannot continue to expand if it runs out of land to live upon

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-The range of a certain fluctuating factor in which life is best sustained
-Most trout thrive at a certain temperature, and only a few can survive if the temperature grows too hot or too cold

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-3 Factors

one-way flow of high quality energy

cycling of matter and nutrients

gravity

-Atmosphere

Troposphere: contains the weather and the majority of the air we breather

Greenhouse gases: water vapor, methane, and CO2; trap warmth

Natural Greenhouse effect: longer-wavelength infrared radiation causes greenhouse gas molecules to vibrate and produce heat, making the climate warm enough to sustain life

-Stratosphere: ozone absorbs or reflects most of the sun's harmful radiation back into space

solar energy is recieved as electromagnetic waves of visible light, UV light, and heat

energy that reaches the atmosphere provides light and warmth, cycles water, and generates winds

1% reaches Earth's surface as longer-wavelength infrared radiation and causes greenhouse gas molecules to vibrate

-Hydrosphere: water on/ near earth's surface that takes the form of liquid, vapor, ice, or permafrost
-Geosphere: core, mantle, and crust

upper portion contains fossil fuels and other nonrenewable resources, minerals, and renewable soil chemicals

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-Pollinate plants and crops so that they can grow
-Loose and renew soil to support plant life
-Control their own populations

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-Organism: individual living being
-Population: group of same-species individuals living in a particular area
-Community: populations of different species living in one place and interacting with each other
-Ecosystem: community of different  species interacting with one another and with their nonliving environment of matter and energy
-Biosphere: parts of Earth's air, water, and soil where life is found

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-Study of how organisms interact with one another and with their physical environment of matter and energy

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-Prokaryotic Cells

membrane

no nucleus or distinct internal parts

ex. bacteria

-Eukaryotic Cells

membrane, nucleus, organelles

majority of plants and animals

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-Only cover 2% of the Earth bit contain up to half of the world's known terrestrial plant and animal species.
-Cleared to grow crops, graze cattle, and build settlements

reduces biodiversity

speeds up global warming and climate change

changes regional weather patterns so drastically that they reach a tipping point and the rainforests can never grow back

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- First Law of Thermodynamics: When energy is converted from one form to another, in a physical or chemical change, no energy is created or destroyed.
-Second Law of Thermodynamics: When energy changes form, we end up with lower-quality or less usable energy than we started with. We cannot reuse high quality energy for useful work.

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-Capacity to do work and transfer heat
-Kinetic Energy

Heat: total kinetic energy of the atoms, ions, and molecules in a substance

Electromagnetic Radiation: energy that travels as a wave due to changes in electric and magnetic fields

-Potential Energy: stored energy that is potentially available for use
-Energy Quality: measure of energy source's capacity to do useful work

High Quality Energy: concentrated and has a high capacity for useful work

Low Quality Energy: dispersed and has a low capacity for useful work

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-Physical Change: physical appearance changes but chemical composition remains the same
-Chemical Change: change in arrangement of atoms and ions in a molecule
-Nuclear Change: changes in an atom's nuclei

Radioactive Decay: isotopes emit subatomic particles and high energy radiation (ex. gamma rays)

Nuclear Fission: high-mass nuclei split into lower-mass nuclei when struck by neutrons

Nuclear Fusion: isotopes of low mass elements forced together at high temperatures until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus

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-measure of acidity based on the number of hydroegn (H+) and hydroxide (OH-) ions
-Acids have more hydrogen ions
-Bases have more hydroxide ions