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There are many different people, groups, and tribes found across the continent of Africa - with their culture varying from tribe to tribe and nation to nation. Africa is a culturally diverse continent, home to Bushmen in Botswana, Maasai warriors or Samburu herdsmen in Kenya. Even a country as small as Uganda is home to more than 30 tribes! In this section, we will explore the cultural legacy of ancient civilizations in Africa and the impact of European colonization. We will also look at the history of apartheid in South Africa and examples of modern racism and devastating civil wars in the region.

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Section Warm-Up: The Swahilis of Masai Mara - Kenya

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Section Warm-Up: The Swahilis of Masai Mara - Kenya

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The national language of Kenya is Swahili. It originated as a trade language used by Arabs and coastal African tribes. Today, Swahili is the most widely used language in Africa. The highly phonetic language uses many suffixes and prefixes to change word meaning. Learn some simple words and phrases in Swahili.

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The Cultural Legacy of Ancient Civilizations – Comparing Ghana and Mali

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The Cultural Legacy of Ancient Civilizations – Comparing Ghana and Mali

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To the people of Africa, especially Ghana, the traditions of their ancestors are still a very important part of daily life. Archaeological evidence indicates that present-day Ghana has been inhabited for many thousand years. Ghana was one of the most powerful empires in Africa for hundreds of years. How did it get that way? The kingdom used metals and had laws and an economic system – in fact it was more developed than other European countries at the time. The Ghana empire was primarily found in the Sahel – the region below the Sahara Desert. It comprised the areas we know today as Senegal and parts of Mali and Mauritania – but it did not include the region we now refer to as the nation of Ghana.

Modern Mali is a unique nation due to the blending of Islam and Black African traditions from the Middle Ages. After years of colonial domination by the French, Mali has also been substantially influenced by those European traditions as well. The Songhai is an ancient empire of western Africa found in present-day Mali. Songhai society traditionally was highly structured. The following people could be found in the Songhai society:

nobility,

free commoners,

artisans,

griots (bards and storytellers), and

slaves.

The Songhai grew grains in the rainy season (June to November), raised cattle and fished. The Songhai traditionally have prospered from the trading routes throughout the region. The Niger River enabled the kingdom of Mali to develop a far more stable economy than Ghana had enjoyed and contributed to the rise of the Mali empire.

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This map shows the locations of pre-colonial cultures of Africa -spanning roughly 500 BCE to 1500 CE. The majority of these civilizations are found along the north coast of the continent near the Meditteranean Sea and in northwest Africa along the Atlantic coast.

The Songhai Empire was located in northwest Africa.  The Empire of Ghana was the same region but was much smaller in size. Many of these civilizations overlapped.

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As you learned in the last section, the Scramble for Africa began in 1881. From that point onward, it was a mad dash among the countries of Europe to secure land on the continent of Africa. Only 1 independent state remained as of 1913.

After Napoléon Bonaparte was defeated at Waterloo in 1815, the humbled Frenchmen saw colonization in Africa as a chance to gain back some of the French dignity and prestige in their traditional competition against the English. Later in the century, all of Europe felt the pinch from rapid industrialization and were in search of new sources of raw materials. The European nations saw Africa as an excellent source of raw materials. Unfortunately, Europe's colonization of Africa essentially underdeveloped the continent. Europeans succeeded in exploiting the resources throughout the continent without making much progress in developing the colonies it controlled. Many people would argue that this problem continues to this very day.

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Can you tell which state avoided European control?

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Can you tell which state avoided European control?

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Did you say Ethiopia? Good for you! As of 1913, Ethiopia was the only independent nation in Africa.

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Impact of External Cultural Influences: Christianity and Islam

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Impact of External Cultural Influences: Christianity and Islam

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The Europeans and Arabs had similar reasons for Africa's conquest. For Europeans, spreading Christianity and culture were obviously presented as two of the most important reasons for their presence in Africa; but commerce was truly the motivating factors for all foreign interlopers.

Christianity

Catholic and Protestant missionaries gave medical aid through hospitals they built, education through mission schools, worked at translating the Bible into the local dialect, all the while trying to win converts to Christianity. David Livingstone, an early African missionary we learned about in the last section, promoted the "3 Cs" —commerce, Christianity, and civilization, while exploring the African interior. Today, most Christians are found in Sub-Saharan Africa. Christians in Africa form one of the largest religious groups – it is believed that approximately half the population of Africa follows some Christian form of religion.

Islam

Islam in Africa is almost as old as the faith itself. European colonialists in many cases adopted Muslim law as a unifying administrative structure, rather than the indigenous and often competing tribal customs of their artificially demarcated colonies. The settlement of the Arabs in North Africa somewhat resembled the settlement of the colonists in North America seeking religious freedom and wealth. When the Arabs settled in North Africa, it became the land of hope and opportunity where they could be free from persecution and make a fortune! Sound familiar?

Today, North Africa above the Sahara and significant portions of West Africa and the East African coast are Islamic. Muslims have played an incredibly important role in the development of Africa in the 14 centuries that they have been on the continent. Muslims have played many roles throughout the years – they have been integral in the process of state-building, in creating commercial networks between parts of the continent, and in introducing literacy. In fact, many Muslims were given the job of scribes in charge of state records in many areas. Muslims were also responsible for building relationships and developing inter-state diplomacy within Africa and beyond.

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Catholic and Protestant (1)_______ through hospitals they built, education through mission schools, worked at translating the (2)_______ alect, all the while trying to win converts to Christianity. David (3) ______ , an early African missionary we learned about in the last section, promoted the "3 Cs" — commerce, Christianity, and (4)______, while exploring the African interior. Today, most Christians are found in (5)_______ Africa. Christians in Africa form one of the largest religious groups – it is believed that approximately half the population of Africa follows some Christian form of religion. Islam in Africa is almost as old as the faith itself. European colonialists in many cases adopted Muslim law as a unifying administrative structure, rather than the (6)________ and often competing tribal customs of their artificially demarcated colonies. The settlement of the Arabs in (7)________ Africa somewhat resembled the settlement of the (8)_______ in North America seeking religious (9)_______ and wealth. When the Arabs settled in North Africa, it became the land of hope and (10)______ where they could be free from persecution and make a fortune! Sound familiar?

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Catholic and Protestant (1)_______ through hospitals they built, education through mission schools, worked at translating the (2)_______ alect, all the while trying to win converts to Christianity. David (3) ______ , an early African missionary we learned about in the last section, promoted the "3 Cs" — commerce, Christianity, and (4)______, while exploring the African interior. Today, most Christians are found in (5)_______ Africa. Christians in Africa form one of the largest religious groups – it is believed that approximately half the population of Africa follows some Christian form of religion. Islam in Africa is almost as old as the faith itself. European colonialists in many cases adopted Muslim law as a unifying administrative structure, rather than the (6)________ and often competing tribal customs of their artificially demarcated colonies. The settlement of the Arabs in (7)________ Africa somewhat resembled the settlement of the (8)_______ in North America seeking religious (9)_______ and wealth. When the Arabs settled in North Africa, it became the land of hope and (10)______ where they could be free from persecution and make a fortune! Sound familiar?

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(1) missionaries
(2) Bible
(3) Livingstone
(4) civilization
(5) sub-saharan
(6) indigenous
(7) north
(8) colonists
(9) freedom
(10) opportunity

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Catholic and Protestant missionaries through hospitals they built, education through mission schools, worked at translating the Bible alect, all the while trying to win converts to Christianity. David Livingstone, an early African missionary we learned about in the last section, promoted the "3 Cs" — commerce, Christianity, and civilization, while exploring the African interior. Today, most Christians are found in sub-saharan Africa. Christians in Africa form one of the largest religious groups – it is believed that approximately half the population of Africa follows some Christian form of religion. Islam in Africa is almost as old as the faith itself. European colonialists in many cases adopted Muslim law as a unifying administrative structure, rather than the indigenous and often competing tribal customs of their artificially demarcated colonies. The settlement of the Arabs in north Africa somewhat resembled the settlement of the colonists in North America seeking religious freedom and wealth. When the Arabs settled in North Africa, it became the land of hope and opportunity where they could be free from persecution and make a fortune! Sound familiar?

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Initially, the aim of the apartheid was to maintain white domination while extending racial separation.

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Union of South Africa

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Black (or Natives) Land Act No. 27 -Black Africans were no longer able to own, or even rent, land outside of designated reserves. The Natives Land Act gives 7.3% of the country's land to Africans, who make up 80% of the population.

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Native (Black) Urban Areas Act No. 21 of 1923 - Towns became almost exclusively white – the only Blacks allowed to live in town were domestic workers.

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Representation of Blacks Act No. 12 - Blacks in the Cape are no longer eligible to vote with the rest of the population (i.e. the white people), but are placed instead on a separate voting roll. Blacks are no longer allowed to run for public office. All Africans throughout South Africa will be represented in government by four white senators.

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The Sauer Commission issues a report upon which apartheid will be enacted. The report calls for stricter segregation of blacks and whites that would ensure cheap labor but would keep the majority of blacks on their own lands with their own schools.

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Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act No. 55 – People are classified into three racial groups: white, colored (mixed race or Asian), and native (African/black). Marriages between races are outlawed in order to maintain racial purity.

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Black (Bantu) Authorities Act No. 68 - "Fundamental idea is Bantu control over Bantu areas as and when it becomes possible for them to exercise control efficiently and properly for the benefit of their own people." The white government declares that the lands reserved for black Africans are independent nations. In this way, the government strips millions of blacks of their South African citizenship and forces them to become residents of their new "homelands." Blacks are now considered foreigners in white-controlled South Africa and need passports to enter. Blacks only enter to serve whites in menial jobs.

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The Freedom Charter - The African National Congress (ANC), a political organization for Africans, encourages peaceful resistance to the discriminatory laws of apartheid. The ANC issues a Freedom Charter that states, "South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black and white, and that no government can justly claim authority unless it is based on the will of the people." The government reacts by arresting people and passing more repressive laws.

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Nelson Mandela, head of the African National Congress, is jailed.

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Soweto Uprising - 575 people are killed and thousands are injured and arrested.

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People and governments around the world launch an international campaign to boycott (not do business with) South Africa. Some countries ban the import of South African products, and citizens of many countries pressure major companies to pull out of South Africa. This boycott cripples the economy of South Africa and somewhat destabilizes the government.

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Abolition of Racially Based Land Measures Act No. 108 - South Africa President F.W. de Klerk repeals the rest of the apartheid laws and calls for the drafting of a new constitution.

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Elections are held. The United Nations sends 2,120 international observers to ensure the fairness of the elections. The African National Congress, representing South Africa's majority black population. Nelson Mandela, the former leader of the African National Congress who had been jailed for 27 years, is elected President.

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Apartheid was finally brought to its knees in the 1980s due to increasing international pressure. People and governments around the world launched an international campaign to boycott (not do business with) South Africa. Some countries banned the import of South African products, and citizens of many countries pressured major companies to pull out of South Africa. This boycott crippled the economy of South Africa and somewhat destabilized the government. The South African government really had no choice but to systematically eliminate most of the laws that had institutionalized decades of racism against black South Africans.

However, apartheid certainly did not end overnight. The impact of apartheid is still felt today. One of the most important steps South Africa took to help the country recover from the devastating effects of apartheid was to establish a Truth and Reconciliation Commission. This was a commission tasked with discovering and revealing past wrongdoing by a government, in the hope of resolving conflict left over from the past.

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One of the longest-lasting impacts of colonial domination can be seen in the recurring civil wars that have occurred since the countries of Africa gained independence. The artificial boundaries created by colonial rulersas they ruled and finally left Africa had the effect of bringing together many different ethnic people within seemingly arbitrary national boundaries - boundaries created only to benefit colonial interests. Rwanda is one of the most well-known examples of genocide in modern times. In 1994 one of the worst genocides of the twentieth century - some 800,000 people, mostly but not exclusively Tutsis, were slaughtered by the Hutu-run state. International organizations and industrialized nations turned a blind eye to the atrocities occurring in Rwanda and claimed such atrocities were simply a civil war due to historical strife between tribes who never got along. However, historically, Hutu and Tutsi were a type of class distinction, rather than based on physical differences. There really was no longstanding tribal rivalry – any rivalry that did exist was actually manifested as a result of European colonialism. Tutsi were typically more dominant and controlled wealth such as cattle, while Hutu were without wealth and not tied to the powerful. But, people could move from being Hutu, to Tutsi, and the other way round, depending on their wealth and status. In addition, inter marriage was not uncommon, and power was attainable by both groups. Because Europeans thought that the Tutsi looked more like themselves than did other Rwandans, they found it reasonable to suppose them closer to Europeans in the evolutionary hierarchy and hence closer to them in ability. Believing the Tutsi to be more capable, they found it logical for the Tutsi to rule the Hutu. As you can see, the rivalry between the Tutsi and the Hutu was perpetuated by European actions.

Extension! Are you interested in seeing a compelling movie about the Rwandan genocide and the brave actions of some incredible people? Watch Hotel Rwanda! This movie is a 2004 historical drama film about the hotelier Paul Rusesabagina (played by Don Cheadle), nominated for three Academy Awards and the winner at many international film festivals.

This appalling example is not the only one! Arbitrarily divided borders have had a long-lasting effect. The exploitation of natural resources by the Europeans while subjugating the native people of Africa continues to negatively impact most of the region. Unfortunately, those who might be suffering the most from the legacy of colonialism and apartheid are the children.