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Psychology is how people perceive the world & the way people think/solve problems.

The 7 psychologies (careers):
1.Developmental           5.cognitive
2.Social                           6.Personality
3.Experimental              7.Psychometrics
4.Physiological

Historical perspective
Wilhelm Wundt(1832-1920) created the academic discipline of psychology and focused on the study of the brain, nervous system and mental proccesses created an approach known as "structuralism"(identifys the structures of the human mind, and their method of the study was "looking inside")
William James(1842-1910)was a psyhcologist and philosopher and created what is known as "functionalism" which focuses on the function and purposes of the mind and behavior in the individual's adaptation to the environment.
Charles Darwin(1809-1910)published his theory on natural selection that was his principle of an evolutionary proccess in which organisms that are best adapted to thier environmentwill survive and reproduce.

Main psychological approaches in psychology

-Behaviorism Approach: studies a person by observing jow they react and learn from thier enviorment.
- Evolutionary Approach: explains your behavior based on your adaptation and reproduction.
-Cognitive Appoach: studies how behavior and mental processes are determined by learning.
-Humanistic Appoach: emphasizes on studying why someone acts they way they do from their own perspective.
-Psychodynamic Appoach: emphasizing unconscious thoughts.
-Sociocultral Approach: examines the way in which social and cultrul enviorments influence behavior.
-Biological Appoach: the study of physical and biologyical behaviors and the brian.

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Psychology is based on research and is a science
Applied Research- determines which method is better to solve real world applications (tests efficacy of something)
Basic Research- usually has no immediate impact with real world applications and usually is done out of psychologist's interest
Variables- dependent variable (measured variable) depends on independent variable (change variable)
Theory- attempts to explain something and further test it to support or deny the hypothesis
Operational definitions- explains how you will measure it (the variable)
-Valid research means it's accurate and reliability is repeated accuracy
-population (bigger and more diverse the better) then sampling (stratified sampling has the sample met some requirements) then participants

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Ch.3 Biological Foundations of Behavior(Yadelyn)

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Ch.3 Biological Foundations of Behavior(Yadelyn)

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The Nervous System
- The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body. The nervous system includes both the Central nervous system and Peripheral nervous system. Four important characteristics of the brain and nervous system are complexity, integration, adaptability, and electrochemical transmission.
- The nervous system is divided into two main parts: central (CNS) and peripheral (PNS). CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The PNS included somatic and autonomic * sympathetic and parasympathetic*

Neurons
- A Neuron is a specialized nerve cell that receives, processes, and transmits information to other cells in the body. We have a fixed number of neurons, which means they do not regenerate. Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell across a synapse. Neurotransmitters are packaged into synaptic vesicles clustered beneath the membrane in the axon terminal, on the presynaptic side of a synapse. Neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, GABA, glutamate, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and endorphins.

Structures of the Brain and their Functions
- The three major divisions of the brain are the hind
brain, mid brain, and forebrain. The cerebrum is the most highly developed part of the human brain and is responsible for thinking, perceiving, producing and understanding language. Most information processing occurs in the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes that each have a specific function, frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal.
- The two hemispheres are divided right down the middle into a right hemisphere and a left hemisphere. Each hemisphere appears to be specialized for some behaviors. The hemispheres communicate with each other through a thick band of 200-250 million nerve fibers called the corpus callosum.

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Sensation is the ability to see, hear, touch, taste, and smell. Perception is how the impulses received from our senses come together so they make sense. Sensation is part of bottom-up processing where our senses send information to our brain while perception is part of top-down processing where our brain pieces together the information to make sense of the impulses being sent to it.
-Absolute threshold is minimum amount of stimulation needed that a person can detect.
-Difference threshold is the minimum difference between two stimuli that can be detected.
-Weber's Law is the principle that 2 stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage to be perceived as different.
-First, light is reflected off objects and is gathered by the eye. The color we see depends on light intensity and wavelengths. Wavelengths from longest to shortest go as follows: Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet (Roy G. Biv)
-When looking at an object the light is reflected through the cornea (a protective covering that helps focus light) then light goes through the pupil, which is controlled by the iris which opens the pupil to let less light in through a process called accommodation. That light is then focused by a curved flexible lens which flips the image upside down and inverts it, then this image is projected in the retina (like a screen at the back of your eye).
- The ear consists of the ear canal which, carries sound waves into the ear, followed by the eardrum, a membrane at the end of the auditory canal that vibrates due to sound waves. The hammer, anvil, stirrup ate the three small bones in the middle ear that relay vibrations of the eardrum to the inner ear.

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Nature of Consciousness
Consciousness is the awareness of external events and internal sensations, including awareness of the self and the thoughts about experiences. According to Freud, a reservoir of unacceptable wishes, feelings, and thoughts that are beyond conscious awareness; Freud's interpretation viewed the unconscious as a storehouse for vile thoughts.
Sleep and Dreams
There are two basic kinds or stages of sleep. REM (rapid eye movement sleep), during which we have our most intense dreams, and non-REM, when there is little brain activity and we are largely not dreaming (which to most people is sleep).

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Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior in behavior that occurs through experience.
- Associative learning when we correlate and make a connection between two events.
-Classical conditioning is when organisms make an association between two stimuli therefore the organisms anticipate events. Operant conditioning when organisms know the relationship between behavior and consequence. (organisms will increase behaviors that result in a reward and decrease behaviors that end in punishment.)
-Observational Learning is when a person learns through observation and imitation. (Infants strongly rely on imitation)
-Ivan Pavlov: He tried to demonstrate how neutral aspects of the environment can trigger a response by pairing it with another stimuli. He did the study with the dog, a bell and a food dish. The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is stimulus that a produces a response without prior learning (the dog food). The unconditioned response (UCR) an unlearned reaction caused by the UCS (involuntary; salivating because of the food). Conditioned stimulus (CS) neutral stimulus that becomes a conditioned response (CR; a learned response).
- Acquisition is when the unconditioned stimulus and the cnditioned stimulus are paired through learning.
- Discrimination is learning to respond to a certain stimuli and not others.
Countercoditioning is changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response. Aversive conditioning a form of treatment used by pairing a stimulus with an unpleasant stimulus. (Drinking (stimulus) Nausea (unpleasant stimulus)).
- Placebo Effect are changes that happen that cant be explained by actual treatment.
- Thorndike “Law of Effect” which said a rewarded behavior is likely to reoccur.
- Reinforcers is anything that increases a response. There's 2 types of reinforcers. Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior with a pleasurable stimulus after a response. Negative reinforcement strengthens a behavior by removing something unpleasant. Negative reinforcement encourages a behavior by removing something bad.

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Memory Encoding
Psychologists distinguish between three necessary stages in the learning and memory process: encoding, storage, and retrieval (Melton, 1963). Encoding is defined as the initial learning of information; storage refers to maintaining information over time; retrieval is the ability to access information when you need it.
Memory Storage
Storing refers to the process of placing newly acquired information into memory, which is modified in the brain for easier storage. Encoding this information makes the process of retrieval easier for the brain where it can be recalled and brought into conscious thinking. Modern memory psychology differentiates between the two distinct types of memory storage: short-term memory and long-term memory. In addition, different memory models have suggested variations of existing short- and long-term memory to account for different ways of storing memory.
Memory Retrieval
"Recall in memory" refers to the mental process of retrieval of information from the past. Along with encoding and storage, it is one of the three core processes of memory. There are three main types of recall: free recall, cued recall and serial recall. Psychologists test these forms of recall as a way to study the memory processes of humans and animals. Two main theories of the process of recall are the two-stage theory and the theory of encoding specificity.
Forgetting
Disremembering is the apparent loss or modification of information already encoded and stored in an individual's long-term memory. It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from memory storage.

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Ch.8 Thinking, Intelligence, and Language(Josh)

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Ch.8 Thinking, Intelligence, and Language(Josh)

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-Phonemes are the smallest units of sound used in language while morpheme is the smallest unit of meaningful sound
Stages of language development
-Stage one is the babbling stage (usually within the first 4 months of age)
-Stage two is the two-word stage or telegraphic speech ( missing basic structure but is understood, mainly commands)
Noam Chomsky believes that humans are programmed to learn languages at an early age
Thinking and Problem Solving
Problems are usually solved by two methods Algorithms and Heuristics
-Algorithms use formulas or foolproof methods but can be quite time consuming
-Heuristics uses judgement calls to determine shortcuts based on past experience to limit possible outcomes through availability and representativeness heuristics

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Human Development
- Human development is defined as the process of enlarging people's freedoms and opportunities and improving their well-being. Human development is about the real freedom ordinary people have to decide who to be, what to do, and how to live.
Child Development & Adolescence
- Child development entails the biological, psychological and emotional changes that occur in human beings between birth and the end of adolescence, as the individual progresses from dependency to increasing autonomy. It is a continuous process with a predictable sequence, yet having a unique course for every child. It does not progress at the same rate and each stage is affected by the preceding developmental experiences. Because these developmental changes may be strongly influenced by genetic factors and events during prenatal life, genetics and prenatal development are usually included as part of the study of child development.
Emerging Adulthood, Adult Development & Aging
- Adult development encompasses the changes that occur in biological, psychological, and interphonal domains of human life from the end of adolescence until the end of one's life. These changes may be gradual or rapid, and can reflect positive, negative, or no change from previous levels of functioning. As researchers, geropsychologists expand knowledge of the normal aging process and design and test psychological interventions that address problems that commonly arise as people age.

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Theories of Motivation
- Motivation is defined as the desire to achieve a goal or a certain performance level, leading to goal-directed behavior.
- Drive Reduction Theory: developed by Clark Hull in 1943, was the first theory for motivation. According to such theorists as Clark Hull and Kenneth Spence, drive reduction is a major cause of learning and behavior.
- Optimum Arousal Theory:  suggests that humans are motivated to maintain a comfortable level of arousal. Optimal arousal theory helps explain the Yerkes-Dodson law, which states that performance is best when arousal or stimulation is not too high, and not too low.
Hunger, Obesity, and eating Disorders
- Hunger is related to cues associated with an empty stomach and to the hypothala- mus’s detection of decreases in blood sugar levels and depletion of fat in fat cells, which leads to the feelings of hunger that motivate eating. Hormones and neurotransmitters also play important roles in regulating hunger and appetite. Causes of obesity are genetic, psychologi- cal, and environmental. They include metabolic rate, number of fat cells in the body, behavioral patterns (such as an unhealthy diet and lack of exercise), and emotional and environmental cues that prompt eating. Psychological causes of eating disorders may include issues of control and perfectionism, sexual or physical abuse during childhood, family conflicts, and, for anorexia, underlying fears of adulthood and sexual maturity. Biological factors that may be implicated in eating disorders include abnormalities in brain mechanism controlling feelings of hunger and satiation, genetics, and irregularities in serotonin activity.
Emotion
According to some theories, they are states of feeling that result in physical and psychological changes that influence our behavior. The physiology of emotion is closely linked to arousal of the nervous system with various states and strengths of arousal relating, apparently, to particular emotions.

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Personalities are​ the unique attitudes, behaviors, and emotions that characterize a person, Type A and Type B
​Type A: ​tend to feel a sense of time and pressure, easily angered
​Type B: ​tend to be relaxed and easygoing.
- ​Unconscious mind; ​we don’t have access to the thoughts in it, we use lots of energy to keep threatening thoughts in it
-​Conscious mind: contains everything we are thinking about at any one moment
-Different types of Defense Mechanisms are ​Repression (​blocking thoughts out from conscious awareness), ​Denial (​not accepting the ego-threatening truth), Displacement (​redirecting one’s feelings toward another person or object), ​Projection (blaming others), ​Reaction formation (changing motives), ​Regression (​returning to an earlier, comforting form of behavior), ​Rationalization (​coming up with a beneficial result of an undesirable occurrence)), Sublimination (changes unacceptable impulse with an okay one.)
- Reliability: Consistency
-Validity: accuracy

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Social Psychology the study of how people think about,influence,and relate to other poeple.

social psychology is how individuals choose what people or group that they are going to interact with.

First impressions have a lasting effecet on a person because thats the way that they are going to keep view you as.

Attribution Theory is the theory that we can explain someones behavior by creting either their stable,enduring traits or the situation of hand.
Bystander effect is when an individual tends to help someone else if no one else is around to help but when someone is around they dont help.
Social influence impacts ones  behavior  because when one is in a group(Deindividuation) they are influenced to do thing that they dont normally do because everyone in the group is doing it.
Aitruism is the tendency of helping others.
Intergroup relations is when you are classified based on where you fit in the group.

Close relationships are when people tend to hangout with people that they feel that they have many things in common

1. romantic love

2. affectionate love

Stereotype is how people judge people others by their looks

Our behavior impacts our attitude  because you can hide how you truly feel with your behvior

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Abnormal Psychology is the study of people who suffer from psychological disorder
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Mental Disorders (DSM) is what allows psychologist to diagnose thier patients because it list the diorders in categories such as ...

Anxiety Disorder

Phobias,generalized anxiety disorder,OCD,PTSD, and panic disorder are all anxiety disorders that cause fear,nervousness and automonic arousal to one and gives anxiety.

Somatic Symptom and Related Diorders

occurs when a person manifests a psychological problem through a physiological symptom and suffers with symptoms sucha s physical complaints with no organic cause.

Dissociative Disorders

Disrupts the conscious and occurs when a person can not remember things meaning it includes Psychogenic Amnesia. Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) is known be multiple personality disorder that is also dissociative and causes one to have many personalities  that are opposite to others.

Depressive Disorders

mood and emotional disorder. Major depressive disorder or unipolar depression can make you feel unhappy at any time.

Bipolar and Related Disorders

Dipression,Bipolar disorder, and manic depression are all bipolar disorders and cause dramatic  mood swing and poor behavior that may lead to negative consequences.

Schizophrenic Disorders

Causes one to hallucinate and be delusional simply not knowing how to tell apart the real world or an illusion.

Personality Disorder

Antisocial, Narcissistic, and obsessive are all personality diorders because all have maladaptive ways of behaving.

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There's 5 different types of psychology therapies
-Psychoanalytic, humanistic, behavioral, and cognitive therapies believe in the power of psychotherapy to treat disorders
-Bio-medical believe in drugs to treat mental disorders
Psychoanalysis
-developed by Sigmund Freud
-looks to solve mental disorders by entering the unconscious of the patient to understand the underlying problem
-uses hypnosis, free association, and dream analysis
Humanistic
-they believed that everyone strives to reach the best version of themselves
-Carl Rogers is the best known Humanistic therapist that supported the theory of unconditional support to let the client receive warmth and growth