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Crinkling News - The Final Straw? The plastic purge begins (Australia)

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Crinkling News - The Final Straw? The plastic purge begins (Australia)

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NEXT time you are tempted to buy one of those green bags at the supermarket - remember you have to use it at least 104 times to make a difference to the environment.

Green bags commonly sold at Coles and Woolworths are made of polypropylene (a type of plastic) and take more material and energy to produce than standard single-use plastic bags given out for free.

Shoppers are often encouraged to buy the green bags as a more environmentally-friendly option because they can be reused. But you don't get the benefits unless you continue to reuse it constantly.

A 2009 study found that if the green bags were only used 52 times (weekly for a year) then the impact on global warming was actually greater than single-use bags.

Author of the study, Associate Professor Karli Verghese from RMIT told the ABC a green bag needs to be used 104 times (weekly for two years) to make it worthwhile.

Overall the benefits of reusable bags can vary depending on what materials they are made out of, how much energy or water is used to make them and whether they can be recycled or have to be sent to landfill.

The study found it took more material and energy to make the green bags than ordinary single-use plastic bags.

Calico bags made from cotton are the only reusable bags likely to be better for the environment than single-use plastic.

It's just one of the traps people trying to do the right thing can fall into.

But that doesn't mean we should continue using plastic bags.

Ten million plastic bags are used by Australians every day and 85 per cent of these bags and other packaging end up in landfill.

While supermarkets have started offering recycling of soft plastics, the ABC series War on Waste has highlighted the difficulty in ensuring they are actually recycled.

The other difficulty is that a plastic bag can't be recycled into another plastic bag, it can also only be "downcycled" into products like park benches and garden materials, and this relies on businesses finding customers who want to buy these products.

Plastic waste can also find its way into oceans and it's estimated that by 2050, there will be more plastic by weight in the ocean than fish.

"On average a plastic bag is used for just 12 minutes, so that's 12 minutes carrying your groceries to the car (and) the pantry and after that it's tossed away and it takes 1000 years to break down," The Project host Waleed Aly said recently.

"So your great, great, great, great, great ... grandchildren will share a planet with the plastic bag that you just used to bring home tonight's dinner."
RELATED: The harm you're causing when you accept plastic
This is partly the reason why so many people are moving towards a zero waste lifestyle. While this does encourage recycling, especially things like aluminium and glass that can be recycled endlessly, adherents generally avoid plastic - even if it can be recycled - because of its harmful impacts.
RELATED: My year of trying to live zero waste
There is currently a Ban the Bag campaign underway to get the state governments in NSW, Victoria and Western Australia to get rid of plastic shopping bags. Other states and territories already have a ban in place.

A change.org petition has been signed by more than 140,000 people. Residents are also being encouraged to write to their state premiers.

A separate petition for supermarkets to reduce food waste and relax cosmetic standards has also got 34,000 supporters.

War on Waste host Craig Reucassel also wants to see existing bans in other states tightened because plastic bags are still being used - supermarkets are simply charging customers for thicker bags.

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What you don't know about those supermarket bags

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NEXT time you are tempted to buy one of those green bags at the supermarket - remember you have to use it at least 104 times to make a difference to the environment. Green bags commonly sold at Coles and Woolworths are made of polypropylene (a type of plastic) and take more material and energy to produce than standard single-use plastic bags given out for free.

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'Recycling in Australia is dead in the water': three companies tackling our plastic addiction

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'Recycling in Australia is dead in the water': three companies tackling our plastic addiction

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There's no escaping plastic in modern life. In Australia, more than 1.5m tonnes of the crude oil derivative is consumed each year, not including plastics imported in finished products or their packaging. And most of this ends up on a centuries-long path to degradation in landfill or the world's waterways and oceans. One recent sobering analysis has estimated that by 2050, the weight of plastics in the oceans will match that of fish.

Reducing consumption by avoiding the use of disposable plastic shopping bags, for instance, and reusing plastic containers are important waste-reduction measures. But what role does recycling play?

Despite our profligate consumption of plastic goods, only 300,000 tonnes of the stuff is collected for recycling each year in Australia, according to the Plastics and Chemicals Industries Association of Australia. Around half of this is sent overseas for processing and a further 20% of the plastics reprocessed into pellets to be made into new products is also sent overseas.

Not all plastics can be readily recycled. Hard thermoset plastics commonly used in electronics are currently unrecyclable, though researchers are finding ways to change that. Even for those plastics that are recyclable, the process often begins with mechanical or hand sorting into separate plastic polymer classes - represented by that number emblazoned within the recycling logo on the bottle or container - before reprocessing can begin.

But technical challenges are not the main bottleneck for plastics recycling, according to Mark Jacobsen, director of marketing at recycling firm Replas. "Recycling in Australia is dead in the water," he says, unless people are willing to buy products made of their own waste.

Replas has been in the recycling business for close to three decades, turning soft plastics such as milk cartons and squeezable shampoo bottles into sturdy plastic play equipment, termite-proof boardwalk decking and bollards that outlast their timber alternatives by decades. Yet Replas only processes about a third of what it has the capacity to and frequently turns down offers of more scrap plastic.

Anyone can say no to a plastic [shopping] bag. However, you can't say no to a bread bag.

"The whole economy has got to change," says Jacobsen. Currently, he says, people still view plastic primarily as a waste product. The company now uses a partnership model, only accepting plastic waste from organisations willing to buy back the recycled products they make. Large supermarket chains, such as Coles and Woolworths, are some of those leading by example, says Jacobsen. Some city councils are also shedding historic buying practices, which often dictate purchasing decisions, by incorporating recycled plastic into their operations.

A few years ago, Replas partnered with RED Group, the Melbourne-based company behind the REDcycle program that collects soft plastic packaging for recycling. Elizabeth Kasell, director of RED Group, abandoned a career in the fashion industry to start the company in 2010 because she saw an unmet need every time she threw a plastic bread bag in the bin.

"Anyone can say no to a plastic [shopping] bag," she says. "However, you can't say no to a bread bag."

This type of soft plastic packaging is normally a problem for the mechanical sorting machines used in plastic recycling operations. The REDcycle program eliminates this hassle by collecting and processing the packaging separately, before sending it on to Replas for incorporation into its products.

What started out as a pilot program to collect plastic bags at a few Melbourne primary schools has grown into a network of more than 600 collection stations, mostly at supermarkets, around the country. Like Replas, RED Group is happy to accept plastic packaging, but only if a company is willing to be part of the solution, buying back what it contributes in waste.

Another Australian company, Range International, is avoiding the need for sorting altogether and is tapping into a massive market. The company, which listed on the ASX in 2016 and whose backers include Prince Albert II of Monaco, recovers unsorted mixed plastic waste from Indonesian landfill. A process involving heat and intense pressure turns the waste into a malleable plastic "cookie dough" that is pressed into moulds in the shape of shipping pallets.

"What we have in our product is actually two environmental benefits contained in one," says the Range International chief executive, Lars Amstrup, referring to the diversion of landfill waste and the replacement the industry-standard timber pallets with plastic ones.

Range International's choice of market for its recycled plastic was deliberate - over 5bn new shipping pallets are made annually. Almost all of these - 93% - are made from timber and consume 40% of the world's timber supply, according to the company's website. Many of these require heat treatment and fumigation before being shipped on a single journey to their destination country and discarded.

For every 25 of Range's plastic RePal pallets bought, the felling of one tree is prevented, according to the company's figures, and an independent analysis of the magnitude of environmental benefits provided by the scheme is currently in preparation.

Expensive virgin plastic pallets are available, but usually cost far more than their timber alternatives. Range's philosophy, says Amstrup, is to sell their pallets for the same price as a timber pallet, thereby making the switch to recycled pallets easy for companies seeking a greener approach to international commerce. Range also ships pallets back for reuse by the same customer, resale or reprocessing into new pallets.

Only by reintroducing recycled plastics into the economy in this way will plastics actually become part of a circular, rather than linear, economy.

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'Recycling in Australia is dead in the water': three companies tackling our plastic addiction

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There's no escaping plastic in modern life. In Australia, more than 1.5m tonnes of the crude oil derivative is consumed each year, not including plastics imported in finished products or their packaging. And most of this ends up on a centuries-long path to degradation in landfill or the world's waterways and oceans.

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Since the 1950s plastic has revolutionised the way we live and become an essential part of our daily lives.

The production and disposal of conventional plastics causes major environmental problems.

Plastic pollution ends up in our streams, oceans, air and open spaces, resulting in the deaths of millions of animals annually.

Scientists are working on a new generation of plastics known as 'bioplastics', products which can be tailored to be biodegradable or recyclable, and produced either fully or in part from renewable resources.

Bioplastics are only part of the solution to the plastic problem-a change in consumer behaviour is also needed.

Why do we need bioplastics?

From the tiny buttons on your shirt, to the pen in your hand, from the keyboard you type on to the wrapping you remove from your sandwich, the intensive and extensive use of plastic in our society is undeniable. It has revolutionised the way we live and is an essential part of our daily lives. The figures speak for themselves-in 1960 the world produced 7 million tonnes of plastic. It's predicted to rise to 540 million tonnes by 2020. But this wonder-product, which has transformed our lives in so many positive ways, has some serious environmental flaws in both its production and disposal.

Conventional plastics are manufactured using petroleum, coal or gas-all non-renewal resources susceptible to a volatile market of rising cost and demand, coupled with dwindling reserves.

However it is the disposal of these products that is of even greater concern. The irony is obvious-products that are intended to be used only once (such as food packaging and plastic bags), or to have limited or short-term use before being discarded, are manufactured in such a way that they will last a hundred lifetimes. This means that every piece of plastic you have ever looked at, used, opened or thrown away still remains somewhere in the world today.

Because plastic pollution takes so long to break down, it pollutes the land and ocean, where it is often lethal to wildlife. Image credit: kris krüg on Flickr.

While some plastics are lucky enough to be recycled, most are sent to landfill, and the rest is left to its own devices, free to roam our environment clogging up streams, rivers, lakes and oceans, polluting forests and soils. There is even a new term for it: 'white pollution'.

If you think it all sounds a bit depressing, you're right, it is. But as plastic is too useful and too ingrained in our lives to be given up, scientists have been working on a new generation of plastics that can meet the needs of manufacturers and the community, while also providing benefits to the environment. Known as 'bioplastics', these products not only have the potential to be biodegradable and/or recyclable, but fully sustainable across all areas of their life cycle.

What are bioplastics?

The term bioplastic does not refer solely to biodegradable or compostable plastics made from natural materials. The name is also applied to petroleum-based plastics that are degradable, plant-based plastics that are not necessarily biodegradable, and plastics that contain both petroleum-based and plant-based materials that may biodegrade or not.

Essentially, bioplastics are bio-based, biodegradable, or both.

The term 'bio-based' means that the material or product is at least partly derived from biomass (plants). Examples of biomass used in bioplastics include corn, sugarcane, tapioca, or other forms of cellulose.

Biodegradable generally refers to a substance that can be broken down by microorganisms in the environment within a fixed period of time. Effective biodegradation requires specific environmental conditions including temperature and level of aeration, allowing microorganisms to convert natural materials into other natural substances such as compost, water and carbon dioxide.

With bioplastics, biodegradability is directly linked to the chemical structure and not necessarily to the origin of the raw materials.

<img src="/curious/sites/default/files/section_body_content_image/1200px-BiodegradablePlasticUtensils1.jpg" width="676" height="424" alt="Plastic cutlery made from a biodegradable material" >

Types of bioplastics

Bioplastics are not one single substance-rather, they are a family of products each with differing properties and applications depending on their base materials and manufacture.

Currently, the bioplastic family can be divided into three main groups:

Group 1: Plastics that are both bio-based and biodegradable

Group 2: Bio-based or partly bio-based non-biodegradable plastics, known as 'drop-ins'

Group 3: Plastics that are based on fossil fuel resources and are biodegradable

Group 1: Plastics that are both bio-based and biodegradable

Examples: polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxalkanoate (PHA)

Group 1 bioplastics consist of products that are both bio-based and biodegradable. They can be made from a number of different natural sources including plants, cellulose, protein, chitin (prawn shells) and bacteria.

Derived from the starch of natural and renewable resources such as corn, wheat or potatoes, polylactic acid, also known as polylactide and commonly referred to as PLA, is currently one of the most popular and promising 'green' plastic alternatives on the market.

The creation of PLA involves several steps. First, corn undergoes wet milling, a mechanical process that separates the starch, along with other useful components, from the kernel. The starch is then heated with enzymes or acid (or both), to completely hydrolyse GLOSSARY hydrolyse a The break down (a compound) by chemical reaction with water the starch to dextrose. The resulting dextrose can be in either crystalline or liquid form.

Through a process of fermentation polymerisation Any process in which relatively small molecules, called GLOSSARY GLOSSARY polymerisation monomers, combine chemically to produce a very large chain-like or network molecule, called a polymer. to cause the molecules to link up into long chains or polymers which bond together to form PLA. This is turned into sheets of flat plastic or pellets, which can then be moulded into a variety of different forms including containers, films and fibres. fermentation The chemical breakdown of a substance by bacteria, yeasts, or other micro organisms. , the dextrose is converted to lactic acid, a relatively simple organic chemical compound. This is the same kind of lactic acid that torments your muscles after vigorous exercise, but produced on an industrial scale. The lactic acid then undergoes

The characteristics of PLA are similar to those of conventional petrochemical plastics (such as PET), while another benefit its ability to be processed on existing plastic production equipment.

Alongside its renewable base materials, one of PLA's strong environmental selling points is its ability to completely biodegrade. Because it is made from plant-based sources, it makes a ready meal for bacteria and other microbes to feast on. However, due to its production process, if placed in your backyard compost bin or sent to landfill, it will behave just as any regular petro-plastic-that is, it will take many decades to disappear. To fulfil its biodegradable potential, PLA requires specific compost conditions. Unfortunately, these can only be found in industrial composting facilities, of which there are relatively few.

PLA's increasing popularity has seen its uses expand from primarily food packaging to encompass a wide range of fields including medical, textile, automotive, cosmetic and household applications.

Another 'Group 1' bioplastic is polyhydroxalkanoate, or PHA. PHAs are naturally occurring polymers that can be produced in different ways by specific strains of bacteria. In the first instance, bacteria is exposed to a limited supply of essential nutrients such as oxygen and nitrogen, which promotes the growth of PHA-granules of plastic-inside its cells as food and energy reserves.

A separate group of bacteria has also been identified that do not require nutrient limitation for PHA production, but accumulate it during periods of rapid growth. The PHA within both these groups can then be harvested, or, prior to harvesting, can be synthesised into different chemical forms via genetic engineering.

Initially, the commercialisation of PHA was hindered by high production costs, low yields and limited availability, making it unable to compete with its petrochemical counterparts. However, recent breakthroughs have found certain bacteria that are capable of producing PHA from a range of carbon sources including waste effluents, plant oils, fatty acids, alkane, and simple carbohydrates. This greatly broadens their appeal-for example, using waste materials as a carbon source for PHA production would have the dual benefit of reducing PHA cost and reducing the cost of waste disposal.

In 2013 an American company announced that it had refined the process even further, removing the need for plant-based sugars, oils, starches or cellulose, instead using a 'biocatalyst' derived from microorganisms which converts air mixed with greenhouse gases such as methane or carbon dioxide directly into plastic.

Taking this stream of PHA research even further, scientists are taking the genes from this plastic-growing bacteria and inserting them into corn plants, which then grow the plastic in their own cells. Farmers producing these genetically modified corn plants effectively 'grow' a crop of plastic.

PHA is fully biodegradable under the right conditions, non-toxic, and can be used in a wide range of applications, from food packaging to medical implants.

Group 2: Bio-based or partially bio-based non-biodegradable plastics-'Drop-ins'

Examples: bio-polyethylene (PE), bio-polypropylene (PP) and bio-polyethylene terephalate (PET)

Drop-ins are bioplastics that are bio-based or partly bio-based, but are not biodegradable. Put simply, 'drop-in' solutions are hybrid versions of traditional plastics. They differ from their conventional counterparts only in terms of their partly renewable raw material base, while retaining the same functionality.

Leading the field is partially bio-based PET, which is already accounting for approximately 40 per cent of the global bioplastics production capacity.

Many conventional plastic types such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) can in fact be made from renewable resources, such as bioethanol.

A popular example of a drop-in plastic is the 'Plant Bottle' currently used by one of the world's leading soft-drink manufacturers. The bottle uses 30 per cent plant-based materials in its manufacture, while retaining the same characteristics as the traditional bottle, and also being fully recyclable. Over time, it is hoped that the renewable component of the bottle will increase, while the fossil fuel-based materials will decrease.

Drop-ins are the fastest growing bioplastic group. Industry interest is based around two main selling points:

1. Drop-ins feature the same properties and functionality as their petrochemical counterparts, meaning they can be processed, used and recycled in existing facilities and following the same routes as conventional plastics. This reduces the need for new or additional infrastructure and reduces costs across all levels.

2. The renewable (or partly renewable) basis of these products reduces their carbon footprint while also lowering production costs.

Group 3: Fossil fuel-based plastics that are biodegradable

Examples: polybutyrate (PBAT) and polycaprolactone (PCL)

The last group of bioplastics are new polymers that are based on fossil fuels but are still biodegradable, and include products such as polybutyrate adipate terephthalate-known more commonly as polybutyrate or PBAT. Used primarily in conjunction with starch or other bioplastic materials, they improve the application-specific performance of the final product due to their biodegradability and mechanical properties. Though currently still produced as hybrids with petrochemical plastics, new bio-based or partly bio-based versions are in development.

PBAT is a random copolymer GLOSSARY copolymer A random copolymer is a polymer comprised of two or more different mer units (a group of atoms that constit a polymer chain repeating unit) attached in a random order. made up of butylene adipate and terephthalate. It is fully biodegradable under correct composting conditions, and contains many properties which are similar to low-density polyethylene such as high elasticity, fracture resilience and flexibility. This makes it a viable alternative for use in products such as bags, wraps and other packaging. It is particularly suited to rubbish bags or disposable packaging due to its ability to decompose in compost within several weeks. PBAT can also be used as an additive, giving rigid bioplastics more flexibility while retaining the biodegradable properties of the final product.

<img src="/curious/sites/default/files/section_body_content_image/5412676355_988f25ed32_z.jpg" width="676" height="424" alt="An electron microscope image of a biodegradable alternative to polyethylene." >

Environmental pros and cons of bioplastics

There are two sides to every story, and bioplastics are no different. They have great potential and many positive attributes, yet these are countered by an almost equal number of drawbacks. Both sides of the equation need to be considered closely when considering the environmental impact of bioplastics in our society.

Pros

They reduce the use of fossil-fuels and reliance on non-renewable resources.

Manufacturing process can use up to 65 per cent less energy and generates fewer greenhouse gases than conventional plastic.

Some are biodegradable and/or compostable.

Some can be recycled alongside conventional plastics.

Some are non-toxic and safe for medical and internal use.

Cons

They have a higher manufacturing cost-though this is changing as more companies begin to make bioplastics.

Composting may be possible only in industrial composting processes.

Not all are recyclable.

Some can interfere with or damage standard plastic recycling processes.

Not all are biodegradable.

If sent to landfill, some can release methane-a potent greenhouse gas-into the atmosphere.

They're not suitable for use in a number of products.

Use of plant sugar and starch sources could have a negative impact on food prices.

Bioplastics do nothing to change consumer behaviour regarding their use of plastic products.

Market demand

Demand for bioplastics is growing. Advances in technology have improved product quality and versatility, while lowering production costs. This, in conjunction with rising fossil-fuel costs, has resulted in more companies entering the bioplastic market, promoting further research and competition. The renewability and availability of raw materials, the various disposal options for bioplastics, coupled with rising consumer demand for environmentally responsible products has led some to claim the industry has hit its ' tipping point GLOSSARY tipping point The point at which a series of small changes or incidents becomes significant enough to cause a larger, more important change. '.

At present, bioplastics make up around 1 per cent of the total plastics market, a tiny drop in the plastic ocean. However, analysts forecast strong growth within the sector. Published market reviews on bioplastics project growth rates ranging from 15 to 35 per cent between 2010 and 2020. By 2018 production capacity of bioplastics will be over 6.7 million tonnes. The top performers are expected to be the drop-ins such as bio-PET and bio-PE, followed by PLA. This reflects the industry's move away from fully compostable products to those that already have established recycling streams. While PLA is compostable, the low number of industrial composting facilities are currently reducing its appeal.

A 2010 study estimated that the technical substitution potential of bioplastics for replacing conventional plastics could be as high as 90 per cent. This means that bioplastics have the potential to eventually replace most of the conventional plastics that are currently used in everyday life. As the growing commercialisation of bioplastics continues to result in lowered costs and improved technological capacities, the reality of such a figure may begin to seem more attainable-though still a long way off.

We must all begin to live in a smarter materials world. [Bioplastic] innovation isn't the total solution to the problem of plastic waste, but it's a critical start. Brendan Morris, CEO of Plantic

What else can we do?

Bioplastics are a great innovation, but they are not the only solution to the problem of plastic pollution in our environment. A change in consumer behaviour-in the way we think about, use and dispose of plastics-is essential in effecting longer-term change.

Below are just a few simple tips to help you cut down plastic use in your life.

Be proactive

Take the time to educate yourself about the full 'cost' of plastics, and inform family and friends of ways that they too can cut down their waste. Try and implement the four 'R's-Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Recycle. Every little bit helps.

Say no to plastic bags

Over one trillion plastic bags are used worldwide every year-bring your own reusable bag or just say 'no thanks' at the check-out.

Bring your own bottle

Bring your own refillable drink bottle and/or coffee cup instead of buying disposable, single-use plastic bottles.

Opt for less packaging

Have you ever bought a product and had to unwrap multiple layers of plastic before being able to use it? Try to buy products that have less plastic packaging, or, better yet, opt for ones that come in cardboard or other recyclable materials. Support companies who are trying to reduce their packaging to a minimum.

Pack a 'green' lunch

Instead of wrapping your sandwich and snacks in plastic wrap, pack them in reusable containers.

Buy refillable products

Where possible, buy products (such as lighters, pens and so on) that can be refilled rather than those that are single use.

<img src="/curious/sites/default/files/section_body_content_image/6341770051_083a31dee3_z.jpg" width="676" height="424" alt="Fresh food at a grocery store." >

Conclusion

The idea of bioplastics is of considerable interest and importance in the modern world. To develop a product that not only meets the needs of manufacturers and consumers, but which actively reduces environmental pollution, is a key goal of researchers and scientists in this industry. The current generation of bioplastics, while far from perfect, has some remarkable traits, and continuing research into this field will enable further breakthroughs and improvements. However, bioplastics are not the only solution. Consumers need to recognise that the many positives plastic brings to our lives are balanced out by an equal number of negatives. Changes in the way we buy, consume and dispose of plastics are just as important as any scientific breakthrough.

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Since the 1950s plastic has revolutionised the way we live and become an essential part of our daily lives. The production and disposal of conventional plastics causes major environmental problems. Plastic pollution ends up in our streams, oceans, air and open spaces, resulting in the deaths of millions of animals annually.

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Five Keys Steps to Save to Oceans from Waste Plastic & Marine Debris

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Five Keys Steps to Save to Oceans from Waste Plastic & Marine Debris

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As thousands of experts convene to New York to discuss the solutions required, ISWA's Antonis Mavropoulos and Costas Velis explain the organisation's new global initiative on Marine Litter - which it will be presenting at the event.
There may be no silver bullet, but the urgent problem requires a rethink, not only about plastics, but our economic models, development strategies and the future of consumption patterns.

The UN Ocean Conference started 5 June 5 in New York. This conference aims to be the game changer that will reverse the decline in the health of our ocean for people, the planet and prosperity, seeking solutions from all stakeholders.
Marine Litter is one of ISWA's key global initiatives and will be a core theme at the 2017 ISWA World Congress in Baltimore, MD USA.
Our oceans are already the biggest dumpsite for million tonnes of used plastics per year. Recently, marine scientists found that Henderson Island, a tiny isolated landmass in the eastern South Pacific, has spots with as recent research demonstrated. They are even already present, in small but measurable concentrations, in several commercial salts. They were identified in Marianna trench, the deepest and probably the most remote part of the planet, 11 km below the sea surface.

Transforming the oceans into plastic disposal 'dumps' was not difficult at all. Oceans are the perfect dumps because they are 'out of sight - out of mind'. Oceans are too big, too deep and expand beyond the horizon. And the damage caused may not have been felt by directly and immediately by human beings until relatively recently, at least in reasonable human time-scales.

A short-sighted approach will only lead to greater challenges, not only for oceans, but also for our societies: think of other small local actions that lead to challenges at planetary scale: ozone layer depletion and global warming due to anthropogenic emissions.

The genuine challenge with plastics is that they are very successful as materials, so they can effectively and successfully replace metals, wood and glass in a diverse range of applications.

Quite simply, the ability to modify the properties of plastics to meet a vast array of designers' needs is almost endless. But, the reality is even more complex and difficult: we are actually living in a huge, multidimensional and continuously expanding plastic matrix and that obliges us to think twice each and every intervention we make.

This is a key element that seems to be somehow underestimated in the relevant debate. Plastics are not an insignificant external aspect of our world, they are an integral part delivering fundamental functionality that connects, strengthens, builds, resolves, transports, but also, as in the case of oceans, when managed irresponsibly at the its end of life phase, pollute.

Plastic Addiction
Our dependencies have led to a conflict. On the one hand, we depend too much on plastics to get rid of them immediately, in a magic way: the pace of increase in synthetic plastics production and use has been exponential since 1950s and there is no sign of change.

On the other hand, we, as humans, depend too much on our oceans to let them become 'plasticized' - laden with plastic fragments. Oceans provide more than 3 billion people with more than 20% of their protein needs; fishing and aquaculture provide daily income to almost 10% of the world's population - and so on.

So, what we should do?

First, we should understand the problem better and establish some accountability. There are so many statistics floating around about ocean plastics, but who knows which is reliable and scientifically documented.

For sure, we can't manage it if we can't measure it, but this case is not so simple. We need more and better science to understand the specific sources and the pathways plastics and microplastics follow before entering the oceans.

We need to understand the material flows, and combine them with material properties, exposures and risks: in short, we need to identify where the major leakages and hazards occur, and then prioritize fixing them, starting from the genuinely major ones. Open dumping of solid waste in rivers and waterways is, most possibly, a major pathway.

Second, obviously, we can't continue to feed the oceans with plastics like we do it now. Ocean plastics and microplastics should be treated like CO2 emissions: an anthropogenic change to the planet at a global scale. We need a global plan to reduce plastics and microplastics flows to the oceans, and it would better be a fast and radical one.

This reduction can be achieved only with a new international agreement, supported by all major countries and plastic producers, and part of it should be a global version of the Extended or Individual Producer Responsibility for selected products and materials.

Indeed, ISWA is responding to the sustainable Development Goals (SDG 14) is about to formally launch a new global initiative (Marine Litter Task Force).

We aim to establish and exemplify the fundamentally positive role sound management of waste as resources can have in the medium and long term towards mitigating and eventually resolving the plastics marine pollution.

With an order of magnitude of 3 billion people without sound disposal facilities and 2 billion people without suitable primary collection of solid waste, as established by the seminal UNEP/ISWA Global Waste Management Outlook, there is no doubt that provision of relevant infrastructure in the lower income countries could massively prevent leakages of waste plastics into the water at large scale.

This also directly suggests that the relevant sub-SDGs of oceans need to be somehow connected to the sub-SDGs pertaining to solid waste collection. Cities and ports, rivers and dumpsites could be initial points of focus.

Third, we need to consider the possibility to characterize at least some forms of microplastics as hazardous substances. This could help towards putting them under stricter control, improve their traceability, and gradually reduce their presence in several products.

The obvious elimination of primary engineered microplastics, not least because of their potential hazardousness (precautionary principle), should be combined with a massive reassessment of the positive value of used plastics. Indeed, they do not belong to the sea, but their embodied value as technical engineered materials or, where not recyclable, as secondary fuel, should be openly and widely acknowledged.

This could become a major preventive force - e.g. via automated take back equipment/ schemes in the Global North or itinerant waste buyers in the low-income countries.

Fourth, we must ensure that currently (or temporarily) non-recyclable plastics, and there are a lot of them, will not escape waste treatment and/ or proper disposal.

Closing the world's dumpsites (80% of the World's 50 biggest dumpsites are nearby the seashore and rivers), upgrading recycling systems, and delivering proper collection services to the billions of currently underserviced, is a certain way to make a difference in harnessing plastics marine pollution.

Investing in integrated sustainable waste management in the developing world could be the silver-bullet to achieving an immediate reduction of the plastic flows into the oceans.

Fifth, we need to utilize the 4th industrial revolution to create a new operational system for plastics. The rise of the internet of bins, internet of packaging, machine intelligence and user engagement through software and apps can deliver a new operational system that will stimulate a surge in plastic resource recovery, whilst improving the traceability for the most potentially hazardous materials.

No Silver Bullet
Just as important, similar to the case of climate change, it seems that we have to consider adaptation plans. Pretending that we can restore the ecosystems at their state before the microplastics intrusion can be misleading and possibly meaningless.

We must better understand the new ecosystem created, and try to develop a long-term plan for its management. This could mean that we need to find ways to protect our food and income from being critically damaged due to plastics marine pollution.

Maybe we need to invent technologies that will help us to effectively remove plastics and microplastics from selected locations. Or maybe we need to find ways to contain and preserve the least affected watersheds.

In all cases, the global challenge of plastics marine litter requires a rethink, which is not just about plastics, but also covers our dominant economic model, our development strategies and the future of consumption patterns.

In the meantime, better waste management, improvements in recycling and supply chains, and better design could provide useful relief to the ecosystems. We do not know if there will be a 'silver bullet' (and beware of locking resources into 'white elephants'), but the only one we can imagine is the eventual long-term discovery of new materials that will substitute for existing plastics in our plastic matrix, the same way plastics have been substituting for so many other materials in so many different uses the last 65 years.

Human ingenuity delivered plastics and along with them, plastic marine litter pollution. Let's hope that human ingenuity will be capable to save the oceans too...

Antonis Mavropoulos, ISWA President and Costas Velis, Chair of ISWA's Task Force on Marine Litter.

Read More
VIDEO: Plastic Oceans Adventure Documentary Trailer
The team behind a feature length adventure documentary film which exposes the toll being taken on the marine environment by the huge quantities of waste plastics entering the oceans every year, has released a trailer.

ISWA: We Should Never Allow Science to be Defeated by Fake News
ISWA President Antonis Mavropoulos explains why the US withdrawal from the Paris Agreement is an affront to science, our planet, and our future generations.

First-of-Kind Study into 20 Different Waste Streams Entering the Oceans
A study looking at the impact of 20 different waste streams on marine life has been published by Washington D.C. based non-profit environmental advocacy group, Ocean Conservancy and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization.

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ISWA: Five Keys Steps to Save to Oceans from Waste Plastic & Marine Debris

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As thousands of experts convene to New York to discuss the solutions required, ISWA's Antonis Mavropoulos and Costas Velis explain the organisation's new global initiative on Marine Litter - which it will be presenting at the event.

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The Melbourne office of reusable cup company KeepCup is exactly what you might expect: based in funky Fitzroy, stylishly open plan and smelling strongly of freshly ground coffee.

It's one of three offices worldwide for the company which claims to have kept billions of disposable cups out of landfill.

But its story could have been very different.

Part of the problem

For 10 years, founder Abigail Forsyth and her brother Jamie ran cafes in Melbourne's CBD selling coffee in disposable cups.

When they started in 1998, takeaway cups were still uncommon; Ms Forsyth remembers one customer drinking from a blue paper cup complaining, "I feel like a baby drinking out of this thing".

"Fast forward 10 years later in the business and everyone's drinking out of disposable cups, in fact often people were doing it sitting in [cafes]," she said.

"I thought, 'this is revolting', there is so much packaging that is just being wasted."

Common reusable cups such as thermos mugs didn't fit under espresso machines and didn't come in the standard sizes for takeaway coffee.

"It was an awkward commercial exchange about price and size, so we endeavoured to make our own," Ms Forsyth said.

Leaky cups, legal issues

While prototyping the reusable cup, Ms Forsyth said a designer described the product as "the stupidest idea I have ever seen".

Undeterred, they sold cups off the prototype to a company in Sydney that wanted them as a gift for an event - but there were a few problems with the first production run.

"[They] called me and said, 'I can't accept these cups, they're not reliable enough; some of them leak and they're too hot to hold'," Ms Forsyth recalled.

Once they had a cup that could hold liquid, they held a stall at a Melbourne design expo and sold 1,000 in six hours.

But many cafes refused to allow their customers to use the cups, fearing they were illegal for health reasons.

"We had to get legal advice from one of the leading law firms in Melbourne saying that using a reusable cup would not contravene the health regulations," Ms Forsyth said.

A long way to go

Ms Forsyth said the initial trials taught her that "if people believe in you, they will help you if they can".

The company that received the faulty cups kept its order for a future event and had its health and safety team look over the next batch to ensure they were ready for general use.

Baristas stopped grumping about reusable cups and started congratulating customers who brought the cups to be filled with their caffeine fix.

But Ms Forsyth said the enormity of the problem of takeaway coffee cups, highlighted by the ABC's War On Waste, still keeps her up at night.

"We're selling a lot of cups and so I'm thinking, 'where are these cups going, are people using them?'," she said, comparing the problem to people who join the gym but never go.

Customers have to use their cup at least 15 times to make a difference to the landfill problem, she said.

What keeps Ms Forsyth going is seeing people with her cups on the street.

"That's just such a thrill, and I can see they've made a commitment."

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'Stupidest idea ever': KeepCup founder Abigail Forsyth on how the reusable cup nearly didn't happen

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The Melbourne office of reusable cup company KeepCup is exactly what you might expect: based in funky Fitzroy, stylishly open plan and smelling strongly of freshly ground coffee. It's one of three offices worldwide for the company which claims to have kept billions of disposable cups out of landfill.

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This company makes food packaging out of bamboo to cut down on trash

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This company makes food packaging out of bamboo to cut down on trash

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Plastic bottles causing tonnes of problems

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Plastic bottles causing tonnes of problems

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As she progressed from flat collage pieces to create two- and three-dimensional art pieces, large-scale sculptures and installations, American artist Dianna Cohen turned her attention to the ubiquitous plastic shopping bag - the single most outstanding representative of contemporary First World culture.

"Plastic bags come in a rainbow of colours, have artful typography and images on them," says Cohen, who was inspired to use them as source material for her artwork more than 25 years ago.

A student of biology and painting at the University of Southern California, Cohen initially worked with watercolours and oil paint. She then explored collage using brown paper bags from the market, which held her interest for a couple of years. "At some point I added a piece of a plastic bag from a homoeopathic pharmacy in Belgium which had an image of a plant printed on it with its Latin name below. I found a deep irony in the idea of printing plants and images from the natural world on to synthetic plastic bags made from petroleum," says Cohen. "I realised that plastic is such a loaded material. It represents the future and man's harnessing of technology. They come in every colour and at heart I am a Fauvist; so I began to explore plastic bags as a medium."

Thus it was that she sourced materials most people consider trash, such as bottle caps, little pieces of plastic and boxes. But this was not the first time Cohen had become aware of plastic, a material so abundant in our lives that we often pay scant attention to its presence.

As an avid water lover, eternally aspiring longboarder, snorkeller, diver, swimmer and bodysurfer, she had begun to notice more and more plastic in the ocean and sea over the years. "Then I heard about the Great Pacific Garbage Patch and became aware of the plastic pollution situation," she says. "As I was working with plastic bags and was interested in the geometry and juxtaposition of the found images and text on them, I shifted my intention in the art pieces to convey specific messages and make statements."

Examples include "No War Please" and "Postconsumer Mandala", collages made entirely of plastic shopping bags.

However, after around eight years of working with plastic for her artwork, some of the bags began to fissure and break apart. "Initially I believed that the bags were ephemeral like plants and animals and us. I realised that due to their chemical makeup, only some of the bags break apart, and I decided to embrace this as a part of the piece. In a sense, I believed, they are alive and will transform."

Cohen soon learnt that plastic is forever; that it cannot biodegrade and that even if it breaks down into tiny bits, it still exists, ending up in oceans and killing marine life. It was around this time that she began to make personal changes in her life, ditching the plastic bag for reusable canvas bags while shopping and carrying metal flasks and bamboo cutlery in her handbag in lieu of disposables.

Cohen recollects that she was so angry on learning about the Great Pacific Garbage Patch that "my first reaction was to go out there and clean this thing up. I created a proposal to do just that, but upon further reflection I realised I needed to back up and look at the bigger picture, and this led me to realise that source reduction is key."

Increasing awareness of plastic's potential to pollute the natural world drove Cohen to co-found the Plastic Pollution Coalition in 2009 with like-minded individuals, businesses, policymakers and organisations. "PPC was formed as a platform to amplify a common message through strategic planning and communication," she says. "Today, we have grown to a global coalition of more than 500 NGOs and businesses around the world working to stop plastic pollution and to measurably reduce it."

The goal is to break the cycle of plastic use, mainly single-use and disposable plastics, she says, especially as the intrinsic nature of plastic is such that it can go from being appealing or convenient to becoming trash in just a few seconds. "I have a big problem with single-use and disposable plastic. Plastic is primarily made out of petroleum. The idea that packaging or items have specifically been designed with intended obsolescence is a very irresponsible use of a valuable material. So at this point, I have a love/hate relationship with my chosen material."

One of the main issues the PPC seeks to highlight about the nature of plastics is that they are not designed for closed-loop recycling. It is a myth that disposable plastics are sustainable because they are recycled, says Cohen. "Many disposable plastic products such as disposable razors cannot be recycled because they are made of combined materials, such as plastic and metal. Waste to energy will certainly not solve the problem, but will only create more particulate pollution."

Plastic recycling rates in the US are very low, she adds. According to a 2015 US EPA report, plastics recycling rate, at 8.8 per cent in 2012, rose to 9.2 per cent during 2014.

"I am more concerned with plastic and the chemicals that leech from it and how they impact human and animal health. My personal preference is to choose alternatives to plastic packaging whenever possible. Recycling very often is actually just downcycling," she says.

Two broad classes of plastic-related chemicals that are of critical concern for human health are bisphenol-A or BPA, and additives used in the synthesis of plastics, which are known as phthalates, according to a study by the Arizona State University. Other studies have also shown that plastic threatens wildlife as more than 260 species, including invertebrates, turtles, fish, seabirds and mammals, have been reported to ingest or become entangled in plastic debris, resulting in impaired movement, lacerations and death.

With Cohen's passion for the marine environment, she is also helping to raise awareness of the presence of non-degradable plastics that are clogging our oceans. "Plastic pollution in the ocean and the Great Pacific Garbage Patch have provided an entry point to begin to understand the global impact of the plastic pollution crisis. Plastic pollution knows no boundaries. It is everyone's problem, it is everyone's fault."

According to a new Ellen MacArthur Foundation report launched at the World Economic Forum earlier this year, "there will be more waste plastic in the sea than fish by 2050". The report explains that every year "at least eight million tonnes of plastics leak into the ocean - which is equivalent to dumping the contents of one garbage truck into the ocean every minute".

Citing a 2014 "PLoS One" report, Cohen says that more than five trillion plastic pieces, weighing more than 250,000 tonnes, are afloat at sea and that the toxic chemicals released by plastic poisons the food chain.

In an attempt to provide everyday strategies to cut down the amount of plastic we use and throw away, the PPC added a fourth "R" to the traditional three "Rs" of the environment - Reduce, Reuse and Recycle. "PPC launched the Refuse campaign where we took the original "3R" model and added a fourth "R" on to the front, Refuse," says Cohen. "Whenever possible, I believe we should refuse disposable plastic and request non-plastic alternatives. Embracing this habit empowers individuals, schools, businesses, NGOs and governments to measurably reduce their plastic footprint."

With the UAE having one of the highest rates of bottled water consumption in the world - each individual reportedly consumes an average of 250 litres of bottled water a year - Cohen advises that everyone should ask themselves: what is my access to clean drinking water?

"In the US in the 1980s, plastic bottle water began to be sold to us through expensive marketing campaigns, which made one feel that they were drinking pure glacial water, but in reality that was the beginning of shifting public attention away from municipal water sources," she says. "Because plastic is made with chemicals such as phthalates and bisphenols, which are known endocrine disrupting chemicals, we would all be wise to look for healthier packaging and delivery systems for our water. Think glass and steel and ceramic and filtered tap water at home."

As an advocate of choosing alternatives to single-use plastics, Cohen says that everyone can make a difference to address the menace of plastic by making simple changes in their choices. "Refuse single-use plastic daily," she says. "Easy ways to get started include bringing your own [preferably non-plastic] reusable water bottle, coffee cup, straw, utensils, lunch box, and bags. Put very little in the recycling bin, and buy products in minimal packaging as possible - that is the best solution to the plastic pollution problem."

Sangeetha Swaroop is a writer based in Dubai.

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Sangeetha SwaroopSpecial to Weekend Review

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As she progressed from flat collage pieces to create two- and three-dimensional art pieces, large-scale sculptures and installations, American artist Dianna Cohen turned her attention to the ubiquitous plastic shopping bag - the single most outstanding representative of contemporary First World culture.

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The sordid secret of how we let our seas become a plastic graveyard ; Plastic peril

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The sordid secret of how we let our seas become a plastic graveyard ; Plastic peril

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Zero-waste living the new normal for Tasmanian family

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Zero-waste living the new normal for Tasmanian family

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Posted April 27, 2016 11:37:30

The Carter family has put out their wheelie bin just twice in the past six months as they work towards a zero-waste lifestyle.

The idea of zero-waste living is to only buy things that can be reused or composted at the end of their original purpose.

"We've got it to a point now where we don't throw anything out," Lauren Carter said.

It started when the Carters took on the Sustainable Living Tasmania sustainable living challenge last year.

"We were already living fairly sustainably, so we knew that we had to level it up a bit," Ms Carter said.

"We decided to take on a complete zero waste challenge just for ourselves and found it was totally doable.

"We thought it would be really hard, but it was really easy.

"We got to the end of those two weeks and decided it was our new normal."

No rubbish the new normal

The Carters take cloth bags when shopping and use their own containers for things such as meat and deli products.

"Our intention is to only buy what we need and not more," Oberon Carter said.

"Being mindful of the waste you're producing and just sparing a few seconds to ask: 'Do I need this product or is there an alternative to it?'

"We still splurge a little bit on some of the things we really like, like chocolate."

Mr Carter said the response from local shops had been mixed when he shopped with his own containers and asked them not to use plastic bags or wraps.

"It really makes the whole way of living a lot more of a social event," he said.

"I'm inevitably having a whole lot more conversations with people in shops than I was before."

Getting the kids on board

The Carters home school their three children, so they have not had to face problems of waste in the classroom.

"We didn't lay down the ground rules with the kids," Mr Carter said.

"We just explained to them what the issues were and what we were proposing to do and they were happy to go along with it."

The Carters' kitchen has a row of glass jars to hold cereals and pastas bought from a bulk whole food store.

They reuse eggs shells in the garden and even the washing up brush is made from compostable fibres.

They make their own toothpaste and deodorant and buy washing powders and soaps in compostable packaging.

"The next challenge for me is makeup," Ms Carter said.

"I've managed to make a really light foundation powder with raw cacao powder and like a tapioca starch, it's great."

Helping others move to zero waste

The Carters share their zero-waste living experiences through a Facebook group called Zero Waste Tasmania.

They are also setting up online resources to help other families looking to reduce the waste in their lives.

"We're really keen to help other families to reduce their waste," Mr Carter said.

"There's definitely a buzz about the idea of zero waste.

"We're very conscious of the fact that it's an aspirational idea and it doesn't really exist in our modern society.

"But it doesn't mean that it's not worthwhile to do the best you can to not produce waste."

Topics: lifestyle, recycling-and-waste-management, house-and-home, family, environmental-impact, human-interest, taroona-7053

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Zero-waste living: Could you live without a rubbish bin?

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Posted April 27, 2016 11:37:30 The Carter family has put out their wheelie bin just twice in the past six months as they work towards a zero-waste lifestyle. The idea of zero-waste living is to only buy things that can be reused or composted at the end of their original purpose.

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Since the introduction of 'green bags' to Australian supermarkets in 2002 - and Tim Minchin's 2005 hit ' canvas bags', where the Aussie comedian got the things stuck in everyone's heads - reusable bags have become part of our daily existence. A 2010 CHOICE online reader survey found 62% of respondents use green bags or other reusable bags as their main shopping bag.

These days, there are plenty of sustainable options available to shoppers looking to minimise their environmental impact. The tricky part is, once you look past the presentation, not all of them are as green as they first appear to be. We looked into the issue to find the best sustainable bag option for shoppers and for the environment.

Which bag is best for the environment?

Peter Allan (no, not that one), Principal Consultant at Hyder Consulting, authored numerous studies for the government on the impact of plastic bags, including reports advising which system would be kindest to the environment. This research involved a lifecycle assessment of bag options, including energy and water use, materials consumption, litter and marine impacts across the life of a bag. The analysis found that:

Overall, a reusable bag is a better option for the environment than bags with between one and three typical uses. "Given the popularity of the green bags, we needed to test whether reusable was better for the environment and this was comprehensively proven - but only so long as you use it repeatedly over a long period," says Allan.

A green bag has to be used more than 23 times before it becomes a better option than single-use bags.

Of the range of reusable bag types tested, the most environmentally-friendly option was the 100% recycled content PET reusable bag, closely followed by the reusable green bag.

Calico bags aren't recommended, because of the amount of water used to make them.

Which is the best single-use bag?

On days when you've forgotten to bring your reusable shopping bag and you just can't face buying yet another one to add to your collection, you'll probably end up with a single-use plastic bag. If you buy bin liners, you're also buying single-use plastic bags. Of these, recycled high-density polyethylene (HDPE) bags come out best for their low environmental impact, with paper and biodegradable starch bags at the bottom of the list.

"Both biodegradable and paper bags use more energy and materials than thin plastic bags to make," says Allan. "And there is little advantage in biodegradable and degradable bags, because most bags end up in landfill where there is no benefit to breaking down - they just create more methane and a less stable landfill site."

Know your bags

Biodegradable: These bags are made from plastic that meets the Australian Standard for biodegradability, and breaks down or composts into carbon dioxide, methane, biomass and water. They're generally made of corn starch or other plant material.

Degradable: Petroleum-based plastic is used to make these bags. They break down into small pieces when exposed to oxygen or sunlight.

HDPE (high-density polyethylene): This is a lightweight plastic that the vast majority of single-use plastic bags are made from.

LDPE (low-density polyethylene): Thicker plastic like this is often used to make customised boutique bags for higher-end shops.

Ban the bag

Although there's no nationwide ban on plastic bags in Australia, many other countries have introduced measures to reduce the use of lightweight plastic bags.

Bangladesh was the first country to ban polyethylene bags in early 2002.

Ireland was the first country to use a nation-wide levy to discourage plastic bag use in 2002. Within a week plastic bag use decreased from an estimated 328 to 21 bags per capita.

China is the largest country that's banned plastic bags. The ban saved the country an estimated 1.6 million tonnes of oil in the year following its introduction in 2008.

In November 2013, the European Commission adopted a proposal that requires its 28 Member States to reduce their use of lightweight plastic carrier bags, using whatever measures they like, including charges, national reduction targets or a total ban.

Aussie states go it alone

In Australia, some states have taken it upon themselves to reduce the use of plastic bags. The South Australian government led the way in May 2009, banning the use of single-use plastic bags. Retailers are only allowed to offer biodegradable plastic bags, paper bags and heavy-duty reusable bags, either free or for a charge. Produce and meat barrier bags - as well as bin liners - are exempt from the ban.

Since then, the Northern Territory, ACTand Tasmanian governments have followed suit and in November 2016, at a national Meeting of Environment Ministers, Queensland committed to ensuring there is a ban on single-use plastic bags in place by 2018. Meanwhile, Victoria, Western Australia and New South Wales are dragging the chain despite apparent support from shoppers for a ban on lightweight plastic bags.

Community and retailer responses

Some communities have taken the initiative and banned lightweight plastic bags in their towns. Across Australia, many festivals, events, farmers' markets and entertainment precincts have gone plastic bag-free with community support too.

But the story about retailers is mixed so far:

In 2003, Bunnings introduced a 10c charge per plastic bag, which resulted in a 99% reduction in bag usage over five years. In 2008, it removed plastic bags from its outlets altogether, with reusable bags and cardboard boxes becoming popular replacements.

IKEA removed plastic bags in 2008.

Australia Post stopped offering plastic bags in 2009.

Supermarket chain Aldi has only ever offered reusable heavy-duty plastic and green bags available for its customers to buy since opening in Australia in 2001.

But Target backed down in October 2013 and reintroduced free plastic bags after phasing them out in 2009.

And neither Woolworths nor Coles has yet introduced a ban or levy on bags. Though interestingly, all supermarket chains in SA have complied with the ban on HDPE single-use bags without a hitch.

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Since the introduction of 'green bags' to Australian supermarkets in 2002 - and Tim Minchin's 2005 hit ' canvas bags', where the Aussie comedian got the things stuck in everyone's heads - reusable bags have become part of our daily existence.

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Japan streets ahead in global plastic recycling race

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Japan streets ahead in global plastic recycling race

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Japan is one of the most successful countries in the world for recycling plastics. In 2010, 77% of plastic waste was recycled, up from 73% in 2006 and 39% in 1996, according to the nation's Plastic Waste Management Institute.

The country has passed several recycling laws to address the disposal and treatment of plastic waste since 1997, when businesses and consumers were obliged to separate plastic waste for the first time.

That measure, along with better awareness off the benefits of separating out plastic, is what has had the impact.

The list of plastic items that can be recycled has grown to include boxes and cases, wrappings, cups and containers, plates and trays, tube-shaped containers, lids and caps. Most is processed together, with plastic bottles and other containers treated separately.

In 2006, according to the institute, Japan recycled 2.1m tonnes of plastic waste, while 4.8m tonnes undergoes so-called "thermal recycling" which includes conversion into useful chemicals and burning to generate energy.

The number and types of plastic waste separation differ among municipalities, but most households are required to separate plastic wrappers and packages from polyethylene terephthalate [PET] bottles, whose labels must be torn off before they are thrown away.

The law was tightened amid a rise in the amount of waste generated by Japan's 127 million people, and a shortage of landfill space.

Household items such as food wrappers and PET bottle labels are clearly marked to indicate they need to be treated as plastic waste. The items are usually collected for free, on different days from regular kitchen waste.

At 77%, Japan's plastic recycling rate is about twice that of the UK, and well above the 20% figure for the US, which still depends largely on landfill, according to institute spokesman Takushi Kamiya. One major driver has been the lack of space for landfill close to

crowded and sprawling metropolitan areas.

"Japan has been able to make progress in plastic recycling because waste-processing agencies have won the support of manufacturers," he said.

Japan recycled 72% of PET bottles in 2010, compared with 48% in Europe and 29% in the US.

The recycled material is used in textiles, sheeting, industrial materials and household items such as egg boxes. Large quantities are shipped to China, Hong Kong and other parts of Asia, where it is used to make toys and games.

New technology is helping raise the PET-bottle recycling rate. The food company Ajinomoto recently unveiled a plastic bottle made entirely from recycled PET. The firm expects to use 4,500 tonnes of recycled PET in its drink bottles every year.

Japan's plastic recycling operation would be easier if manufacturers reduced the amount of wrapping they use, said Kevin Carroll, representative director of EA International, an environmental and engineering risk management consultancy in Tokyo.

"Japan differs from other countries in that it tends to overwrap," Carroll said. "You buy a bento boxed lunch and it comes in a plastic box with a lid, and then it's put into a plastic bag. Lots of other foodstuffs are the same.

"There's a tremendous amount of plastic around. The real problem is with household plastic, a lot of which gets burned or buried. The amounts involved are phenomenal."

Kamiya agrees that Japan needs to address the 27% of plastic waste that is simply incinerated or buried in increasingly scarce landfill sites.

"We are looking at ways to deal with what's left over, but it's difficult to imagine at this stage that we'll get the recycling rate to 100%," he said. "But I think we do very well compared with other countries."

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Japan streets ahead in global plastic recycling race

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Japan is one of the most successful countries in the world for recycling plastics. In 2010, 77% of plastic waste was recycled, up from 73% in 2006 and 39% in 1996, according to the nation's Plastic Waste Management Institute.

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One couple's mission to live plastic-free and fight the war on waste

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One couple's mission to live plastic-free and fight the war on waste

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Days, weeks and months spent picking up marine debris along Australia's coastline has Natalie Woods and Daniel Smith determined to live a plastic-free life.

And the founders of Clean Coast Collective are now on a mission to draw attention to the amount of plastic we use unnecessarily every day.

Three years ago the couple were both working in government jobs in Canberra, spending their weekends surfing at different beaches on the New South Wales south coast.

"We just kept noticing so much plastic rubbish everywhere, even on remote beaches," Mr Smith said.

"Once we dug a little deeper and discovered just how bad the plastic pollution problem is, it became like a mozzie bite - we couldn't ignore it.

"The itch just got worse and worse.

"What we couldn't ignore was that it wasn't rubbish left behind by beach-goers, it was rubbish that had washed up from the water."

Up to 12.7 million tonnes of plastic waste is washed into the ocean each year according to research published in the journal Science.

While Australia does not make it onto the list of the world's 20 worst polluters, Australians generate 13,888 tonnes of plastic litter per year and about a quarter of that ends up in the ocean.

Out of sight, out of mind

Ms Woods said acknowledging how long it took for plastics to break down was her catalyst for action.

"Plastics have only been around for about 50 years and it's predicted that it will take up to between 500 to 1,000 years to break down," she said.

"That's just an estimation because we haven't seen its lifespan yet.

"We found it too difficult to be sitting in an office and ignoring a problem that was just so bad."

So the couple set out on a seven-month journey of Australia's coastline.

"We felt like we were doing something really great and making a difference until we hit Cape York," Mr Smith said.

"It's so remote up there but the beaches are just completely trashed with rubbish.

"We were so disheartened when we saw that; I got to the point where I was almost ready to pack it in because the problem is just too big."

In 2015, the pair returned with a group of volunteers from all over the country.

"We wanted to show a group of young people the true extent of the problem, and people who were not necessarily environmentally aware already," Mr Smith said.

"It's really confronting up there.

"We wanted to show them just how bad the problem is and inspire them to make changes within their own communities on waste production."

The volunteers removed more than 3.1 tonnes of marine debris from six kilometres of coastline at Chilli Beach in Cape York.

Cheap and fast habits

The pair both agreed their clean-up missions had completely changed their mindset on daily waste production.

"Every single purchase I make now, I imagine picking it up off the beach," Mr Smith said.

"We're not completely plastic-free, but we really try to make a conscious effort not to buy anything that's packaged in plastic.

"It's a bit painful for my friends, but when you realise how bad the problem is you just can't ignore it."

"We consume things every day without sparing a thought to the amount of waste that is involved in packaging," Ms Woods added.

"It's way too convenient to duck out of the office and grab a quick takeaway lunch in a plastic container, with plastic cutlery, a beverage in a plastic bottle and a plastic straw all in a plastic bag.

"We use all of that plastic for half an hour max and then that plastic is going to exist in landfill or elsewhere long after we're gone.

"It'll still be there even after your children's children are gone."

Now living in Byron Bay, the pair are working to encourage local cafes and business owners to go plastic-free.

"More and more businesses are adopting the use of stainless steel reusable straws," Ms Woods said.

"They're treated just like cutlery and washed in the dishwasher.

"It's such a simple change but it's saving thousands and thousands of throwaway plastics."

Ms Woods said organisations which opted to take away individual desk bins would save on endless plastic bags.

"It also forces the individual to think about how much waste they're producing because they have to get up from their desk to dispose of their waste.

The Clean Coast Collective is planning another clean up expedition for August.

Take the ABC's War on Waste survey.

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One couple's mission to live plastic-free and fight the war on waste

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Days, weeks and months spent picking up marine debris along Australia's coastline has Natalie Woods and Daniel Smith determined to live a plastic-free life. And the founders of Clean Coast Collective are now on a mission to draw attention to the amount of plastic we use unnecessarily every day.

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Waste Management Brisbane - is the rubbish removal Brisbane industry different north of the border as most other things are (or better north of the border as Queenslanders would say!). In this blog post we aim to give you the low down on the key aspects of waste management and recycling for small and medium businesses in the Brisbane Metropolitan area. If you live on the Goldie, you can check out our guide to waste management Gold Coast here.

As the most demographically diverse State in Australia, Brisbane has all the major national waste industry players as well as numerous smaller regional and Brisbane rubbish collection focused suppliers.

Queensland currently does not have a State Government mandated levy imposed on the disposal of waste at landfill. This makes a major difference to the economics of waste collection, disposal and recycling with the financial incentives for businesses to recycle greatly diminished.

As per the link to the Queensland Government environmental authority (see link provided from our Waste Resources page), the difference in cost of disposal is very stark as compared to disposal in Sydney or Melbourne. At the time of writing (7th June 2016) the landfill levy in Sydney metro for 2016-17 was $135.70 per tonne.

This difference in cost has created strange incentives with common stories of waste being shipped north from Sydney and other areas in New South Wales by rail, so as to avoid the higher disposal costs in NSW! The money saved on disposal apparently can more than make up for the extra expense on shipping costs and effort.

Landfill facilities in Brisbane

Brisbane City Council provides landfill facilities and four transfer stations across the Brisbane Metropolitan region: four transfer stations are provided by the Council at Nudgee, Willawong, Ferny Grove and Chandler.

The disposal fees in Brisbane are also significantly lower than other state capitals throughout Australia.

Impact on recycling incentives

The lower cost of disposal at landfill in Brisbane has an impact on the purely financial rationale for a business to recycle. For example, commingled recycling can be roughly the same price as sending waste to landfill. Environmental awareness and focus is thus more important in Brisbane to reach good environmental outcomes.

Waster provides services across for Waste Management Brisbane

We offer complete coverage of the Brisbane metro region - with our pricing covering the following postcodes: 4000, 4005, 4006, 4007, 4008, 4009, 4010, 4011, 4012, 4013, 4014, 4017, 4018, 4019, 4020, 4021, 4022, 4029, 4030, 4031, 4032, 4034, 4035, 4036, 4037, 4051, 4053, 4054, 4055, 4059, 4060, 4061, 4064, 4065, 4066, 4067, 4068, 4069, 4070, 4072, 4073, 4074, 4075, 4076, 4077, 4078, 4101, 4102, 4103, 4104, 4105, 4106, 4107, 4108, 4109, 4110, 4111, 4112, 4113, 4114, 4115, 4116, 4117, 4118, 4119, 4120, 4121, 4122, 4123, 4124, 4125, 4127, 4128, 4129, 4130, 4131, 4132, 4133, 4151, 4152, 4153, 4154, 4155, 4156, 4157, 4158, 4159, 4160, 4161, 4163, 4164, 4165, 4169, 4170, 4171, 4172, 4173, 4174, 4178, 4179, 4205, 4207, 4300, 4301, 4303, 4304, 4305, 4500, 4501, 4502, 4503, 4504, 4505, 4506, 4507, 4508, 4509, 4510, 4511.

Indicative pricing is as follows for Waste management Brisbane:

1.5m cubed FEL General Waste Service - varying between $18.24 and $27.50 (per bin collected) dependent on your required pick up schedule and industry type.

As always - give us a call on 1300 WASTER or email us on sales@waster.zendesk.com if you have any queries and one of our friendly customer service agents will help you arrange a flexible, 30 day contract that best meets your needs.

2 COMMENTS

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Waste Management Brisbane: What You Need To Know

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Waste Management Brisbane - is the rubbish removal Brisbane industry different north of the border as most other things are (or better north of the border as Queenslanders would say!). In this blog post we aim to give you the low down on the key aspects of waste management and recycling for small and medium businesses in the Brisbane Metropolitan area.

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Two Australian companies are working together to tackle the small amount of plastic waste that is processed in Australia.

The Guardian reported Replas and RED Group are collecting and processing soft plastic packaging.

In Australia, 300,000 tonnes of plastic waste is collected for recycling each year, according to the Plastics and Chemicals Industries Association of Australia.

About 50 percent of the waste is sent overseas for processing and approximately 20 percent is reprocessed into pellets to be made into new products to also be sent overseas.

A recent report by the World Economic Forum estimated that the weight of plastics in the oceans will match that of fish by 2050.

Mark Jacobsen, director of marketing at recycling firm Replas told The Guardian technical challenges are not the main bottleneck for plastics recycling.

"Recycling in Australia is dead in the water," he said.

"Unless people are willing to buy products made of their own waste."

He said the whole economy has to change. Currently people still view plastic primarily as a waste product.

As a result, the company reportedly only accepts plastic waste from organisations willing to buy back the recycled products they make.

He said large supermarket chains, such as Coles and Woolworths, are some of those leading by example.

Some city councils are also incorporating recycled plastic into their operations, he said.

Replas partnered with RED Group some years ago, a Melbourne-based company that collect soft plastics for recycling through its REDcycle program.

The program collects and processes packaging separately, before sending it onto Replas for incorporation into their products.

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Two companies working to tackle plastic waste in Australia - Waste Management Review

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Two Australian companies are working together to tackle the small amount of plastic waste that is processed in Australia. The Guardian reported Replas and RED Group are collecting and processing soft plastic packaging. In Australia, 300,000 tonnes of plastic waste is collected for recycling each year, according to the Plastics and Chemicals Industries Association of Australia.

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Rather than creating more waste, two new plastic solutions are speaking to the eco-conscious: Gumdrop Ltd. is using chewing gum in a novel, closed-loop recycling solution, while a new container was designed for improved reusability and recyclability.

The inspiration behind Gumdrop is similar to that behind Veolia and Hubbub's recent "Neat Streets" anti-litter behavior change campaign: In London, cigarette butts and chewing gum are responsible for 78 percent of all observed litter. While completing her undergraduate degree at the University of Brighton, Anna Bullus became interested in recycling as she studied plastics and material experimentation. Bullus challenged herself to turn pieces of gum into a receptacle that could collect more gum waste that could subsequently be used to make more bins. After extensive experimentation, a bright pink, bubble-shaped bin - the 'Gumdrop' - was born.

Bullus' moldable polymer, now known as 'Gum-tec,' was refined to be suitable for commercial use in injection- and blow-molding during three years of development with the Polymers Department at London Metropolitan University.

"Gum-tec is the brand name we have given for a group of new compounds that are made with recycled chewing gum," Bullus told British Plastics & Rubber. "Most of the compounds that we create are thermoplastic and thermoplastic elastomers. It has taken a huge amount of time to develop these different compounds and to understand which applications they would be best suited to. We are still developing and still learning new things everyday, so this process is ongoing as we get better at what we do."

Gumdrop bins have been installed in several locations across the UK since they hit the market in 2011. The contents of each full bin can be used to manufacture three new bins which can be distributed to new locations. Bullus says that each bin can reduce gum litter by up to 46 percent in the first 12 weeks of use, and are now gaining traction outside the UK.

"We have just launched Gumdrop in Denmark, which we are extremely excited about," Bullus said. "We have started working with schools and universities there, as well as implementing educational resources. There are so many countries that all have a gum litter problem, so I hope that we can soon start working in other European countries, as well as the US."

Gumdrop also manufactures wellington boots and other consumer products that they expect to be commercially available this year.

Sustainable packaging is a design challenge in itself, especially for consumer products. Munich-based designer Marilu Valente of Merged Vertices observed that in terms of recycling, "in the cosmetics sector, the containers are especially problematic; usually their unique function is to attract the consumer's attention." With this problem in mind, she designed , a reusable, eye-catching packaging named after tropical pitcher plants.

"Right now, it's such an old, outdated process," Valente told Fast CoExist about plastic packaging design. "At the moment, everything is made and produced the same as 20-30 years ago. We keep buying the same products with the same packaging. I really think that now it's time for a change."

"The inspiration came from 2 main factors," she explained to PSFK. "The first one being that usual personal care packaging are made with different types of plastics (one for the cap and one for the body) so I wanted to have a shape which integrated the body of the bottle and the cap.

"Since I follow biomimicry as a design principle, I have looked at the natural shape Nepenthes, which are carnivorous plants."

Valente envisions a future where bottles are refilled and reused many times before they are recycled. The bottle's sides are squeezable to that it is possible to get all of the contents out, and the bottle opens at the bottom so it can easily be cleaned out and refilled.

"You'd have to find a whole new process to mass produce such a container," Valente said. "That means maybe coming up with new fabrication machines that are not standardized at the moment. But I believe that with all this democratization of the manufacturing sector, we are moving towards something that's different."

Small quantities can be 3D-printed from bioplastic. Valente is considering initially bringing Nephentes bottles to market at zero-waste grocery stores.

Meanwhile, a new life cycle assessment study demonstrated the energy and climate benefits of various types of plastic packaging compared to alternatives. The report, Impact of Plastics Packaging on Life Cycle Energy Consumption & Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the United States and Canada (PDF download), was prepared for the American Chemistry Council (ACC) and the Canadian Plastics Industry Association (CPIA), and analyzed the 7 most predominant packaging resins (LDPE, HDPE, PP, PVC, PS, EPS, and PET); bio-based plastics were not analyzed given their small market share. The study covered 6 categories of packaging: caps and closures, beverage containers, other rigid containers, carrier (shopping) bags, stretch/shrink wrap, and other flexible packaging.

The study claims that replacing all plastic packaging of these 6 categories in Canada with alternatives such as paper and paperboard, glass, steel, aluminum, textiles, rubber and cork would require twice as much energy use and result in 2.3 times more global warming potential. In the US, replacing plastic packaging with alternatives would require 80 percent more energy use and result in 1.3 times more global warming potential (in carbon dioxide equivalents). In both countries, the substitutions would require around 4.4 times as much packaging material by weight. Average recycling rates and waste disposal pathway statistics were used in the end-of-life calculations.

"Plastic packaging enables the safe and efficient delivery of various products which form part of our daily lives, everything from food to essential health and safety aids. However, many are unaware that plastics carry out these functions while at the same time conserving energy and lowering greenhouse gas emissions. This study clearly articulates these benefits to sustainability," said Carol Hochu, president and CEO of the CPIA.

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Trending: Reducing Waste With Chewing Gum Plastic, Innovative Design

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Rather than creating more waste, two new plastic solutions are speaking to the eco-conscious: Gumdrop Ltd. is using chewing gum in a novel, closed-loop recycling solution, while a new container was designed for improved reusability and recyclability. Meanwhile, a life cycle assessment study demonstrated the energy and climate benefits of various types of plastic packaging compared to alternatives.

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Precious Waste: Plastic Shopping Bags Recycled Into a New Durable Textile

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Precious Waste: Plastic Shopping Bags Recycled Into a New Durable Textile

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Even if you bring your own fabric bag when picking up your weekly groceries, plastic shopping bags are difficult to avoid and are a huge environmental problem. They could be recycled to avoid using natural resources, but the process is not as environmentally friendly as it sounds - it involves a lot of energy, emissions, heat, and chemicals, and the end product is always of poorer quality than the original material. With this in mind, Design Academy Eindhoven graduate Michelle Baggerman discovered a way to transform plastic shopping bags into a " Precious Waste" textile that extends the bags lifecycle while remaining recyclable (as it's not a mixed material). She unveiled her innovative textile this week at the Milan Furniture Fair - read on for a closer look!

During her experimental design process, Baggerman realized that the further she strayed from the plastic bag aesthetic, the more interesting her results were. In order to avoid the trashy, cheap connotations of plastic bags she used a drop spindle (a tool that people have used since prehistoric times) and bought a spinning wheel from an old lady who was moving to an elderly home (she was overjoyed to see somebody using the dusty artifact again).

Using these low-tech tools, the designer could produce a very fine, strong yarn to make a fantastic plastic textile that can be used to create just about anything.

Precious Waste is now showing at Milan Design Week, as part of the This Way exhibition featuring recently graduated Design Academy Eindhoven students. It is all taking place at Studio Zeta, where a multidisciplinary conceptual platform of work, events and a design-debate café coexist in one single space. Don´t miss out if you are out and about!
+ Design Academy Eindhoven + Milan Furniture Fair Photos © Michelle Baggerman

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Precious Waste: Plastic Shopping Bags Recycled Into a New Durable Textile

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Even if you bring your own fabric bag when picking up your weekly groceries, plastic shopping bags are difficult to avoid and are a huge environmental problem. They could be recycled to avoid using natural resources, but the process is not as environmentally friendly as it sounds - it involves a lot of energy, emissions, heat, and chemicals, and the end product is always of poorer quality than the original material.

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Concrete: Building Bricks Made From Landfill

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Concrete: Building Bricks Made From Landfill

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Recent RPI Masters of Architecture graduate Henry Miller has devised a way to reuse waste plastic as an aggregate in cement, circumventing the energy-intensive process of plastic recycling. By grinding up landfill-bound plastic and mixing it with portland cement, Miller was able to create a material just as strong as traditional concrete made with mined aggregate. The ingenious solution netted miller first place in the "Component Category" of the second annual Concrete Thinking for a Sustainable World competition.

Using recycled materials is so hot right now, but using them as aggregate is hotter than Hansel in a black shirt on a summer Sunday. While living in Albany, Miller saw many areas cut their plastic recycling programs for the cheaper (now) solution of landfills, and noticed the astounding number of brownfield sites that were simply being abandoned. Miller's idea: Why not use plastic waste as an aggregate in concrete and create a more sensible product. By mixing together ground-up plastic with cement and soil reclaimed from the brownfields, Miller was able to create a material just as strong as conventional concrete.

The Concrete Thinking for a Sustainable World competition only asked students to conceptualize a design, but Miller he was not satisfied with a mere idea. He actually used his plastic concrete to build a screen and a wall. In doing so he showed that his ideas were viable alternatives to the status quo and that there was no excuse to merely fall in line.

Describing his project, Henry Louis Miller states: " Recycling plastics is a difficult, energy intensive process, and yields a product that is inferior to the virgin material. I have researched the possibility of using granulated, post consumer waste plastics as the aggregate in concrete. In this application, unlike plastics can be universally mixed with no adverse affects, heat driven re-amalgamation is not required, and my early test results show the resulting product is as strong as conventional concrete mixes (between 3000 and 5000psi.) As a result of using plastic rather than conventional aggregate, the mining of new material to serve as aggregate is not necessary."
+ Concrete Thinking for a Sustainable World Competition + RPI's Masters of Architecture

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association of collegiate schools of architecture

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Plastic Concrete: Building Bricks Made From Landfill Waste

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Recent RPI Masters of Architecture graduate Henry Miller has devised a way to reuse waste plastic as an aggregate in cement, circumventing the energy-intensive process of plastic recycling. By grinding up landfill-bound plastic and mixing it with portland cement, Miller was able to create a material just as strong as traditional concrete made with mined aggregate.

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Plastic Packaging Research: Polypropylene for Food Use

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Plastic Packaging Research: Polypropylene for Food Use

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The strength and high melting point of polypropylene makes it the single-most used plastic packaging in the United States and United Kingdom, with 5 billion pounds manufactured in the U.S. alone in 2010.

Although polypropylene is one of the fastest growing areas of plastics recycling, for some end uses it's important to remove odor and traces of food contamination.

Enter Nextek Ltd., the UK-based plastics-design and -recycling consultant, and a 2013 Recycling Innovators Forum finalist. Nextek has created an innovative process proven to decontaminate food-grade PP for reuse in a closed loop back into food packaging. Is this a game-changer in recyclable food packaging? Quite possibly.

Plastic packaging research: Polypropylene food packaging challenge and proposed solution

With funding from WRAP, the UK government's recycling-support agency, Nextek developed an innovative two-step polypropylene decontamination process. The initial melting phase reaches nearly 500 degrees Fahrenheit (250 Celsius) to remove contaminant molecules. Next, during solidification under vacuum at about 280 Fahrenheit (140 Celsius), any residual molecules migrate for final removal.

Studies show that the resulting product achieves "the necessary values of food-grade content" that is readily compatible with virgin PP and lacks negative interference from inks and labels, says Edward Kosior, Managing Director, Nextek Ltd. The resulting product can be blended with virgin polypropylene at rates up to 50 percent.

Impact on the plastic packaging industry

Nothing will change in processing and production, but this process would offer packaging decision makers a new stream of material from which to choose as they devise packaging solutions. The recycled polypropylene is suitable for a wide range of foods that contain water or are largely oily, for up to 30 days at temperatures up to 68 Fahrenheit (20C), according to the WRAP/Nextek final report, "Development of a Food-Grade Recycling Process for Post-Consumer Propylene." Further investigations have shown that the recycled PP can be used at higher temperatures up to 250 Fahrenheit (121 Celsius) for shorter times.

What's next?

By 2015, Nextek expects to see businesses put the polypropylene decontamination process into production. The first uses could be in non-food applications, but food-grade is expected to follow soon, says Kosior.

Two primary steps remain in bringing polypropylene decontamination full-scale. The first step is to improve process optimization - improving energy efficiency, and modifying final flow property to meet brand owners' demands, says Kosior.

The second step is improving the systems for separating non-food and food polypropylene packaging, assuring that at least 99 percent of the decontamination process' input material is food-contact. Already, a WRAP-sponsored research project has developed a system that inexpensively implants laser-detectable identifiers on plastic packaging during molding.

Hear Nextek officials explain their decontamination process at the Recycling Innovators Forum, a showcase for innovative and actionable breakthroughs that can transform recycling. Nine finalists will present to judges and an audience, competing for cash honoraria of up to $20,000. Register for the free event, to be held August 26, 2013, in Louisville, Kentucky, at the Recycling Innovators Forum.

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Plastic Packaging Research: Polypropylene for Food Use

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The strength and high melting point of polypropylene makes it the single-most used plastic packaging in the United States and United Kingdom, with 5 billion pounds manufactured in the U.S. alone in 2010. Although polypropylene is one of the fastest growing areas of plastics recycling, for some end uses it's important to remove odor and traces of food contamination.

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4 ways to avoid toxic chemicals in food packaging

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4 ways to avoid toxic chemicals in food packaging

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To start with, can you tell me what BPA is and where it's used?

BPA is a manmade industrial chemical. It's a key building block in polycarbonate (no. 7) plastic, which is used to make a wide variety of products: water and juice bottles, food containers, CDs, DVDs, eyeglass lenses, and more. It's used in the lining of food and soda cans to prevent the contents from corroding the metal. BPA also serves as a "developer" in thermal paper receipts. These receipts aren't actually printed with ink; they're coated with chemicals that react to heat and change color to create the appearance of printed type.

Wow. BPA is in a lot of stuff. So how is it harmful to human health?

BPA is an endocrine disruptor. Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that are not naturally produced in our bodies but can mimic or block the action of our own natural hormones. BPA has been shown to mimic the female hormone estrogen. This upsets the normal processes of development (for growing babies and young children) and the functions necessary for maintaining an adult body.

In lab tests on animals early in life, BPA has been shown to cause altered brain development, reproductive abnormalities, and obesity, among other conditions. There is strong evidence that BPA is toxic to the ovaries and the uterus.

In May 2015, at the urging of state scientists and public-health advocates, including NRDC, California decided to add BPA to the list of chemicals known to cause harm to women's reproductive health. Congratulations on a great science-based win! What happens next in that process?

Warning labels may be required on products that contain BPA, allowing consumers to make informed choices. And we'll probably see less BPA use in the future: When California lists a chemical as toxic, national companies that sell products there often just remove it from their manufacturing process to avoid having to develop two lines. For example, a common flame retardant was completely phased out of furniture after California added it to the toxic list.

I know NRDC previously helped get BPA out of a lot of baby products, such as bottles and sippy cups. But I've heard about a replacement called BPS. Is that just as bad? Where is it found?

Bisphenol S (BPS) and F (BPF) are chemicals similar to BPA that are sometimes used as substitutes. We don't have many studies on them, but the existing data shows that BPS in receipts and BPF in food packaging (like can liners) are just as toxic as BPA.

It seems like we're constantly playing whack-a-mole with toxic chemicals: Evidence shows one is really bad, and with help from groups like NRDC it gets phased out, but then the replacements are equally toxic. Is there any big-picture solution?

The root of the problem is an inadequate regulatory and policy framework for examining these chemicals before they're put on the market. NRDC is pushing to reform and strengthen the Toxic Substances Control Act, or TSCA, to require the chemical industry to show that a substance is safe before putting it in everyday products. Real reform would also phase out toxic chemicals and ensure their replacements are safer. California is taking the lead on this at the state level with its Green Chemistry Initiative for consumer products, which was launched in 2013. That effort requires more data from manufacturers to ensure chemicals are safe and asks them to look for alternatives. The idea is to spark innovation in designing and promoting better chemicals to replace the toxic ones we use today.

For a consumer who wants to know more, it can get really overwhelming. Even the dust in my house has toxic chemicals in it! What do you suggest for people trying to avoid these toxics while staying sane?

You can't really shop your way out of the problem, and it's unfair to put all that responsibility on consumers. The change needs to happen at the policy level. We shouldn't have to worry about whether what we buy is safe or not. But here are a few general rules of thumb.

1. Buying food stored in glass jars is a good way to avoid BPA. Many products like soup broth now also come in BPA-free boxes.

2. Instead of plastic reusable water bottles, use unlined stainless steel or glass.

3. Say no thanks to paper receipts-a lot of stores will e-mail your receipt now.

4. Wash your hands frequently and always before you eat. Chemicals in dust or on thermal paper receipts can get on your hands, and you don't want that stuff in your mouth. It's the same with your kids-try to wash their hands often throughout the day and always before they eat.

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4 Ways to Avoid Toxic Chemicals in Food Packaging

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To start with, can you tell me what BPA is and where it's used? BPA is a manmade industrial chemical. It's a key building block in polycarbonate (no. 7) plastic, which is used to make a wide variety of products: water and juice bottles, food containers, CDs, DVDs, eyeglass lenses, and more.

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Australian Govt Policy: Packaging impacts

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Australian Govt Policy: Packaging impacts

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Packaging impacts | Department of the Environment and Energy

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The former Environment Protection and Heritage Council agreed to commence a Packaging Impacts Regulation Impacts Statement (RIS) process on 5 July 2010, to investigate a number of national approaches to managing packaging waste and litter reduction.

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A US Supermarket chain has been criticised for selling pre-peeled mandarins in plastic containers. It got a lot of people talking about the amount of unnecessary packaging that covers our fresh food these days. Here's a look at the problem and some kids who've found a way to help.

CARL SMITH, REPORTER: It's something you do every day.

Open up the lunchbox, unwrap your food and throw away the packaging.

But all that waste can really start to add up.

In fact, in just one year the average Aussie throws away 200 kilograms of packaging.
Environment groups say that adds up to almost 2 million tonnes across Australia every single year.

That's one of the reasons why people were outraged when they saw this photo from the US of a peeled mandarin in a plastic container. Many said it was really wasteful given the mandarin's peel was already a natural packaging!

And some even posted their own examples of unnecessary packaging.

After the backlash the company took the mandarins off its shelves and even tried to have a bit of a laugh about it. But many reckon other companies are guilty of the same thing.

So some conservation groups are calling on those food companies to start thinking about the environment, above convenience, and ditch the excess packaging.

JO HENDRIKS, KESAB: I think we've lost our minds and that we really need to think about what we're buying. A lot of the so called convenience food is really light stuff that can easily blow out of our bins or blow around and get washed into the waterways.

And there's a way you can help too.

These schoolkids have made the switch to something called 'nude food'.

KID: Nude food is a food without a wrapper, so you could put it in a reusable container.

KID: All year 5s in our school have been doing the nude food challenge, it's where we have nude food for about 3 days and at the end of the day we go through our rubbish to see how much landfill we produce.

And there a lot of ways these guys have thought of to reduce the amount of packaging they take to school.

KID: A packet of chips, you could put it in a plastic container.

KID: Some fruits, they already have a natural wrapping, so with fruit you can just leave it or if you want to cut it up just put it in a Tupperware container.

They say everyone can help the environment by thinking a bit more about what they buy, and what it's wrapped in.

KID: It's good because it helps the environment

KID: It reduces landfill, so if you keep on putting it in wrappers, all the wrappers will go to landfill which is massive hole in the ground.

KID: It reduces the amount of rubbish that we have, and if that rubbish doesn't get put in the bin it blows around and can end up in the ocean, and some animals like turtles can think it's a jellyfish and eat that and that can be bad for their body.

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A US Supermarket chain has been criticised for selling pre-peeled mandarins in plastic containers. It got a lot of people talking about the amount of unnecessary packaging that covers our fresh food these days. Here's a look at the problem and some kids who've found a way to help.

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The problem with plastic

Plastic as such isn't a problem. The polymer molecules from which it's made are far too big to move from the packaging material into the food. But plastic can also contain much smaller molecules that are free to migrate into the food it's in contact with. The plastic itself can slowly break down, releasing monomer, or other chemicals may be added to the plastic to give it the right mechanical properties. Two plastics of particular concern are:

Polycarbonate - often used to make food storage containers and bottles, and the epoxy resin used to line cans. It can release bisphenol A (BPA), a chemical that many experts now believe can cause serious health problems.

PVC - used to make bottles, cling wrap and the seals for screw-cap jars. On its own, PVC is hard and rigid (it's used to make drains, guttering and downpipes), so extra chemicals called plasticisers are added to make it soft and flexible - in much the same way water added to clay makes it soft. Plasticisers can make up as much as 40% of the plastic material. Phthalates and epoxidised soybean oil (ESBO) are often added as plasticisers to the PVC that's used for food packaging. Again, recent research raises doubts about the safety of these compounds.

What's the risk?

BPA and some phthalates are endocrine disruptors, meaning they can mimic the body's natural hormones and thereby cause a raft of health problems. Infants and the very young are most vulnerable to exposure because of their lower body weight and because their growth and development are strongly influenced by hormones; the effects on health can be lifelong. These effects have been seen clearly and consistently in experiments with animals, and when people or wildlife have been accidentally exposed to high levels of endocrine disruptors.

While these compounds are undoubtedly hazardous at high levels of exposure, scientific opinion is divided over the risk from the much lower levels that we're exposed to every day in our food. There is, however, growing scientific evidence that even at these lower levels of exposure, phthalates and BPA may be causing problems such as infertility, obesity, breast cancer, prostate cancer, heart disease and diabetes.

BPA

BPA is rapidly eliminated from the body, but because of continuous exposure most of us have detectable levels of BPA in our body tissue. Typical levels, however, are well below the daily upper limit of safe exposure set by the US Food and Drug Administration and the European Food Safety Authority. But many independent scientists have expressed concern that this limit is based on experiments done in the 1980s, rather than on the hundreds of more recent animal and laboratory studies suggesting we could be at risk from much lower doses. Such low dose effects now have enough scientific credibility for the American Medical Association (AMA) to call on the US government to enact new federal policies to decrease the public's exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals. In particular, the AMA stated that, "Policy should be based on comprehensive data covering both low-level and high-level exposures."

Not surprisingly, the plastics industry strenuously refutes these findings and continues to insist that BPA is harmless at the low levels to which we're regularly exposed in our food. But while the evidence is far from conclusive, there's now far too much of it to be ignored. The underlying science is sound and the potential for such effects is real.

For more information about research into the dangers of BPAs, see our article BPA in canned foods.

Phthalates

Phthalates are now used in so many products they are almost impossible to avoid. A Swiss study found people who eat healthily and try to avoid chemical additives in their food are exposed to much the same levels of phthalates as those who eat junk food and don't worry about their diet at all. Experiments with animals have consistently shown that some phthalates can be endocrine disruptors but, as with BPA, the evidence for adverse health effects from low-level exposure to phthalates is more limited. Again, though, there's too much of it to be ignored.

Because of its low cost, DEHP is the phthalate most often used as a plasticiser for PVC. Experts now generally agree that low level exposure to DEHP can affect reproductive development, particularly in young boys, and a US study has found a link between exposure to phthalates and increased risk of diabetes and obesity in men.

ESBO

ESBO is one of the most frequently used additives to PVC when used for containers or packaging for food. It functions as a stabiliser as well as a plasticiser. Lid seals are formed at high temperatures, which causes the PVC in the seal to partially break down and release hydrogen chloride.

ESBO reacts with the hydrogen chloride and prevents further breakdown of the plastic, but in doing so it forms compounds called chlorohydrins. Chlorohydrins make up, at most, five per cent of the ESBO but they can be toxic. Chlorohydrins have been detected in foods closed in glass screw-cap jars.

For more about phthalates and ESBOs see our article on Plasticiser danger in food .

Which plastics are which?

Some plastics are safer than others. Use this table to see which ones are best avoided.

3

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Shrink and cling wrap

Clear plastic containers for fresh fruit or takeaway sandwiches

Some soft drink bottles

The gaskets that form a seal on screw-cap glass jars

Contains plasticisers such as DEHA or phthalates that can leach into food.

4

Low density polyethylene (LDPE)

Take-away containers

Waterproof coating on milk cartons

Bags used for bread and frozen foods

Cling wrap

No known health hazards.

6

Polystyrene (PS)

Plastic cutlery

Drinking cups and yoghurt cups

Cups for hot coffee (polystyrene foam)

Lightweight trays used by supermarket to package and sometimes vegetables (polystyrene foam)

Researchers have investigated possible health risks from traces of styrene monomer. This risk seems to be low.

What are the regulators doing?
The plastics industry has been fighting off tighter regulation. It's a huge industry with vast resources (worldwide, it produces about 0.4 million tonnes per year of phthalates and more than two million tonnes of BPA) and independent scientists have complained about an aggressive disinformation campaign. Certainly, industry websites blatantly highlight studies that support their point of view and ignore those that don't.

In 2008 the Productivity Commission recommended that the Australian government establish a more systematic research program to identify and deal with the risks of chemicals in consumer articles, but to date there's been little action. Our regulators could do more to protect consumers; a lack of evidence of harm is not evidence of safety.

The use of plastics for wrapping or packaging foods is governed by the Food Standards Code, which sets a limit for the level permitted in food of highly toxic vinyl chloride monomer (10 parts per billion) yet no specific limits for BPA, DEHA or phthalates. These compounds come under a vague clause in this code that prohibits materials "likely to cause bodily harm, distress or discomfort". Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ), our food regulator, maintains that BPA and phthalates pose no significant health risks at the low levels found in food.

Consumers in Europe and North America are better protected.

BPA

Canada, the European Union and some states of the US have phased-out the use of BPA in some products. In the US at the federal level, the FDA is taking steps to reduce human exposure to BPA in the food supply. These steps include:

supporting the industry's actions to stop producing BPA-containing baby bottles and infant feeding cups for the US market

facilitating the development of alternatives to BPA for the linings of infant formula cans

supporting efforts to replace BPA or minimise BPA levels in other food can linings.

In Australia, nothing has been done other than the introduction of a purely voluntary phase-out by major retailers of polycarbonate plastic baby bottles containing BPA.

Phthalates

The European Union began to take action on phthalates in 1999. As a result six phthalates (including DEHP) have been banned in toys and other children's products at levels greater than 0.1%. The EU has also restricted the use of these phthalates in food contact applications. Since 2008 the US has banned DEHP and other phthalates at levels greater than 0.1% in toys and childcare articles.

In Australia, the National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme (NICNAS) reported on DEHP in 2010 and recommended action. DEHP is now banned from toys and childcare articles, but only at levels exceeding one per cent - a limit 10 times higher than in the US and the EU.

ESBO

While there's no evidence that ESBO itself is harmful, an expert committee appointed by the European Union (EU) to review the evidence about ESBO concluded that "in the absence of adequate analytical and toxicological data on ESBO derivatives, no advice can yet be given on the significance for health of such derivatives in foods".

In other words, we can't be sure that our health is not being put at risk from the use of ESBO.

Better late than never

CHOICE has campaigned for better regulation of plastic packaging for many years and we are now hopeful that Australia will eventually catch up with the rest of the world. In July 2014 FSANZ told CHOICE that it is "currently reviewing whether there are any public health and safety risks from chemicals which may migrate from packaging materials into food and whether current regulations manage these risks. Following this, FSANZ will determine whether there is a need for further risk management measures."

Plastic products to avoid

Most food and drink is packaged in containers made from plastics that seem to be harmless (see table above). Soft drinks and bottled water are usually in PET bottles, for example, while yoghurt and margarine containers are usually made from polypropylene. There's clearly no real need for food manufacturers to use packaging or wrapping made from potentially harmful plastics like polycarbonate or PVC, but there are still far too many products in the supermarkets where the food is in contact with them.

You can often identify the type of plastic from its identification code - unfortunately, this code is voluntary and you won't find it on all plastic packaging. Look for the codes 1 (PET), 2 (HDPE), 4 (LDPE), 5 (PP) and 6 (PS). Whenever possible avoid the codes 3 (PVC) or 7 (a catch-all category that includes polycarbonate).

Avoid fresh meat, fruit or vegetables wrapped in cling wrap. Most cling wrap sold for domestic use is now made from low density polyethylene (4), which seems to be safe, but supermarkets and many independent butchers and greengrocers are still wrapping meat and fresh vegetables in cling wrap made from PVC.

Avoid reusable plastic bottles with the symbol 7 (or look for product labels that say "BPA-free"). Keep in mind that heating and washing polycarbonate bottles can increase the amount of BPA that leaches out.

Consider cutting down on canned foods, as can linings can leach BPA directly into food.

While some plastics such as polypropylene (often used for take-away containers) seem to be OK, as a general rule it's probably safer to avoid using any plastic containers when cooking or reheating food in a microwave oven. Use glass containers for high-fat foods, as toxic chemicals are more likely to migrate into fatty foods at high temperatures.

What CHOICE wants

We want manufacturers to phase out PVC and polycarbonate in baby products and food packaging, and phase out BPA-based plastic lining for food and drink cans.

We want the federal government to implement the Productivity Commission's recommendation to establish a more systematic research program on the risks from chemicals in consumer products.

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Plastic as such isn't a problem. The polymer molecules from which it's made are far too big to move from the packaging material into the food. But plastic can also contain much smaller molecules that are free to migrate into the food it's in contact with.

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The good news is you can eat it.

Think about the food you have sitting in your refrigerator right now: the blocks of cheese, the packages of apples, the cartons of eggs. Chances are that more than a few of those items are wrapped in plastic, and while some of those materials are recyclable, certain kinds of plastic food packaging - the thin film of plastic used to wrap cheeses or meats, for example- can't be. That creates a stream of non-recyclable, non-biodegradable, fossil fuel-sourced waste that ultimately ends up adding to the 20 million tons of plastic waste floating around the ocean, not to mention landfills. What's worse, that type of plastic wrapping doesn't actually help keep food from spoiling, and might actually imbue food with harmful chemicals.

Luckily, researchers from the USDA have devised a different way to package things like meat, bread, and cheese. Instead of using plastic, they've developed an edible, biodegradable packaging film made of casein - a milk protein - that can be wrapped around food to prevent spoilage.

The United States produces a lot of milk, but milk consumption has been on the decline for years. So the USDA has been working for decades to find a way to take that excess milk - usually stored in powder form - and create something usable with it. Laetitia Bonnaillie, the principal investigator on the project, told ThinkProgress that the USDA has been working on creating food packaging from leftover milk products for decades. But it was only in the last few years that researchers cracked the code for making casein-based films competitive with plastic-films.

The biggest problem researchers faced with casein-based films, Bonnaillie explained, is that casein is extremely sensitive to water - a serious problem when you're trying to create a product that is supposed to keep food sealed and dry.

"They are proteins, which love water, and they soak up moisture in the air," Bonnaillie said. So the team at USDA decided to try adding pectin to the mixture, which Bonnaillie said acts like "a fishnet around the casein particles, to hold them in place."

"The casein-based film is 250 times more effective at blocking oxygen than traditional plastic film."

Adding pectin to the casein mixture created a film that, while still more sensitive to moisture than plastic, did not immediately dissolve in water or areas with humidity. Moreover, the casein-based film was actually more effective at blocking oxygen than plastic - 250 times more effective, according to Bonnaillie's measurements. That keeps food from oxidizing and going stale, and also slows down the growth of bacteria.

"Number one product you want is a strong film because if it is too fragile there is no packaging you can make. But you also want it to be a good packaging, and be a good barrier against oxygen and moisture," Bonnaillie said. "These are qualities that plastic is not good at. It does not block oxygen or light very well."

There are still some issues associated with the casein-based packaging. Because it is moisture sensitive - and because one of the selling-points is that it is edible - the packaging can't be used alone on store shelves, yet. In order to keep the packaging both stale and sanitary, Bonnaillie explained that the packaging would need to be used in conjunction with another, secondary layer of packaging. And while that might seem like it would just create more waste, Bonnaillie said that many products already use two layers of packaging -the plastic bag inside of a paper box, for instance. Bonnaillie also suggested that the casein-film could be used to make single-serving packaging for items like a soup or coffee, that, when dropped into hot water, would dissolve completely. The added benefit, she said, would be that the casein-film, when dissolved, would add protein to the food, making it more nutritious.

And it's not just protein that could be added by the casein-film.

"Proteins are very good at encapsulating materials, so you could add other nutrients to it," Bonnaillie said. Things like probiotics, or vitamins, could be added to the casein-packaging, creating a kind of single-serving coffee packet that, when dropped in hot water, would give you coffee with a side of probiotics - without all of the plastic.

"The consumer is more and more interested in saving the environment while also optimizing their nutrition."

Beyond food packaging, Bonnaillie said that the casein-based film could be sprayed directly onto food - or directly onto packaging - to create a moisture resistant barrier or add nutrients. Bonnaillie explained that, in tests, cereal flakes sprayed with the casein protein retained their crunch and were much stronger than cereal flakes sprayed with sugar, which is the traditional method producers use to make sure that cereal flakes don't immediately turn soggy upon contact with milk. If nutrients were added to the casein before it was sprayed on the cereal, then Bonnaillie argued that it would be a more effective, and much healthier alternative to spraying with sugar.

Bonnaillie also said that her team has tested spraying the protein on pizza boxes as a grease repellent. Earlier this year, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration banned the use of perfluorinated chemicals as lining in pizza boxes, due to concerns over potential toxicity - Bonnaillie suggested that manufactures could use the casein-protein in its place.

Though the technology is still in its early stages, Bonnaillie said that, with the right industry partners, consumers could see packaging on the shelves in as little as a year. And while the cost of the material will almost certainly, at least at first, be higher than traditional plastic packaging, Bonnaillie hopes that both companies and consumers will see the benefit in packaging that is both more eco-friendly and potentially healthier.

"The consumer is more and more interested in saving the environment while also optimizing their nutrition," she said. "There is definitely interest in this."

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The USDA Is Creating A New Kind Of Sustainable Food Packaging

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Think about the food you have sitting in your refrigerator right now: the blocks of cheese, the packages of apples, the cartons of eggs. Chances are that more than a few of those items are wrapped in plastic, and while some of those materials are recyclable, certain kinds of plastic food packaging - the thin film of plastic used to wrap cheeses or meats, for example- can't be.

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A brief history of plastics, natural and synthetic

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A brief history of plastics, natural and synthetic

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When you think of plastic, what springs to mind? Cheap toys from China? Packaging? Or maybe a plastic bag? Of course you would. But how about a woolly jumper? Or cornflakes? Or an antique oak wardrobe?

Believe it or not, from a chemist's perspective all these things are made of the same class of materials: Polymers. And the distinction between which ones we happen to call "plastics" and which ones we don't is fairly arbitrary.

Polymers are extremely long repetitive molecules which, in the case of plastics, are primarily made of carbon.

"You take a simple organic molecule and you react it with itself again and again and again," explains chemistry professor Andrea Sella of University College London.

"A little bit like a bicycle chain, you attach one link, and you click on the next one and the next one and the next one, almost ad infinitum."

Polymers are a very broad category.

By the 1930s you've got get Ginger Rogers dancing in a beautiful white laminate interior
Dr Susan Mossman, The Science Museum

As well as plastics, they also include the silicones - based on silicon rather than carbon - used in everything from breast implants to fire retardants.

They even include DNA.

The polymers' shape is what gives plastics their plasticity, allowing them to be moulded into any shape. The individual strands "can simply slide past each other" says Sella. "Think of cold spaghetti."

Humans have been using naturally derived plastics for far longer than you may imagine.

For example, medieval craftsmen made lantern windows out of translucent slices of animal horn. Horn is made of keratin - a mixed carbon-nitrogen polymer - the same stuff that skin and hair, including wool, is made of.

But the history goes back further.

A millennium and a half before Christ, the Olmecs in Mexico played with balls made of another natural polymer - rubber.

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It was not until the 18th Century that the first European, French explorer Charles-Marie de La Condamine, stumbled upon the rubber tree in the Amazon basin.

And it was only in the 1840s that the American Charles Goodyear and the British Thomas Hancock took out patents on either side of the Atlantic for "vulcanised" rubber - treated with sulphur to make it more durable.

Vulcanisation made possible the rubber tyre for the bicycle, and later the motor car (hence the Goodyear tyre company). Thomas Hancock, meanwhile, collaborated with Charles Mackintosh to make water-resistant clothing.

But the story of plastics goes back earlier even than the Olmecs, in fact as long as man has been using wood. That's because about half of your average piece of wood is cellulose - a polymer that provides the tough walls of plant cells, and wood its stiffness and durability. It is the long strands of cellulose that are separated by the pulping industry, and that give paper its strength.

It was also cellulose that provided the raw material for the next great breakthrough in modern plastics - the material "Parkesine", modestly named by the British inventor Alexander Parkes, who put it on display at the 1862 international exhibition in London.

Many early examples of Parkesine products - printers' moulds, cutlery handles, buttons, combs - can be found on display today at London's Science Museum.

"Although he's a fantastic inventor, he's not a brilliant businessman," explains curator Dr Susan Mossman. "So he goes bankrupt."

More on Bakelite

Developed in 1907-1909 by Belgian chemist Dr Leo Baekeland

One of the first plastics made from synthetic components

Used for its electrically non-conductive and heat-resistant properties in radio and telephone casings and electrical insulators

Also used in products from kitchenware and jewellery, to pipe stems and children's toys

Designated an ACS National Historical Chemical Landmark in 1993 recognition of its significance as the world's first synthetic plastic

A history of the world in 100 objects
It was left to two Americans, the Hyatt brothers, to make a mint from the material - much to Parkes' chagrin. They added camphor, improving the plastic's malleability, and renamed it celluloid in 1870, thus providing what would become the raw material for the film industry.

Cars and films are not the only technologies whose birth was facilitated by these early plastics.

Electrification was first made possible by rubber, which could be used to insulate electrical switches, while the first submarine cables for telecommunications from 1851 were coated in a protective layer of a cousin of rubber called gutta percha.

But the big breakthrough - arguably the birth of the modern plastics era - came in 1907, with the invention of Bakelite by the Belgian-born American Leo Baekeland.

It was the first synthetic plastic - the first to be derived not from plants or animals, but from fossil fuels.

Baekeland used phenol, an acid derived from coal tar. His work opened the floodgates to a torrent of now-familiar synthetic plastics - polystyrene in 1929, polyester in 1930, polyvinylchloride (PVC) and polythene in 1933, nylon in 1935.

These brand new materials were considered the very height of glamour.

"By the 1930s you've got synthetic plastics that can be produced in whites and pale luminescent colours," says Mossman.

"You get Ginger Rogers dancing in a beautiful white laminate interior."

But what really drove the industry's growth was the war effort, as plastics were used in everything from military vehicles to radar insulation.

Petrochemicals companies built plants to turn crude oil into plastic by the lorryload, with the predictable result that, come the end of the War in 1945, the industry faced a horrendous glut.

To keep production running, they were forced to think outside the box - or should that be inside the box? - as they turned their attention to the mass consumer goods market, with new products such as Tupperware, launched in 1948.

Andrea Sella offers the example of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) invented in 1941, to show how versatile these cheap new materials could be.

Today it is used to make fizzy drinks bottles, because it is strong enough to hold two atmospheres of pressure.

He then flourishes a soft winter glove, as well as a sheet of plastic for wrapping flowers. "It's the same material," he says. The only difference is the way in which it has been cast.

And that is just one plastic.

"There are literally now hundreds of thousands of different kinds of polymers," says Sella.

And their properties can be changed just by tweaking their structure.

"A standard British milk bottle is made of polyethylene, made from a building block C2H4.

"If you add just one carbon, and go to polypropylene, what you have is a much more robust material."

He takes out a baby's drinking cup and lets it drop to the concrete floor. It bounces cheerfully back.

"This was completely transformative. When they came in, they were replacing things like pewter, which gets dented, and glass and ceramics, which have the terrible problem that they smash."

Synthetic plastics had the added advantage that they seemingly lasted forever. No organisms had evolved that were capable of digesting these complicated and alien materials.

But that advantage is, of course, also a great disadvantage.

Plastic might sit in a landfill, or litter a street, for thousands of years without decomposing.

More worrying are reports that much of our plastic junk - including gazillions of tiny plastic micro-particles that might have broken off from plastic-based clothes in washing machines - have found their way into our oceans, where they collect in giant floating junkyards that go round and round in natural gyres in the ocean currents.

There is some evidence that bacteria may be evolving to feed on this junk, exploiting the energy embodied in the polymers' hydrocarbon bonds. But there are surely better solutions - such as plastics designed to decompose.

Polylactic acid (PLA) for example, is derived from corn starch, the same stuff that corn flakes are largely composed of. Starch, like cellulose, is a polysaccharide - a long chain of sugar molecules fused together.

PLA can be used to make plastic bags, and fibres for clothing.

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Meanwhile, cellulose can be turned not only into celluloid, but also the food wrapper cellophane, or the fibre rayon.

All of these polymers are compostable. Over months or years, they will be gradually broken down by microbes.
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Apart from the steady accumulation of plastic junk, there is another looming problem - where we get our plastics from in the first place.

Currently, most of them come from oil and gas. But when these finite sources eventually run out, the obvious solution will be to go back to the days of Parkes and Goodyear, and look to biology.

"The market is looking for more bio-derived plastics that are chemically identical to the plastics we use now," says Dr Jeremy Tomkinson, a York-based consultant who advises the UK government on bio-fuels and bio-materials.

"The main thrust at the moment is polyethylene."

Partly this has been driven by brand considerations - Pepsi and Coca Cola competed in recent years to boast the first 100% bioplastic PET bottle (Pepsi won).

Normally derived from crude oil, the stuff is now being produced from sugar cane by the Brazilian petrochemicals firm Braskem. It uses vats of yeast that have been genetically modified to turn the sugar into ethanol, which can then be converted by stages into ethylene, polythene and PET.

Such bioplastics also help battle climate change, Tomkinson argues, as the sugar cane draws carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere, sequestering it into a product that can be recycled like any other - even if it is ultimately burned to generate energy, and the carbon dioxide released back into the atmosphere.

But Tomkinson says that in the longer term, the main driver for the bioplastics renaissance will not be eco-friendly altruism, but the profit motive.

The big chemicals companies realise that they need to find alternative feedstocks to replace crude oil, and this is already reflected in their research and development spending.

For now, the oil price remains steady. And, thanks to the shale revolution, American gas prices are exceptionally low, turning the US into a major producer of PVC.

"But when oil hits a certain dollar price per barrel, it will become too expensive to use," he says.

"That's where industrial bio-technology could really begin to take effect."

And that's where mankind's brief love affair with synthetic plastics will come to an end.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
When you think of plastic, what springs to mind? Cheap toys from China? Packaging? Or maybe a plastic bag? Of course you would. But how about a woolly jumper? Or cornflakes? Or an antique oak wardrobe? Believe it or not, from a chemist's perspective all these things are made of the same class of materials: Polymers.