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Charles Darwin sets sail on the HMS Beagle, 1831

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Charles Darwin sets sail on the HMS Beagle, 1831

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On his 5 year voyage, Charles Darwin collected research on natural selection and evolution which he later published in On the Origin of Species.

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On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin, 1859

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On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin, 1859

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This book questioned popular belief at the time where humans and animals came from by explaining the process of natural selection. Mutations occur in species, to help them survive in their environment. Successful mutations can be carried down by generations and gradually change the whole species. It established that all modern species could evolve and share common ancestors (Beer, 2008).

In his book, Charles discusses instinctual behaviours and how these can also evolve, as well as the physiology of an animal. For example, he discusses how natural instincts can disappear from domesticated species such as dogs. This led the way for further research in the 1950s, determining that breeding animals that display certain temperaments can result in a more tame or wild species (New Scientist Instant Expert, 2017).

Sanchez-Villagra, M. R., Geiger, M. & Schneider, R. A. (2016). The taming of the neural crest: a developmental perspective on the origins of morphological covariation in domesticated mammals. Royal Society Open Science, 3(6), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.160107

This paper discusses how selective breeding in domesticated animals can alter behaviour, as well as physiological traits, taking inspiration from Charles Darwin’s first theory of this. Domesticated species tend to have floppy ears, curly tails, smaller teeth, reduced seasonality of oestrus cycles, earlier sexual maturity, multiple breeding cycles and depigmentation of skin and fur. These features could have a connection to tameness, tameness referring to a reduction in fear. Alongside changes to the neural crest, a reduction in competition and predators play a role in behavioural changes within domesticated species. The article explains how domesticated species are more accessible than wild species and although artificial selection proves evolution exists, it is not a true representation of natural selection. However, it does conclude that physiological changes are linked to behavioural changes.

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Ivan Pavlov begins his studies on salivary glands in dogs, 1888

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Ivan Pavlov begins his studies on salivary glands in dogs, 1888

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Ivan Pavlov begins his experiments on dogs and discovers classical conditioning.

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Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex by Ivan Pavlov, 1927 

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Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex by Ivan Pavlov, 1927 

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Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist known for his research on the cerebral cortex in dogs. The experiments he conducted, discovered classical or Pavlovian conditioning, which is where a neutral stimulus, paired with an unconditioned stimulus, can be turned into a conditioned stimulus and trigger an innate response (Pavlov, 1927).

Classical conditioning is seen regularly in domesticated and captive animals. The animals have been found to respond to keepers keys jingling or the colour of their shirts, these would be neutral stimuli, but when the connection is made that these things relate to food, they have become a conditioned stimuli. Clicker training is also an example of Pavlovian conditioning. Trainers will use a clicker, to reinforce a response between a behaviour and the sound. This can be used to teach animals to perform certain actions, which can be beneficial in a zoo setting as it can allow for health checks of an animal without close contact (Irwin, Stoner & Cobaugh, 2013).

Chiandetti, C., Avella, S., Fongaro, E. & Cerri F. (2016). Can clicker training facilitate conditioning in dogs?. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 184, 109-116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2016.08.006.

This article details an experiment completed to understand if clicker training, which uses a combination of classical and operant conditioning, is an effective method of training in dogs. In agreement with previous studies, the results show that there is no difference in using a clicker, a verbal phrase or no secondary reinforcer, although it may be a preferable method for trainers as it provides consistency. Dogs are highly aware of human cues and this may have affected the results as the person bowing could have replaced the secondary reinforcer. Classical conditioning may be beneficial in situations where there is a delay between the response and the reward.

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Der Kumpan in der Umwelt des Vogels by Konrad Lorenz, 1935

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Der Kumpan in der Umwelt des Vogels by Konrad Lorenz, 1935

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Konrad Lorenz was an Austrian zoologist, who is acknowledged as the ‘father of ethology’. His paper, later translated into English in 1937 The Companion in the Bird’s World, explained his research into innate bird behaviours such as filial and sexual imprinting (Lorenz, 1937), during a time that behaviour was believed to be influenced by stimulus responses (Ridley, 1995).

Konrad Lorenz was very hands on with his experiments on the greylag geese, once he discovered hatchings will imprint on the first thing they see, he became their guardian. As well as filial imprinting, he also discovered sexual imprinting which allows the animal to mate with species other than its own. From an animal welfare perspective, his research would be deemed unethical in modern day as the animal would not be able to gain the essential skills necessary for survival. Further research has shown that imprinting can occur in mammal species such as lambs (Ridley, 2005).

Chiandetti, C. (2018). The Affilicative Imprinting Phenomenon in the Modern Study of Animal Cognition. Gestalt Theory, 40(2), 189-206. https://doi.org/10.2478/gth-2018-0016

Since Konrad Lorenz first wrote about imprinting it has been studied extensively, this article explains how imprinting can provide knowledge of cognition in animals and humans. As imprinting is flexible, it is easy to transfer into artificial environments, allowing scientists to perform numerous experiments. Results found from these studies have shown that imprinting is not only visual but can be impacted by the sensory aspects of the environment, including noises before birth and contradictory to Lorenz’s theory, it is partly irreversible as birds have been known to bond with a second object but will remember the first. The research of imprinting, as it is an innate behaviour and requires no experience or training, has gave insight into human newborns and allowed for an understanding in neurodevelopment disorders.

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Jane Goodall discovers that Chimpanzees make and use tools, 1960

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Jane Goodall discovers that Chimpanzees make and use tools, 1960

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While in Gombe, Jane observes Chimpanzees, David Greybeard and Goliath, making and using tools to catch termites.

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In the Shadow of Man by Jane Goodall, 1971

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In the Shadow of Man by Jane Goodall, 1971

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Jane Goodall was unqualified when she was sent to Nairobi, to do research on chimpanzee behaviour. In the Shadow of Man details her discoveries, most importantly that chimpanzees can make and use tools. This was significant as it was believed that humans were the only species able to do this (Lawick-Goodall, 1971).

The research collected by Jane has been vital in discovering that certain behaviours, such as tool use, war and compassion, are not unique to humans as originally believed. This proved Charles Darwins theory that animals share common ancestors by showing that humans and chimpanzees were related. The knowledge that chimpanzees had these abilities changed our view of animals and has led the way for research into other species and their capabilities (Jane Goodall Institute).

Von Bayern, A. M. P., Jacobs, I. & Osvath, M. (2020). Tool-using puffins prickle the puzzle of cognitive evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117(6), 2737-2739. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1922117117

Since Goodall’s discovery of tool-use in chimpanzees, this behaviour has been observed in numerous vertebrates and invertebrates, however it is documented in less than 1% of species. This article discusses the finding of tool-use in Arctic puffins (Fratercula Arctica) and whether it is connected to cognitive ability, as widely believed. Arctic puffins have been observed using sticks to scratch themselves. Contradictory to other species known to use objects to scratch out of reach places, the puffins were scratching areas accessible by their bills. This raises the question of motivation and whether it is opportunistic, rather than necessary. Most importantly, the hypothesis that animals who use tools have higher cognitive abilities than those that do not can be compared to nest building, which is not classified as tool use but requires similar skills. Further research should be completed on this subject to discover if this is innate or learned, and provide further information into tool-use and how humans required this skill.

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Konrad Lorenz, Karl von Frisch and Nikolaas Tinbergen win a Nobel Prize, 1973

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Konrad Lorenz, Karl von Frisch and Nikolaas Tinbergen win a Nobel Prize, 1973

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The Nobel Prize was jointly awarded to Lorenz, Frisch and Tinbergen for their discoveries of animal behaviour patterns.

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Temple Grandin creates a slaughter system, 1986

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Temple Grandin creates a slaughter system, 1986

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After studying cattle behaviour, Grandin designed her first humane slaughter machine. Her designs are still being used today.

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Animals in Translation by Temple Grandin, 2005

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Animals in Translation by Temple Grandin, 2005

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After being diagnosed with autism at aged 4, Temple Grandin has used her sensitivity to sensory information, to help understand animal behaviour. Her main work has been improving on the welfare of livestock in slaughter houses by designing new systems, which are widely used today (Grandin & Johnson, 2005), including collaborations with major fast food chains after claims of animal cruelty (Wolfson, 1999).

Her main discoveries include the flight zone of prey animals, fear is a major trigger to prevent them from predators, and the flight zone is the area in which an animal feels safe, if it is entered the animal may scarper or charge. The flight zone varies on species and experience of the animal, tamer animals may have smaller flight zones (Grandin, 2012). The point of balance which affects the animal’s viewpoint. Grandin was the first to introduce curved livestock systems, after realising they believe the are going back to their starting point and safety, alongside adding solid sides to reduce view of potential stressors. At the age of 74, Temple Grandin continues to publish work, including recently editing the 5th edition of Livestock Handling and Transport (Grandin, 2019).

Wigham, E. E., Butterworth, A. & Wotton, S. (2018). Assessing cattle welfare at slaughter – Why is it important what T challenges are faced?. Meat Science, 145, 171-177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2018.06.010

This article discusses the difficulty in assessing welfare in cattle in the abattoir. The demand for better welfare from consumers has risen in recent years, however there is currently no universal method of monitoring animal welfare in slaughterhouses, as there has been difficulty in defining welfare itself. Since working with major fast food companies, Grandin has created a welfare scoring system which compares handling procedures to the stress of the animal. Her research shows that vocalisations may be an indicator of stress, which could be impacting their welfare. The relationship between stocks people and cattle is an important factor to welfare, and training may reduce fear and stress in the abattoir, however a lack of welfare protocol makes it difficult to maintain a standard across slaughterhouses nationally and internationally.