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Social-Emotional Learning: What Is SEL and Why SEL Matters

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is the process through which all young people and adults acquire and apply the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to develop healthy identities.

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SEL is sometimes called "the missing part" because it represents a part of education that links academic knowledge with a specific set of skills important to success in schools, families, communities, workplaces, and life in general.

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Social and Emotional Learning: A Schoolwide Approach

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Current findings showed that SEL programs yielded significant positive effects on targeted social-emotional competencies and attitudes about self, others, and school.

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In school systems around the world, there's growing appreciation of the importance of social and emotional learning (SEL). But ask a few people to define SEL, and you're likely to hear a few different responses.

One of the most widely cited definitions is that of our nonprofit, the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL). At its core, SEL is the process through which all young people and adults acquire and apply the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to develop healthy identities, manage emotions and achieve personal and collective goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain supportive relationships, and make responsible and caring decisions.

In schools, SEL can take many different forms, but often involves a focus on building positive relationships among students and adults, dedicated time to learn social and emotional skills, and weaving in opportunities for students to practice reflection and collaboration during academic subjects. SEL also provides schools with ways to work more closely with families and community partners to develop shared priorities and coordinate practices across different places where students live and learn.

Here are five facts to help your community align around a clear understanding of SEL:

SEL is for everyone. Learning and practicing self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making creates a foundation for any goal you hope to achieve - whether it relates to school, career, family, or civic life. That's why SEL is important for all students no matter their academic levels, ability types, behavior records, or home lives. In fact, SEL isn't limited to students. It also helps adults examine their own feelings and thoughts, manage stress, collaborate with colleagues, navigate different perspectives, and make caring choices.

Key takeaway: Take a systemic approach to SEL that actively involves all students and adults in learning and practicing social and emotional competencies.

2. SEL is grounded in science. A large body of research across multiple countries shows the impact of SEL on a wide range of outcomes that support students' success and well-being. Focused on what we learn and how we learn, SEL draws from brain science and practical implementation to highlight how best to promote healthy development. Research has shown that we think and learn best when we have supportive relationships, feel a sense of security and belonging, and have opportunities to develop and practice our social, emotional, and cognitive skills across many different contexts.

Key takeaway: Ensure SEL implementation stays true to the science by using evidence-based programs and continuous improvement processes.

3. SEL bolsters academic learning. One important outcome of SEL is that it increases students' academic performance. SEL builds skills that boost academic achievement in core subject areas while creating the relationships and environments that are most conducive to learning. In fact, 93% of teachers want a greater focus on SEL in schools because they know that it improves students' academic performance, classroom behaviors, and attitudes about school.

Key takeaway: Look for indicators of SEL in classrooms and schools, including supportive classroom environments, SEL integrated into academic instruction, and explicit teaching of SEL.

4. SEL builds on strengths. SEL gives students opportunities to learn about, appreciate, and build on their unique talents, interests, perspectives, and experiences. While SEL helps reduce risky behaviors and improve mental health, it's not intended to "control" children's behaviors or diagnose problems. Instead, it's meant to enhance the many social and emotional strengths that all students already possess.

Key takeaway: Adopt strengths-based SEL practices and assessments, ensure discipline policies promote SEL, and use SEL to elevate student voice.

5. SEL extends across schools, homes, and communities. SEL is about students, educators, families, and communities working together to create learning experiences and environments that best promote social, emotional, and academic growth. Rather than the work solely of teachers or parents, this coordination ensures students have consistent opportunities to learn and practice SEL across all the places where they live and learn. This also means that SEL isn't one-size-fits-all, but that school-family-community partnerships determine the shared vision, goals, and plans for SEL in their communities.

Key takeaway: Partner with students, families, and community partners to develop SEL plans and continuously improve implementation.

By aligning around a clear and consistent definition of SEL, we can bring together coalitions of students, schools, families, and communities to underscore why this work is so important. Together, we can create the learning opportunities and environments that all students deserve.

AUTHOR:

As senior director of content and field learning at the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL), Justina Schlund oversees content strategy of CASEL publications and platforms in close collaboration with the research, practice, and policy teams. Her previous experience includes teaching, school and district leadership, education journalism, and teacher preparation in the U.S. and rural China.

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In school systems around the world, there's growing appreciation of the importance of social and...

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In school systems around the world, there's growing appreciation of the importance of social and emotional learning (SEL). But ask a few people to define SEL, and you're likely to hear a few...

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They also enhanced students’ behavioral adjustment in the form of increased prosocial behaviors and reduced conduct and internalizing problems and improved academic performance on achievement tests and grades.

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Teachers work together across grade levels to include social-emotional learning into daily instruction. Activities include:

read-aloud stories on related topics

guided discussion

role-playing and problem-solving

opportunities to reflect on and demonstrate learning through writing, art, and presentations

Students can take home materials that reinforce social-emotional learning with families. Monthly school events highlight specific social-emotional skills, reinforce new learning and introduce ideas for using skills across different contexts.

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Blog | Explore STEM Insights from Pitsco Education

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Discover hands-on STEM tips, resources, and insights on Pitsco Education’s Blog. Empower students, inspire educators, and connect learning to the real world.

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School staff develops learning modules that reinforce social-emotional competencies. English teachers work together to plan literature projects that explore social-emotional learning at each grade level. School publications, signage, and events use the language of social-emotional learning.

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Practical Strategies for Teaching Social Emotional Skills

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A look at the skills involved in SEL illuminates many of the possible connections between SEL and learning disabilities (CASEL, 2003; Payton et al., 2008):
1. Recognizing emotions in self and others
2. Regulating and managing strong emotions (positive and negative)
3. Recognizing strengths and areas of need
4. Listening and communicating accurately and clearly
5. Taking others’ perspectives and sensing their emotions
6. Respecting others and self and appreciating differences
7. Including identifying problems correctly
8. Setting positive and realistic goals
9. Problem-solving, decision making, and planning
10. Approaching others and building positive relationships
11. Resisting negative peer pressure
12. Cooperating, negotiating, and managing conflict nonviolently
13. Working effectively in groups
14. Help-seeking and help-giving
15. Showing ethical and social responsibility

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Pp. 14 - 19

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Building Learning Communities with Character

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Today’s students need to learn more than just reading, writing, and arithmetic. They need to learn life skills to successfully manage tasks, form relationships, solve everyday problems, and adapt to the demands of simply growing up. To satisfy those needs, many educators seek effective and lasting p…

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Why social-emotional intelligence matters in school | Kate Karafotas | TEDxYouth@ISPrague

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SEL 101: What are the core competencies and key settings?

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At the beginning of the school year, school staff works together to create a shared understanding of social-emotional learning. They use this to develop strategies for using social-emotional competencies in academic and extra-curricular activities. School-wide events use the language of social-emotional learning and focus on positive relationships and responsible decision-making.

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Morning Meetings: A Daily Strategy for Teaching Social and Emotional Learning to 1st Grade Students

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Resources for creating a healthy school culture

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Resources for creating a healthy school culture

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Find resources to help students manage their emotions, resolve conflicts, and make responsible decisions—creating the healthiest school culture possible.

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1. Supporting authentic school-family-community partnerships where young people, families, educators, and community partners work together to plan, implement, and continuously improve strategies and programs to best serve all students in their local context. SEL helps stakeholders develop the skills and relationships to communicate and collaborate effectively across different perspectives and backgrounds.

2. Fostering trusting and collaborative relationships where educators can attune to and appreciate students’ developmental needs and unique strengths; develop a deeper awareness of students’ cultures, backgrounds, and learning differences; and create classroom environments that are inclusive of all learners. SEL helps young people and adults learn and practice empathy, perspective-taking, and active listening to build deeper connections with one another.

3. Promoting rigorous and meaningful curriculum and instruction that sets high standards and expectations for all students and actively engages them in developing academic, social, and emotional skills to achieve their goals and contribute to their communities. Evidence-based SEL programs and approaches help ensure all students have consistent opportunities to learn and practice developmentally-appropriate skills that help them thrive.

4. Applying ongoing evaluation of policies, practices, and outcomes to ensure all students are treated fairly, have access to supportive learning environments, engage in high-quality educational opportunities and programs, and achieve excellence in academic, social, and emotional outcomes. SEL implementation grounded in research and continuous improvement helps drive efforts toward equitable and optimal outcomes.

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The rationale for educating students with disabilities in integrated settings is to ensure their normalized community participation by providing them with systematic instruction in the skills that are essential to their success in the social and environmental contexts in which they will ultimately use these skills. (Gartner & Lipsky, 1987, p. 386)

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If we really want all students to leave school having developed certain academic, social, personal, and cultural capacities, we need to think really carefully about whether we as educators are creating the types of experiences that we know from research will help develop those capacities.

Dr. Dave Paunesku, PERTS.

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This major report reviews the latest evidence on school-based mental health interventions, providing a comprehensive and up-to-date picture of what works, for whom and under what circumstances in relation to interventions that enhance mental health, prevent mental health difficulties and prevent behavioural difficulties.

Background

The latest prevalence data for England on young people's mental health shows that approximately one in seven young people aged 11-19 experience at least one mental disorder. According to recent NHS data and our own research, the Covid-19 pandemic and resulting lockdowns have led to a worsening of teenagers' mental health.

Mental health difficulties during adolescence can have lifelong effects, impacting on a range of adult outcomes including employment, the ability to establish and maintain healthy relationships, and general health and wellbeing. Schools are in a unique position to deliver mental health support to all children and young people without some of the common barriers that affect similar interventions offered outside of schools.

Taking steps to prevent and address children and teens' mental health difficulties early provides a solid base for academic achievement, which goes hand-in-hand with mental health and wellbeing. Preventing and tackling mental health difficulties early on in a school setting can also reduce pressure on other public services, where it becomes more difficult and more expensive to adequately support people who need help.

Exploring the evidence on what works

Our major report on adolescent mental health is the most significant UK review of the evidence on supporting positive mental health in schools for at least a decade, and the first to focus squarely on what works in secondary schools to support pupils' wellbeing during their critical teenage years. Drawing on evidence from 34 systematic reviews published since 2010 together with 97 primary studies published over the past three years, this evidence review provides a comprehensive and up-to-date summary of what works, for whom and under what circumstances.

The report sets out the evidence on the effectiveness of interventions for:

1. Promotion: Interventions to enhance mental health and wellbeing including social and emotional learning interventions, positive psychology interventions, mindfulness-based interventions, positive youth development interventions, and mental health literacy interventions.

2. Prevention: Interventions to prevent mental health difficulties including anxiety and depression prevention interventions, and suicide prevention interventions.

3. Behaviour: Interventions to prevent behavioural difficulties including aggression and violence prevention interventions, bullying prevention interventions, and sexual violence prevention interventions.

The evidence in each of these three areas is explored in terms of:

What works: Setting out the effectiveness of school-based mental health and behavioural interventions implemented for young people aged between 12 -18 based on UK and international studies, and the strength of that evidence.

For whom: Establishing the characteristics (such as age, gender, ethnicity or socioeconomic status) of young people who experience the largest impact from school-based mental health interventions.

Under what circumstances: Identifying the settings or conditions in which programmes have been shown to be effective.

Summary of key findings

Universal social and emotional learning (SEL) interventions have good evidence of enhancing young people's social and emotional skills and reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety in the short term.

There is good evidence that universal and targeted cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) interventions are effective in reducing internalising symptoms in young people.

There is limited evidence on the effectiveness of school-based interventions designed to prevent suicide and self-harm.

Violence prevention interventions have been shown to have a small but positive effect on aggressive behaviour in the short term.

Bullying prevention interventions are effective in reducing the frequency of traditional and cyberbullying victimisation and perpetration.

There is promising evidence on the effectiveness of interventions designed to reduce sexual violence and harassment when delivered to young people at risk of experiencing sexual violence.

The impact of depression and anxiety prevention interventions and violence prevention interventions tends be stronger when they are targeted at young people with elevated but subclinical symptoms.

In addition to reducing mental health and behavioural difficulties it is essential to support the development of social, emotional and behavioural competencies at a universal level.

There are a limited number of interventions which report evidence of improving mental health and behavioural outcomes among diverse groups and an even smaller number of and an even smaller number of interventions specifically designed for and evaluated with minority ethnic groups. Findings from these studies do, however, suggest promising impact on mental health and behavioural outcomes when delivered at both universal and targeted level.

Universal interventions can be effectively delivered by teachers; however, there is no evidence that teacher-delivered interventions are effective in addressing the needs of students with symptoms of depression or anxiety.

High-quality programme implementation is critical to achieving positive outcomes.

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Adolescent mental health: A systematic review on the effectiveness of school-based interventions

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This major report reviews the latest evidence on school-based mental health interventions, providing a comprehensive and up-to-date picture of what works, for whom and under what circumstances in relation to interventions that enhance mental health, prevent mental health difficulties and prevent behavioural difficulties.

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The construct of social-emotional learning emerged in the literature in a systematic way with the publication of Promoting Social and Emotional Learning: Guidelines for Educators (Elias et al., 1997), which followed the blockbuster publication by Daniel Goleman (1995), Emotional Intelligence. Goleman’s book relied on prior action research identifying programs that had been found effective in building children’s social competence using rigorous experimental designs. The term “social-emotional learning” (SEL) was developed for use in research and practice in emotional intelligence as applied to the schools because it reflected a strong recognition of the role of both social and emotional factors in successful academic learning.

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SEL advances educational equity and excellence through;

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SEL advances educational equity and excellence through;

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- authentic school-family-community partnerships
- trusting and collaborative relationships
- rigorous and meaningful curriculum and instruction
- ongoing evaluation

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In the 26 years since CASEL introduced the term "social and emotional learning," the research and practice of SEL have grown tremendously. Today, educators talk about SEL in many ways and hear about a multitude of strategies for implementation in schools and classrooms.

As the creators of the most widely cited SEL definitions, CASEL now sees a need to clarify what's necessary to achieve the vision of SEL for all educators, adults and young people. We've updated our definition and framework to pay close attention to how SEL affirms the identities, strengths and experiences of all children, including those who have been marginalized in our education systems. CASEL has continued to highlight the importance of enhancing the social-emotional competence of all young people and adults, while putting additional emphasis on how we can all learn and work together to create caring and just schools and communities.
CASEL's Definition of SEL (2020 Update): "Social and emotional learning (SEL) SEL advances educational equity and excellence through authentic school-family-community partnerships to establish learning environments and experiences that feature trusting and collaborative relationships, rigorous and meaningful curriculum and instruction, and ongoing evaluation. SEL can help address various forms of inequity and empower young people and adults to co-create thriving schools and contribute to safe, healthy, and just communities." is an integral part of education and human development. SEL is the process through which all young people and adults acquire and apply the knowledge, skills and attitudes to develop healthy identities, manage emotions and achieve personal and collective goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain supportive relationships, and make responsible and caring decisions. CASEL will be explicit about how SEL can advance educational equity and excellence
As we continuously learn and refine our collective understanding of SEL and accelerate the movement across research, practice, and policy, we've highlighted four priorities:
CASEL will work alongside researchers, educators and policymakers to address issues of identity, agency and belonging that are fundamental to human development
We know from research that attention to students' holistic learning and development can promote high-quality educational opportunities and outcomes for all children across race, socioeconomic status, gender, sexual orientation and other differences. Importantly, SEL has potential to promote the academic, social and emotional development of all children. SEL can also help adults and students co-create more equitable schools and communities. While SEL alone will not solve the deep-seated inequities in the education system, it can help adults and students build more meaningful relationships and develop knowledge, skills and mindsets to interrupt inequitable policies and practices, create more inclusive learning environments and nurture the interests and assets of all individuals

By elevating young people's perspectives and experiences, SEL affirms who they are as individuals and helps students and adults understand how their unique identities support and shape their learning. By offering opportunities for students to use their voice, examine social problems and work alongside adults to co-create solutions, SEL can help cultivate change agents and leaders who will meaningfully contribute to their communities and the world. By fostering deeper connections and meaningful relationships, SEL can help create a sense of belonging and more inclusive learning environments and communities.

74 Interview: CASEL President on the Importance of Maintaining Quality in Social-Emotional Learning, Paying Attention to the Adults and Work as the Next SEL Frontier
CASEL will continue emphasizing how environments, relationships and broader contexts shape learning and development
With these priorities in mind, our updated framework reflects expanded definitions and examples of five core social and emotional competencies - self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills and responsible decision-making. The updated language pays attention to personal and social identities, cultural competency and collective action as part of SEL. It also emphasizes the skills, knowledge and mindsets needed to examine prejudices and biases, evaluate social norms and systemic inequities, and promote community well-being.

SEL is most beneficial when school leaders and educators enhance both the competencies of young people and adults and the systems in which those competencies are promoted. Poorly implemented SEL will be less beneficial and actually may harm kids when contexts are ignored. Authentic partnerships among schools, families and communities are critical to creating equitable learning environments, supportive relationships and coordinated practices to truly promote SEL across all the settings where students live and learn.
CASEL will support schools, districts and states to infuse SEL systemically into curriculum and instruction, out-of-school time, discipline, student support services, professional learning and ongoing assessment for continuous improvement
Our framework continues to underscore the importance of establishing equitable learning environments and coordinating SEL practices across classrooms and schools, with additional emphasis on the essential roles of families and community partners.

When SEL is woven into the daily life of school - from academic instruction to discipline practices - it is more likely to produce the many benefits that research has documented, including the promotion of students' skills and attitudes, improved school climate and long-term academic achievement. This requires district and state policies and resources that help adults strengthen their own SEL and professional skills to support and sustain the healthy development of one another and the young people they support.

Given the uncertainties and challenges of today's world, our education systems should prioritize SEL to build healthy relationships, engage students and support adults to contribute to more equitable schools and communities. SEL is not a panacea or silver bullet; there is much more to learn about how best to implement SEL to promote equitable outcomes, and how to sustain high-quality implementation long-term.
Karen Niemi is president and CEO of , the Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning.
At the same time, SEL is grounded by a growing body of research and bolstered by overwhelming demand from principals, teachers, parents and students. Our hope is that SEL will not only improve schools today, but help build a better world tomorrow.

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Niemi: CASEL Is Updating the Most Widely Recognized Definition of Social-Emotional Learning. Here's Why

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In the 26 years since CASEL introduced the term "social and emotional learning," the research and practice of SEL have grown tremendously. Today, educators talk about SEL in many ways and hear about a multitude of strategies for implementation in schools and classrooms. As the creators of the most widely cited SEL definitions, CASEL now [...]

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SEL Skill Area #2: Regulating and ManagingStrong Emotions (Positive and Negative)

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SEL Skill Area #2: Regulating and ManagingStrong Emotions (Positive and Negative)

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Students inevitably sit in classes, especially in inclusion contexts, beset with strong emotions. These emotions often interfere with the learning process. Traditionally, it might be expected that students would learn anger management or some other kinds of self-control skills, and these are highly valuable. Every educator knows that all students are sitting in their classes often feeling confused about what is being presented. Often they also feel anger for a variety of reasons.

What are they supposed to do with these strong feelings? The SEL perspective always looks at the interaction between the child, the educators, and the learning context. From that point of view, it is unrealistic to expect students who are most impaired to exercise self-control independently. The use of a Feelings Thermometer and a Confusion (or Clarity) Thermometer recognizes that students who are in the midst of dealing with strong feelings are least able to bring them back under control without some environmental support and assistance.

SEL pedagogy generally involves the use of extensive verbal and visual prompts and cues to remind students to use skills that they have been taught

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SEL APPROACHES TO SKILL- BUILDING INTERVENTIONS

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SEL APPROACHES TO SKILL- BUILDING INTERVENTIONS

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There is a clear compatibility between standard sets of recommendations designed to improve the classroom environment for students and the kinds of skills included on the SEL list. For example, Thompson (1997) suggests that interventions should include problem solving, strategies for remembering things said and presented, and coping techniques. Thompson also emphasizes the importance of ongoing support functions because of students’ difficulties with internalization.

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SEL also addresses the confluence of individual skills and the way in which the environment promotes the development of those skills and supports their use.

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SEL Skill Area #1: Recognizing Emotions in Selfand Others

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SEL Skill Area #1: Recognizing Emotions in Selfand Others

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Children share difficulty with students in special education in general, as well as a growing number of both nonclassified and gifted students: they have an inadequate feelings vocabulary and thus have trouble recognizing feelings in themselves and others. Feelings vocabulary represents the way we process the world around us. We are pre-wired to perceive an extraordinarily wide-ranging and subtle array of feelings, but we tend to not use that capacity. For many children, the principal feelings they deploy during the day are sad, glad, and mad.

Imagine a student working on a math problem and having difficulty. If he or she were to take the time to do some introspection, what feeling is most likely to be detected? If you ask students, they will tell you – mad, or perhaps sad. But if you were to probe more deeply, you would likely find that the feeling was more nuanced: frustration, inadequacy, disappointment, bafflement, anxiety, perhaps even challenge. With any of these feelings, it is possible to work with a child to arrive at a more constructive response than if he or she is feeling mad (which usually leads to externalizing and lashing out at others) or sad (which often leads to resignation and learned helplessness).

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SEL Skill Area #3: Recognizing Strengths and Area of Need

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SEL Skill Area #3: Recognizing Strengths and Area of Need

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Students learn well through their strengths, and opportunities to use their strengths can leverage a greater willingness to work on areas to weakness or learning difficulty. This is accomplished by helping students work in areas of their multiple intelligences (MI) strength, or preference (Armstrong, 1994). Working through the multiple intelligences is more than just pedagogy. It represents finding windows into the soul of children and ways to reach them in powerful and meaningful ways. When students are working within their areas of MI strength, they are able to mobilize confidence and enjoyment in ways that can be cut off if they are “off-modality.” Thus, it becomes vital for students to have opportunities to learn in their preferred modalities.

Think more about the modalities in which students show what they have learned. Often, it is in writing. Many children respond well when given chances to be creative within the written modality. Examples include presenting findings as a newspaper article, talk-show interview, a play, or inverse. Further inroads can be made by giving students opportunities to use other modalities, or more integrative modalities, to show what they know. They might make a diorama, create a poster, do tape-recorded interviews, create a series of charts or graphs, host a quiz show, make a video script and record it, or stage a debate. Many of these project formats involve small-group work.

A great deal can be gained by such work because it allows students a chance to build both the inter-and intrapersonal skills they need for life success as well as success in all kinds of academic circumstances (Ferretti et al., 2001).

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The following accommodations are widely agreed upon for children with diverse disabilities:
(a) setting minimum goals and sharing them with students;
(b) providing guiding questions prior to reading;
(c) providing work in smaller units;
(d) having consistent order and structure in the classroom;
(e) offering immediate and specific feedback in a firm but caring tone; and
(f) providing extensive review and reinforcement

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From an SEL point of view, interventions that are comprehensive and link academic and social emotional learning have the greatest likelihood of helping students with LD. Three examples are presented below;

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Community share sessions, peer discussion circles, and whole-class constructive conversations embed the text and themes from the text into the daily rhythm of the classroom. The focus is on one type of writing – writing persuasively – toward the goal of positive personal change.

Writing in reflective journals is also used, along with response journal prompts designed to help students make literary inferences of greater depth, sophistication, and generalization that parallel their understanding of their social world and social interaction.

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Using computer-assisted instruction to engage reluctant learners

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Using computer-assisted instruction to engage reluctant learners

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There is little doubt that learning disabilities can be both taxing and discouraging for students. Their experience with multiple helpers and their persistent need for help can make them reluctant learners.

The effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction is that it serves as an exemplar of working through the multiple intelligences using a combination of motion, sound, color, text, and physical activity. It engages spatial skills, cognitive skills, and, in recent innovative applications, emotions. Because it allows children and adolescents to work in a context of strength as opposed to a context of deficit, the computer becomes a tool for positive self-exploration and change.

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This technique uses the computer’s ability to scan pictures, link sound to pictures, and create a slide show through commonly available word-processing software and Power Point. Students are helped to look at their lives and define themselves in terms of their strengths, not their disabilities. They are helped to examine times when they have been successful, met and overcome challenges, and had feelings of  positive self-worth.

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The emotional and relational factors in learning and remediative situations have not received sufficient attention to date. SEL provides many approaches that can be incorporated into interventions. SEL theory also shows that group interventions afford important opportunities for building skills necessary for effective social interaction and relationships; multimodal interventions provide greater likelihood of positive results, which mobilize greater confidence and hope...

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The emotional and relational factors in learning and remediative situations have not received sufficient attention to date. SEL provides many approaches that can be incorporated into interventions. SEL theory also shows that group interventions afford important opportunities for building skills necessary for effective social interaction and relationships; multimodal interventions provide greater likelihood of positive results, which mobilize greater confidence and hope...