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The problem can be solved with assistive technology

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The problem can be solved with assistive technology

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Try 1) no tech, 2) low tech, and then 3) high tech

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contributed by Brian Neese, Alvernia University

Assistive technology tools are among the least 'celebrated' but most crucial tools in K-12 education today.

According to the National Education Association (NEA), the number of U.S. students enrolled in special education programs has risen 30 percent over the past 10 years. Additionally, the NEA reports that nearly every general education classroom in the country includes students with disabilities, as three out of every four students with disabilities spend part or all of their school day in a general education classroom.

One tool to help students with disabilities even in the face of a special education teacher shortage is assistive technology. Today, assistive technology tools can help students with certain disabilities learn more effectively. Ranging in sophistication from 'low' technologies such as a graphic organizer worksheet to 'high' technologies including cutting-edge software and smartphone apps, assistive technology is a growing and dynamic field. Several areas of assistive technology and sample products may be found in any given classroom, making a difference in how students of all abilities learn.

See also 30 Examples Of Assistive Technology In The Classroom
Background On Assistive Needs & Supporting Technology Assistive Technology Module
This isn't a tech tool but a short kind of 'course' that offers an overview of assistive technology (AT) and explores ways to expand students' access to it in the classroom

Assistive Technology Act (AT Act)

A summary of the Assistive Technology Act and its consequences for educators.
AEM Student Summary Worksheet
A resource that, for example, helps teachers "think about whether the student 1) can gain information from print-based educational materials used across the curriculum by all students, 2) needs materials in a specialized format, or 3) needs modified content or alternative materials."
Text-To-Speech Assistive Tools
As an assistive technology, text-to-speech (TTS) software is designed to help children who have difficulties reading standard print. Common print disabilities can include blindness, dyslexia or any type of visual impairment, learning disability or other physical condition that impedes the ability to read. However, other students can benefit from TTS technology, such as children that have autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or an intellectual disability.

The technology works by scanning and then reading the words to the student in a synthesized voice, using a large number of speech sounds that make up words in any given context. With the advances in speech synthesis, TTS technology is more accurate and lifelike than ever.
Tech Matrix
Search a database of nearly 400 products using extensive criteria tailored to assistive and educational technologies.
Kurzweil 3000
The Kurzweil 3000 is a leader in TTS software for individuals that struggle with literacy. In addition to a range of TTS features, the full-featured software program integrates abilities that can help students in other areas, potentially appealing to those who may have a non-print disability or those who may not typically consider a TTS program. Some of the features include:

* Multiple TTS voices

* Support for 18 languages and dialects

* Talking spell-checker

* Picture dictionary graphics for more than 40,000 words

* Text magnification

* Tools for test taking, essay writing, note-taking, reference and more

The Kurzweil 3000 strives to provide students with a multi-sensory approach to literacy learning. It is available for Windows and Macintosh.

Graphic organizers can be effective in helping students to organize their thoughts during the writing process. As an assistive technology, graphic organizers can be a strong choice for students with dysgraphia or disorders of written expressions - particularly the conceptual aspects of writing.

Graphic organizers work by helping the student map out a course of action. Depending on the type of writing, the graphic organizer can prompt the writer to describe an object, chart out a course of events or perform some other task that can help in planning the piece. Graphic organizers vary by type and technological sophistication.
Low-Tech Handouts
Graphic organizers do not need to be technologically advanced; in fact, they can exist in simple handout form.

Sample handouts can be found at the Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Company. The sandwich chart can assist students with paragraph writing. The sequence chart can help with narrative writing and the ordering of events. The sense chart is designed for descriptive writing, where writers are prompted for terms that characterize and express an item. Dozens of other sample charts exist and can help students with virtually any type of writing.
Draft:Builder
Draft:Builder is a writing tool that integrates outlining, note taking and draft writing functions to break down the writing process into three steps. Using a graphical organizer, the program helps the student visualize the project and insert information into the appropriate place without having to conceptualize the whole process. It then automates the process of creating the paper, where the student can drag and drop what is written in each note to the rough draft.

Other features include a talking spell checker that uses TTS technology, a bibliography tool, a dictionary and the ability for teachers to add locked text into the program for further guidance. Draft:Builder is available for Windows and Macintosh.
Assistive Listening Systems
A variety of assistive listening systems, or hearing assistive technology, can help students who are deaf or hard of hearing, as well as those with other auditory and learning problems. According to the National Association for the Deaf, assistive listening systems can be used to enhance the reach and effectiveness of hearing aids and cochlear implants, or by children who do not need those tools but still need help hearing. Assistive listening systems use a microphone, a type of transmission technology and a device for capturing and bringing the sound to the ear. The specific transmission technology used in the system is typically what contrasts one type of assistive listening system from another.
FM Systems
According to the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA), FM systems are the best choice for children with sensorineural hearing loss. The most common type of hearing loss for all ages, sensorineural hearing loss occurs when the inner ear (cochlea) or nerve pathways from the inner ear to the brain are damaged.

FM systems work using radio broadcast technology. With a transmitter microphone and a receiver, the teacher and student can maintain a consistent sound level regardless of distance and background noise. Additionally, ASHA notes that the hearing aid microphone can be turned off, so the student can concentrate on the teacher alone.
Sound-Field Systems
Sound-field systems are a strong choice for classrooms that need to assist listening for all children in the class. ASHA notes that these systems benefit not only children that have hearing loss, but those that have other auditory and learning problems, such as language delays, central auditory processing disorder, articulation disorders and development delays. Additionally, sound-field systems can be used for students who are learning English as a second language.

Sound-field systems use a microphone that projects sound through mounted speakers around the classroom. In classrooms that have good acoustics, sound is able to travel evenly throughout space, eliminating problems of distance between the speaker and each listener.
Sip-and-Puff Systems
Sip-and-puff systems are used by students who have mobility challenges, such as paralysis and fine motor skill disabilities. These systems allow for control of a computer, mobile device or some other technological application by the child moving the device with his or her mouth. Similar to a joystick, the child can move the controller in any direction and click on various navigational tools using either a sip or a puff. An on-screen keyboard allows the child to type using the same movements.

Sip-and-puff systems are a type of switch device, which refers to the technology used to replace a computer keyboard or mouse. Other switch devices include buttons or other objects that a student can touch, push, pull, kick or perform some other simple action that can then control the device.
Jouse3
The Jouse3 is a sip-and-puff system that allows children to control a device using any part of the mouth, cheek, chin or tongue. Due to its accuracy and quick response, home users can use it for drawing or computer games. It can mount to the desktop, a bedframe or any other type of structure; it does not require a headpiece or placement on the body of the user.

The product supports Windows, Macintosh, Linux and Unix based computers, in addition to Android and iOS mobile devices. It can support one or two external switches, and has two types of mouthpieces.
Sip-and-Puff Systems From Origin Instruments
Origin Instruments offers a range of sip-and-puff products that students can use to control an electronic device. Using a head mounted or gooseneck user interface, or available tubing for a custom solution, the child can control a mouse, joystick or keyboard with ease. The primary system is powered using USB technology.

The product supports Windows, Macintosh and Linux based computers. Two pressure switches connect the system to the user interface solution for use on electronic devices.
Proofreading Software
Proofreading software is a branch of assistive technology that goes above and beyond the typical proofreading features found in a word processing system, such as correcting words frequently misspelled by students with dyslexia. A number of other features offered within this category can help students work on his or her English skill set to become a more effective and accurate writer.

Although primarily geared towards individuals with dyslexia, proofreading software can be helpful to those with any type of learning disorder that makes writing and reading challenging.
Ginger
Ginger offers several features that can help students with dyslexia and other learning disorders with writing. It is also designed for speakers of languages other than English. Some of the features include:

* Grammar checker that analyzes context to determine any errors or misspellings. For instance, Ginger can recognize whether 'there,' 'their' or 'they're' should be used in a sentence, which is a common mistake in writing.

* Word prediction and sentence rephrasing tools that can be helpful for students learning how to construct sentences properly.

* TTS functionality so students can hear what they've written.

* A personal trainer that provides practice sessions based on past mistakes made by the student.

Ginger is available for Windows and Mac, as well as iOS and Android mobile devices.
Ghotit
Ghotit is specifically designed for students with dyslexia and other learning disorders who have difficulties with writing. The name is inspired by the word "Ghoti," which is a constructed term that illustrates irregularities in the English language. And since many spellings are counterintuitive - especially for those with dyslexia - Ghotit dedicates itself to assisting children and adults who struggle with writing accurately.

It features the ability to learn from the user's past mistakes, personalizing suggestions for spelling and grammatical errors. Ghotit can predict words, check passages of text contextually, read text aloud using TTS technology and recognize split and merged words. It also includes an integrated dictionary for students to quickly look up a word.
Math Tools
A range of technology and tools can help students that have trouble with math, most commonly found in a learning disability called dyscalculia. Dyscalculia makes it difficult to grasp numbers and it is characterized by a general lack of understanding in the field of math.

Assistive technology in math is not just for those with dyscalculia. It can also help students with blindness, fine motor skill disabilities or some other type of disability that makes it difficult to perform math-related work.
MathTalk
MathTalk is a speech recognition software program for math that can help students with a range of disabilities. From prealgebra to Ph.D. level mathematics, students can perform math problems by speaking into a microphone on their computer. The program works with Dragon NaturallySpeaking programs for voice-to-text functionality, making it ideal for students who have fine motor skill disabilities. Students with blindness or vision disabilities can use the integrated braille translator.

In addition to these audiences, MathTalk also appeals to students with dyscalculia. The program functions as an electronic math worksheet, allowing the child to organize, align and work through problems on the screen, making it helpful for students who have difficulties performing math problems on paper.
Math Simulations
Math simulations can help students with dyscalculia visualize math problems and concepts. As a result, students can better understand the application of a particular type of problem, since many students struggle with the conceptual aspects of math.

Examples can be found at the NASA website. From video to animated simulations, teachers and students can visually see how a math concept or problem would work. And with some math simulations, students can work through the problem and then see the result play out in the simulation.
Conclusion
Thanks to the rapid advances in assistive technology tools, students, parents, and teachers have a seemingly limitless number of tools at their disposal.

As these tools start to appear in the home and in the classroom, parents and teachers can utilize them for students' academic and personal growth. But technology alone is not enough - to successfully use these tools, it's critical to develop a plan for their use and have regular check-ins to ensure the student is gaining the most value possible and not becoming overly reliant on these tools.

But while assistive tools have become plentiful, the same cannot be said for special education instructors. As previously mentioned, the vast majority of states have reported a need for teachers in special education. And many general education classrooms instruct children with special needs.

Certification is a faster way for current teachers to qualify to teach this growing population. At Alvernia University Online, teachers can pursue a special education certification for grades PreK-8 or 7-12 to help make a difference for children with special needs. They will also improve their marketability in the process, gaining additional opportunities for their career.

Overall, more teachers are needed in this area. Although the advancement of technology in special education is promising, the same increase is needed for the number of special education instructors. Certification offers one solution to quickly meet this need. Learn more about Alvernia's program today.
15 Assistive Technology Tools & Resources For Students With Disabilities

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15 Assistive Technology Tools & Resources For Students With Disabilities

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Ranging in sophistication from tools to apps, assistive technology tools can help students with certain disabilities learn more effectively.

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Try a different approach. Maybe the student benefits from tactile learning. Maybe the subject matter is still too hard. Maybe the student needs more resources at home to catch up.

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Great! The differentiation worked

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Monitor the students grades and behavior after differentiation

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Monitor the students grades and behavior after differentiation

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Did they improve?

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The problem is still too difficult after differentiated instructions

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The problem is still too difficult after differentiated instructions

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This means that new materials must be prepared that cover the topic but at a lower level.
For example: tracing vs. writing. Fill in the blanks instead of writing sentences, etc.

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The problem can be solved with differentiated instructions

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The problem can be solved with differentiated instructions

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If the task is explained in a different way, can the student complete it?

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If you are not trained, you can't diagnose without aid, but there are common signs to look for

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Spot the warning signs of a learning disability

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The student doesn't have a learning disability, he/she is just behind the class in one or more subject

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If yes, monitor the students grades and behavior. 

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If yes, monitor the students grades and behavior. 

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Did they improve?

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Did the problem get resolved after steps were taken?

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Did the problem get resolved after steps were taken?

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Can the issue be solved between students? What is the nature of the problem? How long has it been ongoing? What steps can be taken to resolve it?

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Learn the nature of the personal problems

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Learn the nature of the personal problems

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1) Speak with the student's other teachers to see if they know the nature of the problems
2) Speak with the student directly
3) Speak with the parents

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Meet with the parents to discuss the student's behavior in the classroom and make a plan together to motivate the child and find common ground

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Did this help the student become more motivated, involved?

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Did this help the student become more motivated, involved?

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Meet with the student and find a topic or activity that interests them and can be applied to the subject matter

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Great! The differentiation worked.

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Monitor the students grades and behavior after the technique

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Monitor the students grades and behavior after the technique

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Did they improve?

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Have the student give/receive help from another student

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Have the student give/receive help from another student

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This benefits the "teacher" by given him/her a more advanced purpose and helps the "learner" receive more tailored instruction (particularly in their native language)

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Vol. 6. No. 1

CF-1

June 2002

Classroom Focus: Japan

Using High Level Students As Teaching Assistants In A Mixed Ability Classroom

Sean Maddalena
University of Ashiya, Japan
< srm@gol.com>

Abstract

In private and public teaching institutions, with students from all levels and backgrounds, a common problem faced by teachers is the often unavoidable mixed ability class. In this paper I will be offering a possible part solution to this problem, based on a research investigation conducted with a group of Japanese learners who represent a wide range of abilities. Though not designed as a panacea for all classes of this type, it is my hope that readers may seek to adopt the basic premise in their own working environments, that high level students may be a valuable and exploitable resource, oft-overlooked in the mixed ability language classroom.

Introduction

The world of English language teaching (ELT) literature presents a great number of ideas and concepts, expounding a vast assortment of styles, models and techniques, but often makes a general assumption on the make-up of actual classes in which such teaching methods are to be employed. In an ideal teaching environment, we might all wish for energetic, highly-motivated and able students coupled with a limitless supply of time and resources, but the reality that many of us have to face is far from ideal. For a variety of restrictive reasons there is a need for teachers to make the best use of what is available and to do so in the most productive way that one's personal teaching methodology might allow.

One such limitation is that of teaching in a mixed level class and the problems that this can pose for successful language teaching though, as Richards (1998, p. 1), remarks: "Every class we ever teach is mixed ability", and Rinvolucri states, "We do not teach a group, but thirty separate people. Because of this, the problem of mixed abilities in the same room seems absolutely natural, and it is the idea of teaching a unitary lesson that seems odd" (1986, p. 17).

When faced with an acute range of abilities within the same group, an obvious approach to the predicament would be to create separate classes based on learners' levels but, when this is not feasible, the teacher is faced with a well-known dilemma: should one address the less able students at the risk of boring the more advanced learners, or risk alienating the lower level students by focusing on their more able peers? [-1-]

The question, therefore, is: What strategies are available to teachers to help them to find a more accommodating middle ground? In this paper, I will propose that advanced learners are a valuable resource who may actively serve as teaching assistants, rather than remain largely overlooked or ignored, in a mixed level group.

An overview of the group

The group under investigation comprises a total of twelve students, (male and female), of which eight might be described as hard core and the other four as floaters whose attendance is erratic. The students are referred to in this paper in an abbreviated form: S1, S2 . . . etc, the lower numbers representing beginning level students and the higher numbers representing the more advanced learners.

The students are employed by a large financial institution in Osaka, Japan for a subsidiary company whose main area of business is to provide small loans to private individuals. The students reflect a broad spectrum of staff within the company, ranging from senior management to general office clerks. The class meets weekly, in the evening, at the company's headquarters for a period of ninety minutes.

The students exhibit a wide range of English language ability. A simple biography, completed upon registration to join the class, shows one student only having experienced English language instruction to junior high school level, seven to high school level, four have completed studies in English at university including a single member who has spent two years living in America. In order to deal with the problems posed by such a diverse classroom composition, I have had to adapt my own methodology in an attempt to better meet my learners' needs.

Defining 'Eikaiwa'

From its outset in 1996, the class was originally specified by the company's administration as an Eikaiwa class. The literal translation of the Japanese word 'Eikaiwa' is 'English Conversation,' but this rather simplistic definition warrants further elaboration. As a general definition it suffices, but pedagogically it is both vague and imprecise. Conversation clearly serves a purpose--to communicate, but the assumption should not be that all communication is the same. What is taught is needs-driven, effectively subdividing the generic term 'English Conversation' into areas such as English for Specific Purposes (ESP), English for General Purposes (EGP), English for Academic Purposes (EAP) or English for No Apparent Purpose (ENAP), among others.

In this setting of a once-weekly general English class, long-term needs maybe unknown or not specifiable, a situation falling somewhere between the realms of EGP and ENAP. Although it is also possible to argue that all ELT is, to a degree, ESP of some form. Under such classifications, English Conversation for General Purposes (ECGP) would seem a more suitable designation for Eikaiwa. As Widdowson says, "[EGP] is essentially an educational operation which seeks to provide learners with a general capacity to enable them to cope with undefined eventualities in the future" (1983, p. 6). This is in contrast with ESP, which seeks to fulfill a "training function" requiring "restricted competence" organized around clearly defined discourse goals. [-2-]

However, in more recent times, the company was taken over by a larger American financial multinational corporation, resulting in an increased need for the Japanese staff to communicate with their American parent company in English. Although the class was not explicitly redefined as ESP in the strictest sense, at the students' behest, an emphasis of curricular content evolved gradually towards English for Business Purposes (EBP) and away from EGP.

When the aforementioned takeover occurred in 1998, there was a sudden influx of students who wished to join the class, peaking at a total of about thirty. It was my intention at this time to separate the students into two or more classes based on language ability or, possibly, rank. As Ainslie (1994, p. 7), advises:

In courses for industry it is usually not a good idea to put people at different levels in the hierarchy of a company in the same group, as those at a lower level in the hierarchy may turn out to be better linguists. If the office junior makes more rapid progress than the managing director, or a middle manager is more able than a senior executive, it can be embarrassing for everyone and may result in some course members dropping out.

However, the company's administration was adamant in their wish that there should be just a single weekly class. Following a staff reorganization, the class was reduced to approximately twelve members.

Methodological evolution

The class is now in its third stage of evolution. In the beginning, I tried to conduct each lesson in the traditional teacher-fronted format. However, trying to choose and prepare material suitable for both the higher and lower level students successfully proved to be difficult. However, one positive outcome of this situation was the interchange that has since followed between the students and myself. McCoy (1979, p. 187) refers to such discussions as "cognitive restructuring," conducive to the establishment of trust between students and the teacher--essential for the success of any kind of co-operative methodological objectives.

The frustration that the above circumstances created prompted the students themselves to request a modification to the class format. After further discussion, it was decided by mutual consent that we might try splitting the class into two groups, (one high level and one low level) and that I would conduct my lessons going back and forth between each group, combining activities where practicable. As Johnson and Johnson (1982) note, lack of sufficient time is a constraining factor in the effectiveness of group work and, after conducting a trial and some discussion of the two group format, the students concluded that they were not altogether happy with their ninety minute lesson being effectively diluted into a forty-five minute period. [-3-]

The final phase of this evolution is the topic of consideration: I requested that my advanced level learners act as teaching assistants in the class, to be actively employed as helpers for the lower level students. In simple terms, these newly designated Teaching Assistants were explicitly called upon by myself to offer explanations or translations when situations dictated that additional help was required. As time progressed, the assistants took it more upon themselves, using their own initiative, to intervene when they considered such actions to be beneficial. Culturally speaking, the introduction of this more collaborative learning environment is a simple reflection of the existing Japanese school system in which juniors, ( kohai), are encouraged to take guidance from their seniors, ( sempai). In the following sections, I will present and discuss the effectiveness of this approach.

Research Method

Over a period of three weeks, the students were asked to consider the current classroom situation and to reflect on the changes that had occurred since the introduction of the teaching assistants. Initially this took the form of a classroom discussion, the contents of which were recorded on cassette tape (with the permission of the students; see Appendix D for sample transcriptions of responses). Additionally, students were given one week to respond to anonymous questionnaires. The questionnaires were provided in two separate formats, one for the advanced level students (Appendix A), and a bilingual version for the lower level students, (Appendices B and C). The students were given explicit instructions to be open and honest in formulating their responses.

Lower level students were encouraged to write their answers in Japanese where necessary, with the assurance that I would have their work translated faithfully. At this early stage, I was careful not to allow any element of bias to influence the proceedings, and I declined to offer any of my own opinions on any of the questions under consideration until all of the questionnaires had been handed in. Upon completion, the questionnaires themselves became the topic of a second round of classroom discussion, which was again recorded for later dissemination and transcription.

It is important to note that at this level of investigation, I was not looking for empirical evidence of increased language learning. The question was whether there was group consensus on the advantages/disadvantages of teacher plus peer tutor fronted lessons, or if separate perspectives were emerging based on learners' roles within the group. A third perspective, my own, would also provide an equally important insight into the possible constraints and benefits of managing a mixed ability class in this way.

Four perspectives

My original intention was to present three perspectives based on student feedback: lower level students' response, higher level students' response, and teacher response. However, the data I collected and collated forced me to abandon this approach as too simplistic. My research effectively separated the learners into three camps, and not the two that I had earlier envisioned.

Two of these "groups" contain just a single member, (representing two extremes at either end of the ability scale), the remaining members forming a core consensus:

All of the students responded similarly and with no great variation to questions one, two and three of the questionnaires: personal goals were simply to improve ability in English and none of them used English much at work or studied to any significant degree outside of class, (Appendices). I was hoping that there may have been a correlation between the answers to these three questions and the learners' position within the group, but this was not established. [-4-]
I. Lowest level response:
S1 has the least experience of English language instruction, (junior high school level), but she is a highly motivated class member, exhibiting a clear willingness to learn under quite difficult circumstances. The alienation that she feels within the group is perhaps best articulated in her own words (Appendix E), a written response that she made of her own volition to supplement her feedback. Her responses to the questionnaire and the classroom discussions echoed a general feeling of guilt. Whereas S1 prefers a "slower" lesson, she is reluctant to make demands within the class and fears that by continually asking for help from the more advanced students and me that she will be responsible for monopolizing too much of the time. She states: "I'll feel much better or even motivated if there is at least one student like me" , is understandable, in that if there were other students of comparable ability within the class they would be able to talk/negotiate together in an attempt to resolve problems or at least to take it in turns in asking questions.

Her answers to the questions about advanced learners helping in the classroom were all positive, e.g."They can all help me and I can study with more teachers . . . I like to listen to Mio, (S9), and Nao, (S10), even if I cannot understand everything," though it should also be noted that she is aware of what she perceives as S12's irritation with her lack of English ability, which undoubtedly reinforces her low self-esteem within the group.
II. Highest level response:
S12 has studied English to university level and has spent two years living in the US. He has a very dominant personality and often seeks to lead the class. He is aware (as are all the students), that we have little choice but to have a mixed ability class, but he is the only one in the group who openly expresses his displeasure at the situation: "I don't like mixed level class...I just want to take my lesson directly from you...I just want from you almost private" . He was also the only member who responded to question ten of the questionnaire that it was important to him that the roles of student and teacher were clearly defined and separate within the classroom. However, these responses run somewhat contrary to the position he takes within the class, which is very much the role of teaching assistant. In his response to question six of the questionnaire (Do you find it useful when you help the teacher in class?), he says, "To help teaching English is a good lesson for my speaking and to help you (the teacher), gives me the opportunity to speak English," and to question seven (In what ways do you think that you contribute, or fail to contribute, to the lower level students' understanding of the lessons?), he answers, "I contribute to the lower level students for their understanding of many things."

These opposing views might suggest that S12 is a reluctant assistant, a role he would not seek to adopt should circumstances allow: "If we were not having mixed level class, I don't need to be teacher."
III. Combined response:
S2 to S11 formed a consensus of opinion in both their responses to the questionnaires and in the classroom discussions. Within this group, the lower level students were happy to have the advanced learners helping them in the class and the advanced learners, in turn, were pleased to be able to afford their assistance. The problem of a mixed level class was acknowledged by all when asked to cite the disadvantages of such an arrangement, notably that the class sometimes had to move slowly when things were explained to the lower level students, but the general consensus was that the advantages far outweighed this. As S11 comments: "I could get excitement studying with mixed level students...with mixed level students we have lots of different points of view so lessons are more interesting and more fun." [-5-]

S8 makes a similar, though more specific observation, evidencing the importance of the transfer of knowledge between students, irrespective of their real, or apparent, differences in ability:

I know a lot of vocabulary but I do not know many grammar and Nao, (S10), knows a lot of grammar so he can help me too. Not only can help low level students, but each other high level students too. Each one student higher and lower knows different things.

The lower level students said that they found it useful when they were helped in vocabulary, grammar, explanations of nuance, and even in pronunciation. The higher level students, in the role of assistants, were pleased with the greater opportunity this role gave them to speak in the class and to be corrected or questioned by their peers using English. None of the lower level students was perturbed when the helpers were occasionally forced to use Japanese, commenting that this often saved valuable time. As Richards (1998, p. 1), observes: "I am not suggesting that mother tongue be introduced into the classroom in any significant way . . . I do believe that it can be used to help with clarification and as a check of understanding, providing an occasional shortcut for the teacher." Ainslie proposes a similar strategy for incorporating L1 in the classroom, encouraging students to occasionally work problems through between themselves in their own language: "Some language course members may have already come across the new language . . . Use them as models; ask them to take over your role with the class for a time" (1994, p. 42).

The students were unanimous in their preference for this type of class over the more traditional teacher-fronted lesson, saying that they considered it to be "a very positive thing" (S6). The lower level students were "inspired" (S3, S4 and S5) by listening to their more able peer tutors and the higher level students were experiencing, "a more level of responsibility in the class...we must try to be good teachers for them" (the lower level students; S9).

In response to question ten, all of the students in this group thought that it was unimportant that the roles of teacher and student were separate and clearly defined in the classroom:

"It is not important for me" (S10), "No I don't think so" (S6), and "No!" (S3).
IV. Teacher response and evaluation:
Prior to receiving the students' feedback, I was in favor of streaming as the best way to overcome the problems of teaching a group of mixed ability learners. However, in light of the student responses, I am now forced to adopt something of a different position. As Richards (1998, p. 1) comments, "The idea of having the students help each other in the class can seem radical to some students and teachers," though "radical," in my experience, did not mean unwelcome or unacceptable. On the contrary, my students welcomed the introduction of teaching assistants and their feedback has encouraged me to continue to develop this approach.

The two students (S1 and S12) who took somewhat polarized positions (see below) have given me most cause for reflection. S1's wish for at least one more student of her ability in the class as a way to cope with her feelings of alienation, would doubtless benefit her in other ways, too. As Thal (1997, p. 1), concludes: "The effects of ability grouping procedures on weak learners in an EFL classroom were examined . . . Results show that weak learners learned better with a peer of the same ability than with a better-abled peer tutor." [-6-]

To S1, the higher level students were intimidating, and their ability in English only served to reinforce her fears that she shouldn't have been in the class in the first place. Ainslie suggests: "Dominant class members may indeed have a demoralizing effect on the others, confirming their feelings of inadequacy . . . Self-image, self-confidence and self-belief can make a great difference to language learning success" (1994, p. 8).

However, another student, S10, takes the opposite view and talked of motivation when studying with more advanced students:

When I couldn't speak English not at all I was very . . . shocked by higher level students' English speaking and I was very angry about it. No, not angry, I mean ashamed. Then I tried to study to go up to them . . . the same level. So it is very important to have their enthusiasm to study English and for them to help us.

A recent study by the National Foundation of Educational Research, (NFER; 1998, n.p.) would support this observation: "Streaming and setting have been said to deprive low ability pupils of peer support and positive role models outside their own ability group."

At the opposite end of the scale, S12's frustration results in a different, though equally significant, kind of alienation. Though he is willing to assist in the lessons, he does not perceive this as his preferred role in a language class. The target language is invariably aimed below his level of competence, and above everyone else's, so he assumes that his abilities and skills are rarely challenged. His lack of peers within the group deprives him of role models, and this has led to an inflated self-esteem. When corrected on points of grammar or vocabulary by lower-level students he does not react in a positive way.

The main group endorsed the use of teaching assistants in the class, with the higher-level students appreciating any opportunity to make use of their expertise. Courtney (1996, p. 318, citing James, 1994), makes the observation: "One commonly held belief is that student-student interaction can only lead to the exchange and eventual fossilization of errors," and quotes from Johnson (1981, p. 5), "Real learning is only possible from student-teacher interaction". My own opinion of this is that when students are employed as teaching assistants, their interaction within the group can be beneficial to all. Certainly "fossilization" may be avoided when the class is carefully monitored and corrections are appropriately made. "Authenticity is in the eye of the participants" (Prodromou, 1996, p. 372), and as long as I am not continually interrupting my helpers in an obsessive pursuit of accuracy (errorphobia), their L2 speech is interpreted by the other students as being at best "authentic" and at least, an exposure to Comprehensible Input (CI) (Krashen, 1982), a necessary requirement in achieving communicative competence, (Hymes, 1971).

When the advanced level students use their L1 in the class to explain or to clarify, their overall effect on the group is one of consolidation, facilitating the creation of an alliance between the two groups. Hemingway stresses the role the L1 has in this respect:

Any strategy that enables the whole class to work together is useful . . . The use of the mother tongue may be an advantage, not a distraction, if it involves all students in the lesson, avoids frustrating misunderstandings, and encourages collaboration. (1986, p. 22) [-7-]

The gap between the students is not skill-specific, though individuals do perform better in some skills than in others, supporting the notion that learners usually have a variable rather than a uniform linguistic competence. But there is more to the learner than just language. Prodromou notes:

Every learner brings into the classroom a whole complex of personal characteristics which influence their approach to what is happening there. They carry with them a world of experience and knowledge, feeling and ideology, which may help or hinder, the acquisition of a foreign language. (1992, p. 7)

These "characteristics" form an inherent and fundamental part of any methodological equation. Prodromou again states, "It is difficult to talk about the mixed ability class without seeming to subscribe to a kind of fatalism about the abilities of the less confident, outspoken or high-achieving" (1992, p.1), and in doing so, there is always the danger of thinking about them in terms of their weaknesses rather than their strengths. My lower level students are aware of their limitations in L2 competence and performance, but this does not make them "bad" learners. The knowledge, experience and enthusiasm that they possess, coupled with the encouragement and assistance that they receive from the other class members, tends to unite the group rather than fragment it.

With the help of assistants, it has been possible to aim for middle ground strategies involving the group as a whole, and not to focus on any particular top-down/bottom up listening exercises, or distinct open, as opposed to closed, process rather than product, writing work. Whereas some students may have achieved Alderson's (1984, pp. 17-19), "Threshold level of competence" in reading, their positive effect as role models within the group goes some way to motivating the other members to seek to overcome the limitations imposed by Clarkes' "short circuit" (1980, p. 208). The final word goes to S1: "I want to read as well as Nao" (S10).

Conclusion

The majority of the students in this group were in favor of this modification to the class format. Their general consensus of opinion is that the assistants perform a valuable role in the lessons. I am inclined to concur.

However, this paper is just one sample study based on a number of unique variables particular to the personalities and perceptions of the group members. Further research is needed in this area before a more definitive conclusion may be reached concerning the effects of variables such as class size, composition, situation and the balance of abilities within the group. Certainly, additional investigation and data would be required to provide clear evidence of increased language learning.

When resources are limited it is important to make the best use of what is readily accessible in order to utilize the full classroom potential. Should circumstances permit, the role of "teacher's ally" may be one that other teachers might seek to develop in creating a more successful methodological approach to their mixed level classes.

At the very least, it would seem that classroom harmony might be better achieved in groups of motivated students who seek successful integration based on a willingness to participate and cooperate, and not on ability alone. When advanced level students are eager to act as a bridge to help facilitate the learning process it is equally important that their lower level classmates exhibit a willingness to cross that bridge.

About the Author:

Sean Maddelena a full-time English teacher, having spent the past twelve years living and working in Japan. He has a first degree in Law from Bournemouth University and an MSc in TESOL from Aston University, both in the UK. His specific area of interest lies in Corpus Linguistics and an ongoing quest to incorporate Computer Aided Language Learning (CALL) into classes of General English at all levels. [-8-]

References

Alderson, J.C. , & Urquhart, A.H. (1984). Reading in a foreign language: A reading problem or a language problem. London: Longman.

Ainslie, S. (1994). Mixed-Ability Teaching: Meeting Learners' Needs. London: Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research.

Clarke, M. (1980). The short circuit hypothesis of ESL reading- or when language competence interferes with reading performance. Modern Language Journal, 64, 203-209.

Courtney, M. (1996). Talking to Learn: Selecting and using peer group oral tasks. ELT Journal, 50/4, 318-325.

Hemingway, P. (1986). Teaching a Mixed-Level Class. Practical English Teaching, 7/1, 22.

Hymes, D. (1971). On communicative competence. In Brumfit and Johnson (Eds.), The Communicative Approach to Language Teaching. (pp. 5-26). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

James, G. (1994). Oral testing at tertiary level, In Boyle J. & Falvey P. (Eds.), English Language Testing in Hong-Kong. (pp. 183-196). Hong Kong: Chinese University Press.

Johnson, D.W. (1981). Student-student interaction: the neglected variable in education. Educational Researcher, 10/1, 5-10.

Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, F.P. (1982). Joining Together. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press

McCoy, I. (1979). Means to overcome the anxieties of second language learners. Foreign Language Annals, 12, 185-9.

Prodromou, L. (1992). Mixed Ability Classes. London: Macmillan.

Prodromou, L. (1996). From Luke Prodromou. ELT Journal, 50/4, 372.

Richards, S. (1998). ELT Spectrum, 6. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Rinvolucri, M. (1986). Strategies for a mixed ability group. Practical English Teaching, 7/1, 17.

Sukhnandan, L. & Lee, B. (1998). Streaming, Setting and Grouping by Ability. National Foundation for Educational Research. United Kingdom.

Thal, R. (1997). Same-Ability vs. Mixed-Ability Pair Work for the Development of Vocabulary Learning Skills in the Weak Learner. Unpublished master's dissertation, University of Surrey.

Widdowson, H. G. (1983). Learning purpose and language use. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [-9-]

Appendix A
Questionnaire for advanced level students:

1. What is your personal goal as a participant of this course?

2. How much do you use English as part of your daily work routine?

3. How much do you study on your own outside of class?

4. What do you feel about being part of a mixed level class?

5. What do you think are the advantages/disadvantages of being in a mixed-level class

6. Do you find it useful when you help me, (the teacher), in the class? If so, why? If not, why not?

7. In what ways do you think that you contribute, or fail to contribute, to the lower level students' understanding of the lessons?

8. Which of the two types of classes do you prefer?

9. Can you explain why you prefer this particular type of class?

10. Is it important to you that the roles of teacher and student are separate and clearly defined in the classroom context?

Appendix B
Questionnaire for lower level students:

1. What is your personal goal as a participant of this course?

2. How much do you use English as part of your daily work routine?

3. How much do you study on your own outside of class?

4. What do you feel about being part of a mixed level class?

5. What do you think are the advantages/disadvantages of being in a mixed level class?

6. Do you find it useful when the advanced learners help in the class? If so, why? If not, why not?

7. In what ways do the advanced learners contribute, or fail to contribute, to your understanding the lessons?

8. Which of the two types of classes do you prefer?

9. Can you explain why you prefer this particular type of class?

10. Is it important to you that the roles of teacher and student are separate and clearly defined in the classroom context?

Appendix C
Japanese version of questionnaire for lower level students [-10-]
Appendix D
Sample transcriptions of students'comments:

S12:

01

So in your question I can say clearly (2.0) I can say answer to you clearly question

02

num:ber ten (2.0) I understand about question num:ber ten (.) I think (hhh) without us

03

((Japanese)) (1.5) (S1) or (S2), they need help from us (.) because at the moment their

04

level is so low they almost couldn't understand what you say (.) maybe they are boring

05

every week (1.0) just write from white board and just say from us (.) I don't know it is

06

good to help them (.) or >I don't know it is good or bad to help them<but they need help

S10:

01

But teacher is just only you (.) right? ((Teacher nods in the affirmative))

02

(1.5) If we can get take a lesson from se:pa:rate (.) I think the teacher have to(.) teacher

03

needs two person (.) easy class and ( ) advantage class (0.5) but we can't do

S9:

01

Our class maybe fail to be a success mixed level class because (.) ad:vanced level

02

stu:dents didn't take care of lower level students and didn't think highly of

03

their problem (1.5) We thought of our sa:tis:fac:tion only (.) Lower level students feel

04

alone because ( ) cannot understanding some things

S7:

01

I find it useful when I help you ((the teacher)) (.) because we are all Japanese (.) so for

02

us it is easy to communi:cate easily (1.5) We are working at the same company so we

03

are well known to each other and we can see in what ways the students are

04

understanding

[-11-]
Transcription conventions

(.)

a dot in brackets indicates a microsecond

(0.5)

a number in brackets indicates a pause timed to the nearest tenth of a second

yes

underlining indicates emphasis in an utterance

((Laughing))

words in double brackets indicate 'descriptions' rather than transcribed utterances

>you know<

a passage of speech delivered more quickly than surrounding talk

( )

empty brackets indicate an inaudible or unintelligible utterance

(hhh)

inhalations

:

a colon indicates an extension of a sound or syllable

?

a question mark indicates a rising intonation

!

an exclamation mark indicates an animated tone

Appendix E
S1 personal written response
The English course held on Thursday night seems to be suitable for someone who studied hard or did very well in school. For someone like me, who may want to take a chance what she was not good at when she was in school, it is getting hard to catch up. By being alone and with someone so smart, I even feel this class will be much better without me. To be left out, it is painful just to be in class. I'll feel much better or even motivated if there is at least one student like me.

Can you imagine how easy it is "to quit" when we are not obligated to study and allowed to make own decision. When we are left alone to accomplish something, it is sometimes hard to overcome our weakness. It is a reason why I sometimes feel like dropping out.

Once I asked Mio and Naohiko, "Would it be okay if I make you wait until I understand, the class will not cover as much as you would prefer". They said, "I'll help you out", but it makes me I am worried. Although I decided to try my best...for a while sometimes I am afraid of hating something I love so much, the English Conversation Class!

© Copyright rests with authors. Please cite TESL-EJ appropriately.
Editor's Note: Dashed numbers in square brackets indicate the end of each page for purposes of citation.

[-12-]

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Using High Level Students As Teaching Assistants In A Mixed Ability Classroom

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Vol. 6. No. 1 CF-1 June 2002 Using High Level Students As Teaching Assistants In A Mixed Ability Classroom Sean Maddalena University of Ashiya, Japan In private and public teaching institutions, with students from all levels and backgrounds, a common problem faced by teachers is the often unavoidable mixed ability class.

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There are many resources to quickly make difficult material. Crosswords can be made very quickly with/without word banks (Vocabulary). Puzzles, patterns, games can be given to students in math class. There are many great ideas online.

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Learn the latest in advanced ESL lessons-quickly teach advanced ESL grammar, conversation, speaking activities, and more!

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Is the student...
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