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What Made the Viking Longship So Terrifyingly Effective

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Load lines/Plimsoll lines (post by Ms. A)

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Load lines/Plimsoll lines (post by Ms. A)

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In 1876 Samuel Plimsoll is also known as "the sailor's friend" and in the UK towns, and a holiday are named after him. In 1876, as a member of the British Parliament, he made it a law, that due to the safety of the sailors and those on board, vessels could not be overloaded with cargo. On every vessel now there is a line called the load line or also called the Plimsoll line. These set of lines guide the loading of ships so that as they travel from different density waters the amount of "freeboard" or space between the water line and the deck is sufficient to prevent a ship from sinking.

https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/plimsoll-line.html
https://www.marineinsight.com/marine-navigation/introduction-ship-load-lines/
https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-kent-21387016

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By Sue Nicholson
BBC News

The life of a politician credited with protecting the lives of thousands of sailors has been commemorated at the church where he is buried in Kent.

Samuel Plimsoll was born in Bristol on 10 February 1824, but died in the town of Folkestone 74 years later.

He is best remembered for creating the Plimsoll Line, which appears on the hull of seafaring ships to show safe loading limits, preventing accidents.

Civic leaders attended a service at St Martin's Church, in Cheriton.

It was the first time a commemoration had been held for him at the church beside his grave, and campaigners hope it will be the beginning of a move to recognise him properly in Folkestone, where he spent the last seven years of his life.

'Sailor's friend'

Nicolette Jones, a journalist and broadcaster who has written a book about the Victorian philanthropist and his campaign on behalf of sailors, is behind the move, along with local historian and publisher, Nicholas Reed.

The politician, known as the "sailor's friend", was so revered that for many years Plimsoll Day on 10 February was celebrated in various parts of the UK while 15 towns have streets named after him.

He came to national prominence after he was elected to Parliament in 1868 as the Liberal MP for Derby, and proposed a compulsory load line to prevent shipping accidents.

He highlighted the fact that nearly 1,000 merchant seamen were drowned each year on ships around the British coast and cited the greed of ship owners who insisted on loading their vessels with too much cargo.

In 1876 the Board of Trade recorded that 856 British merchant ships were lost in conditions "that were no worse than a strong breeze".

'National hero'

"He was the whistleblower who took on the fat cats," Ms Jones said.

After a tireless campaign, a government bill was introduced in 1875, but Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli later announced it would be dropped.

Disraeli was eventually forced to back down and the Merchant Shipping Act was introduced a year later, introducing a mark onto the hull of all ships to ensure they were not overloaded.

The Plimsoll Line symbol later became the inspiration for the London Underground sign.

Ms Jones said Plimsoll was "a huge national hero in his lifetime" who should be "given back his rightful place in history".

When he died, sailors carried his coffin from his home in Folkestone to the churchyard in nearby Cheriton as ships in the harbour flew flags at half-mast.

For a long time, his grave was "neglected and lost", Ms Jones said, but it is now maintained by an anonymous benefactor who pays for the upkeep.

There are memorial statues of Plimsoll on Victoria Embankment in London and in Bristol, while a plaque marks one of the houses where he lived in Folkestone, in Augusta Gardens.

Mr Reed said he hoped Saturday's commemoration would herald an annual event and a permanent memorial in the town.

"I have discussed it with the council... there ought to be a memorial to him down at the seaside," he said.

A spokesman for Shepway District Council said Plimsoll been been nominated for a plaque on the bandstand, which would be considered by the council later in the year.

The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites.

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Samuel Plimsoll: Commemoration for the 'sailor's friend'

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By Sue Nicholson BBC News The life of a politician credited with protecting the lives of thousands of sailors has been commemorated at the church where he is buried in Kent. Samuel Plimsoll was born in Bristol on 10 February 1824, but died in the town of Folkestone 74 years later.

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John Harrison developed the Chronometer (post by Ms. A)

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John Harrison developed the Chronometer (post by Ms. A)

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By developing a time piece that worked while at sea, the chronometer (aka clock) allowed sailors to determine with more accuracy their longitudinal direction (east/west). It allowed them to compare the time of day it was for them with a set time in Greenwich... thus allowing them to know how far west/east they were from there.
https://collections.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/79139.html
https://www.rmg.co.uk/discover/explore/longitude-found-john-harrison

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Scripps Institution of Oceanography is located at UC San Diego and was founded in 1903, making it one of the oldest centers for ocean and earth science research in the world. The institution was founded by a zoologist by the name of William Ritter. With the help of Ellen Browning Scripps and her brother E.W. Scripps, they were able to turn a dream into reality when they secured a 170-acre parcel on which Scripps Oceanography now stands. Today, the institute still has the same mission as it did a century ago: to research our oceans, the earth, and the atmosphere to find a solution to the world's greatest environmental challenges. SIO studies everything from climate change to biodiversity to even national security.

https://scripps.ucsd.edu/
https://escholarship.org/uc/sio

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Rachel Carson was an author, environmentalist, and marine biologist, mostly known for her writing on environmental pollutions. She worked as an aquatic biologist before becoming a full time writer in the 1950s. She is praised widely for her second book, The Sea Around Us, which led her to write her third book, the Edge of the Sea. Through this book she changed the way society viewed the meaning of Ecology: the study of relationships between living things. Her last book, Silent Spring (1962), informed society about the damage harmful pesticides have on the ecosystem. This book greatly influenced the environmental movement by bringing awareness to the dangers of pollution, and leading to stricter government control of pesticides such as the banning of DDT.

https://www.fws.gov/refuge/rachel_carson/about/rachelcarson.html
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rachel-Carson

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The JIM Suit was invented by two British men, Mike Humphrey and Mike Barrow, in the UK in the 1960s. It was created to protect the wearer from both the underwater environmental conditions and the increased pressure underwater while diving. Usually divers need decompression time after and sometimes during dives to help the effects of underwater pressure, but these suits adjust for the pressure and eliminate decompression sickness and allow divers to go to depths of more than 500 feet. They are a kind of ADS or atmospheric diving suit, and function more like a submersible or submarine for one person than a traditional diving suit. JIM Suits have been used to dive shipwrecks like the Lusitania and the US Navy has used them for submarine rescues. The rights to the JIM suit were bought by an oil company dive supplier, and used for deep sea exploration by such energy companies.

https://navalunderseamuseum.org/jim-suit/

https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/03/the-diving-bell-and-the-exoskeleton-an-excursion-into-the-depths/284210/

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Marie Tharp was born in 1920 in Michigan to a father whose career was soil surveying. Tharp worked in the petroleum industry for a while, but eventually ended up researching the ocean floor for the US Navy. Beginning in 1948 Marie collaborated with Charles Heezan, a geologist. He worked aboard a research vessel that she was not allowed on because she was a woman, but she took the data and used it to construct large maps of the ocean floor. Tharp discovered the complexities of the ocean floor (mountain ranges, canyons, etc) and debunked the previous idea that the ocean floor was just flat mud. Tharp is credited with the discovery of the "backbone of the earth" or the Mid  Ocean ridges, a mountain range that goes over the entire planet, where magma rises and disturbs the ocean crust, thus creating the mid ocean ridges. Tharp was able to track how the Mid Ocean ridges disturbed the earth in different ways and created new features (now referred to as tectonic plate movement). Tharp made many contributions to the study of topography and her maps of the ocean floors set the stage for geologists and scientists today.

https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2018/07/30/hundreds-missing-and-many-feared-dead-after-laos-dam-collapse/?sh=178043dc7f91
https://marietharp.ldeo.columbia.edu/about-marie-tharp
image source:
https://theconversation.com/marie-tharp-pioneered-mapping-the-bottom-of-the-ocean-6-decades-ago-scientists-are-still-learning-about-earths-last-frontier-142451

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Rachel Carson was a marine biologist who authored multiple books about marine life and the environment impact of chemical pesticides. In her most famous book, the Silent Spring (1962), she created awareness for how pesticides and environmental pollution are effecting marine life. Carson's research allowed her to testify to the congressional committee which led to the banning of DDT, a human carcinogen. She received medals from the American Geographical Society and the National Audubon Society and was later inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Letters.

https://www.livescience.com/62185-rachel-carson-biography.html
https://www.fws.gov/refuge/rachel_carson/about/rachelcarson.html

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The AUV (Autonomous Underwater Vehicle) is a preprogrammed vehicle that follows a route, collecting data and taking pictures/videos of things below the surface, such as submerged ships. An operator programs its route before it is sent off, but it travels beneath the water freely (nothing attaching it to the vessel). This allows for scientists to send it into very deep areas without having to accompany it or control/track it all the time. The ROV (Remotely Operated Vehicle), much like the AUV, is an underwater vehicle used to take pictures and videos beneath the surface without any human beings accompanying it. However, an ROV is attached to the vessel, usually with a tether or cables, and is controlled by an operator while it is under water. Both AUVs and ROVs allow for scientists to explore deeper parts of the ocean that are inaccessible/unsafe for divers and collect pictures/videos/data for scientific (and sometimes historic) research.

Info Sources:
https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/08auvfest/background/auvs/auvs.html

https://www.deeptrekker.com/news/difference-between-rovs-and-auvs

Image Sources:
https://www.google.com/search?q=AUV&sxsrf=ALeKk00H-WS2uKoCnTamt6BBCWd3CTA6Ng:1629776378766&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=pH08G8m8p_T3LM%252C6P5Iq0VNZeKB-M%252C_&vet=1&usg=AI4_-kQHTAn71RdkIxyOxNiQGdXWBCc3cQ&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjhgPqQ3sjyAhXKJzQIHc7aDRMQ_h16BAglEAE#imgrc=pH08G8m8p_T3LM

https://www.google.com/search?q=ROV&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjRgd-q38jyAhWLLDQIHZFADnwQ2-cCegQIABAA&oq=ROV&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIECCMQJzIECAAQQzIECAAQQzIICAAQgAQQsQMyCAgAEIAEELEDMgUIABCABDIICAAQgAQQsQMyCAgAEIAEELEDMgUIABCABDIICAAQgAQQsQM6CwgAEIAEELEDEIMBOggIABCxAxCDAVCTXljRYGDxYmgAcAB4AIABggGIAY0CkgEDMi4xmAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei=PWskYZHvEIvZ0PEPkYG54Ac#imgrc=_5ftUrf_4MVE_M

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The Human Occupied Vehicle (HOV) Alvin was first launched in June of 1964 as a means of on-site data collection and deep-sea observation. Though it's first successful launch was in 1964 in Falmouth, Massachussets, Allyn Vine from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) originally thought of the idea in 1956 after going to a symposium in Washington that discussed human operated deep sea submersibles. A submersible is a smaller ocean vehicle that is designed to be fully operatable under the sea. Alvin is one of the first of its kind and allows for two scientists during dives lasting up to ten hours. The Alvin submersible, when first created could only operate up to 4,500 ft, but was recently renovated in 2013 and can now reach 6,500 ft. With Alvin's high-tech features, scientists can intake lots of different types of data including, photographic surveys, samples, and gives access to 2/3 of the ocean's floor. Alvin's capabilities gave scientists the chance to see parts of the ocean that were previously too deep or inaccessible. Alvin not only led to new discoveries but also paved the way for more HOVs as the mass of data produced showed just how important the submersibles were/are. Today, Alvin is still in active service at the WHOI, where scientists continue to collect data and look for new ways to make Alvin even better.

https://www.whoi.edu/what-we-do/explore/underwater-vehicles/hov-alvin/history-of-alvin/

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news-features/evolution-of-alvin/

https://www.whoi.edu/what-we-do/explore/underwater-vehicles/hov-alvin/

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The NOAA: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

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The NOAA: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

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The NOAA combined 3 previous organizations, U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, The Weather Bureau and U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. They are an organization whose goal is to help keep the people and powerful decision makers informed about the changing environment, so effective science communication is a huge part of the NOAA. The organization also supports the economy and has an impact on over 1/3rd of America’s GDP. This may include giving weather forecasts, coastal and marine restoration and research. Both agencies that predated the NOAA and the NOAA itself were the US government's primary ways of ocean exploration.

photo: https://library.noaa.gov/Collections

https://www.noaa.gov/noaa-timeline-1970s

https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/history/exploration.html

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The early stages of SCUBA began with the invention of the diving bell in 332 BC. The diving bell was essentially an open-bottomed chamber that would trap a small amount of air, which divers would return to whenever they needed a breath. It was the 1900s, however, that saw the greatest innovation in diving technology. Only a decade after the standard diving helmet and diving suit were invented did famous environmentalist Jacques Cousteau and engineer Émile Gagnan develop the Aqua-Lung, the first safe personal breathing device to achieve worldwide success. Around the same time, American Christian J. Lambertsen invented his own underwater breathing device, called the “self-contained underwater breathing apparatus” or SCUBA. Although Lambertsen’s device posed oxygen toxicity risks, it was refined and is now the standard breathing unit for underwater diving, now called scuba diving. Presently, SCUBA is used to explore the ocean floor and open waters through ocean photography, marine archaeology, and simply for fun.

https://blog.padi.com/scuba-diving-a-short-history/
https://www.tdisdi.com/sdi-diver-news/top-jobs-in-scuba-diving/

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Ernest Everrett Just, born in 1883, was an American biologist primarily known for his research on the reproduction of marine inventebrates. Despite being born Black in segregated South Carolina, Just was able to make his way North to Dartmouth for his Bachelor's degree, and the University of Chicago for his Doctorate. He published his first paper in 1912, and continued working until his death, from pancreatic cancer, in 1941. His most important findings concerned the cells, and more specifically eggs, of marine invertebrates such as worms, sand dollars, and sea urchins.

https://search-credoreference-com.lwhs.idm.oclc.org/content/entry/vipaaalm/ernest_just_1883_1941/0

https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/ernest-everett-just-1883-1941

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Sylvia is an American marine biologist, oceanographer, and explorer born in 1935. She studied botany through getting a masters and then studied algae in the Gulf of Mexico for her PhD. Earle has done many discovery explorations throughout her life, one of her most notable being the first all women team of aquanauts that studied living in underwater areas for lengths of time. This exploration was groundbreaking as it opened more doors for women in marine exploration, a traditionally male dominated area of study. Earle has worked with National Geographic and the California Academy of Sciences and was the chief scientist for NOAA between 1990 and 1992. She currently is the president of Mission Blue which is an organization determined to protect the ocean and educate people on protecting the marine ecosystem.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sylvia-Earle

https://mission-blue.org/about/
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/expeditions/experts/sylvia-earle/

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Oceanographic telepresence is the use of satellite technology to access data from ships exploring the ocean. Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) film the deep sea, and the footage travels up to the ship, before being transmitted to a satellite, and then is distributed through the internet. This is important because people are able to witness novel, deep sea discoveries as they happen. Seasat was an Earth-orbiting satellite that was used in oceanographic telepresence. It that launched on June 26, 1978 from Vandenberg’s Air Force in California. A short circuit terminated Seasat’s mission on October 10, 1978, but not before it observed information such as various ice features, temperatures within the ocean, and ocean topography— more information about the physics of the ocean than acquired in the previous century. Seasat's success led to many more uses of oceanographic telepresence.

Sources:
https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/trailblazer-sea-satellite-marks-its-coral-anniversary
https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/07blacksea/background/telepresence/telepresence.html

Image:
https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/seasat

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Georg Steller was born in Germany in 1709. He was most known for his explorations in Russia in 1741. He was a naturalist, botanist, and zoologist on board the St. Peter on the Great Northern Expedition. Steller attended multiple prestigious universities such as the University of Wittenburg and the University of Halle in which he earned a degree in theology, medicine, and natural sciences. He was most known for discovering animals not previously known to science, such as the Steller Jay, Steller's Sea Lion, Steller's Eidler, Steller's Sea Eagle, Stellar's Sea Cow, as well as fossils and other discoveries.

https://www.nationalparkstraveler.org/2018/11/who-was-georg-steller-and-why-are-these-animals-named-him

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Georg-W-Steller

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Sonar, which stands for sound navigation and ranging, is a technology used for underwater navigation. The earliest technology resembling modern sonar was invented in 1906 by Lewis Nixon. It was designed for ships to be able to detect icebergs, and became widely used following the sinking of the Titanic. The rate of development of sonar technology rapidly increased during WWII, when Paul Langevin and Constantin Chilowski designed the first sonar system designed for submarine detection.

There are two different types of sonar. There is active sonar, which emits a sound wave, called ping, and detects how fast it returns to measure the distance to/between surfaces, and passive sonar, which can only pick up soundwaves. Sonar can also be used for underwater communication.

Although much of sonar's development was done via the military, it's used extend far beyond warfare, whether for general navigation purposes, mapping the sea floor, or etc...

https://exploration.marinersmuseum.org/object/sonar/

https://www.britannica.com/technology/sonar

https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/sonar.html

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Katy and Roger Payne were biologists that are well-known for discovering that the calls of humpback whales were actually songs. In 1968, Paynes traveled to Bermuda, where Frank Watlington, a Navy engineer, played them his tapes of whale songs. They studied 31 years of the recordings, separating out individual voices, writing out the score, and discovering the ways in which the whales change their songs each season. Their discoveries created a new way to analyze and explore ocean life, not with the eye, but with the ear.

Sources:
https://www.nytimes.com/1993/11/09/science/scientist-at-work-katy-payne-picking-up-mammals-deep-notes.html
https://www.npr.org/2015/08/06/427851306/it-took-a-musicians-ear-to-decode-the-complex-song-in-whale-calls

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Songs of the Humpback whale, Roger & Katy Payne

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The Vikings were a group of warriors from Scandinavia during the 9th through 11th century who were successful settlers, explorers and colonizers. It is unclear their exact reasons for  vast exploration, but experts hypothesize overpopulation as well as a desire for wealth and resources. The vikings sailed in speedy "Longships" which were highly effective in withstanding battle as well as traveling far distances. The ships had a shallow draft allowing for passage through shallow waters including rivers. This allowed them to sail farther inland and continue their raiding of villages as well as exploration. They developed trading and exploration routes all through the western seas and went as far as Canada and (most likely) were the first Europeans to explore the US.

https://www.history.com/topics/exploration/vikings-history
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Viking-people/The-Carolingian-empire-and-France

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The compass was invented by the Chinese, by the 13th century it was commonly used for navigation. It was huge for sailors because it allowed them to navigate when the sun and stars were obstructed by cloud or fog. Before the compass, sailors would often stay close to coasts to avoid low visibility. With the invention of the compass, sailors could explore further out into sea. Still, compasses were often confusing to read and wobbly on a ship, so at the beginning they were used not as a primary means of navigation, but as a supplement when view of the sun and stars were obstructed.

https://www.formulaboats.com/blog/history-of-navigation-at-sea/
https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/magnetic-compass
https://v1.padlet.pics/1/image.webp?t=c_limit%2Cdpr_1%2Ch_372%2Cw_372&url=https%3A%2F%2Fpadlet-artifacts.storage.googleapis.com%2F29b144bfce3ca15a0e76420e8e64a4d2f8606906%2F8f9253a69ab6d366f40fac4bbbb977f0.jpeg

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Idelisa Bonnelly de Calventi is a Dominican marine biologist born on September 10, 1931 in Santiago de los Caballeros, Dominican Republic. She graduated from Columbia University in 1956 with a bachelor of science degree in marine biology.  Bonnelly is the founder of studying marine biology in the Dominican Republic which influenced her to become founder of the Institute of Marine Biology and the Academy of Sciences of the Dominican Rebuplic in 1974. She worked and began projects which were very influential and insightful for people who were interested in conservation of marine resources. She was honored many awards including the Medal of Merit of Dominican Women in Science by the Government of the Dominican Republic in 1886, because Bonelly was a big part in the first sanctuary for the humpback whale, today known as Santuario de los Bancos de la Plata y la Navidad which means “Sanctuary of the Banks of the Silver.” Now she is known as the “mother of marine conservation in the Caribbean.”

https://peoplepill.com/people/idelisa-bonnelly