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1-What is global governance?
In today's world, global governance is defined as identifying and understanding various problems that concern all nations and making efforts to solve many complexities and mobility by addressing them by states and international organizations. Due to the global changes that emerged after the Cold War, it was decided to create regulations that would enable different interests to be formed and cooperative actions to be taken in order to adapt. There is no single power or authority in global governance. Power and authority change and differentiate. The advocate expressed global governance as the sum of formal or informal ideas, values, and reforms of states and non-state organizations as the definition, meaning, and addressing of problems. It is also the joint effort of all actors to address common challenges and seize opportunities. In global governance, all actors are examining and working on how transboundary problems should be dealt with, how they will affect, how they are formed and how they can be in the future.

2-What type of functions do Intergovernmental Organisations (IGOs) serve in global governance?
Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) are organizations formed by the membership of at least 3 states, operating in several states, through a treaty and a formal intergovernmental agreement. These member states have a good reputation in international law in different positions. IGOs create a suitable target against government issues that affect them by providing a partnership of interest. Nevertheless, They have bureaucracies, secretaries, headquarters and budgets. The international relations experts stated that IGOs are created by states and states give them certain responsibilities and authority to act. But over time, they have become actors who can direct on their own. Because the secretariat members have made great contributions in controlling the states, maintaining order and creating agreements when problems arise. The officials of the IGO secretaries are said to have undertaken a number of tasks regarding their role in international trade agreements, ceasefires in wars, agreements to renew the development strategies of governments to meet international guidelines, and institutional reforms. In addition, the focus of the IGO bureaucracy on evaluating and interpreting information enables it to determine the state of global governance.

3-What is the relationship between global governance and the globalization process?
The concept of globalization is defined in a broad sense as a historical process that includes connecting communities in distant continents and regions and the power relations they provide, and the formation of social changes and transformations. The effect of globalization on world politics and states means that states do not have a single authority and power. Changes in economics, culture, globalization and politics have different effects on the lives of societies and individuals in every region of the world. Thus, the undermining of regulation to mitigate the harms of globalization has led to the growth of transnationals, all of which can be attributed to the revolution in global communications and transportation.

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1- What are the main theories relating to International Organizations?

Theories assist scholars in describing and explaining different aspects of international relations. There are many ideas about the role of the individual, the concept of the state, sovereignty, and interactions between states and other actors. Thus, theories also help us to make this important information understandable. These theories are used to describe and understand international organizations.

Liberals see international organizations as organizations where states try to understand and solve their common problems by acting together. According to liberals, international organizations are an important arena with many functions for discussing the cooperation of states, their development, and common goals. Their main objectives are to try to prevent possible dangers that wars may bring, protect common values and ensure their development and order. They organize some activities to ensure that issues that pose a risk or pose a problem for states are addressed, and they can strengthen the international regime. The scholar noted that liberal theories help us understand the relationship between states' domestic policy and intergovernmental cooperation. Finally, positivist feminist theorists argue that many international relations theories, including liberal theory, ignore the presence of women in international organizations. Liberal feminists argue that women should be involved in international relations and will articulate well the international affairs that affect women.

Realists see states as the most important primary actor in the international system. States compete with each other for power and there is little cooperation. In fact, one of the academics stated that states see international organizations as a tool for themselves. International organizations have effects only on the power of states. Therefore, it has no influence on the behavior of states or world politics. Most realist theorists argue that cooperation between states is less likely because international institutions and agreements do not have the power to enforce them. In addition, realists argue that deterrence and the balance of power are more effective in keeping the peace.

While social constructivists examine international organizations, they try to obtain findings about how their social content, behavior, interests, and norms have an impact on actors. However, they can become tools that cause changes in social understandings, or they can become teachers of new values and policies that will socialize states. According to some studies, constructivists are defined as actors who create a common goal by not considering the interests of international organizations, states, and other actors in international relations. While most constructivists believe that international organizations are working on positive results such as preventing colonialism, protecting human rights, and solving the problem of poverty, others believe that some dysfunctions such as lack of accountability, incomplete practices, and duties may occur.

The English School is associated with theories of realism, liberalism, and constructivism. Its proponents argue that the existence of sovereign states does not always mean that these states will be hostile to each other. Even, they have created common rules and agreements to solve many problems. States recognize and enforce the existence of international rules that apply to all. Like international law, international organizations have a variable structure created and regulated by institutions. Scholars of this theory, like realists, argue that power is more important than rules and norms.

Critical theories offer new ideas to understand the world outside of conventional thinking. It opposes realism's targeting of power and liberalism's optimistic view that peace can be achieved. Other prominent approaches in this theory are dependency theory, Marxists, and neo-Marxists. All three approaches argue that states and the capitalist class use international law and organizations as tools for their own interests and goals.

2- Explain Why John Mearsheimer is very pessimistic about the success of International Organizations?

John Mearsheimer does not trust international institutions for their optimistic view of promoting international peace. Because he argues that the theories that support this idea are logically problematic. The most effective example of this is that institutions have little influence on government behaviour. However, these theories can only exert their influence in the academic and political world. The theory of realism presents a harsh world where forces compete, but it does not offer enough solutions to make it good. So, he adopted it as a theory of pessimism. Nonetheless, realism regards war as part of political methods and even as a necessary state activity. In this theory, both parties are forced to be directed towards the same goal in accordance with the balance of power. Institutionalist theories acknowledge reality's power competition but reject the idea that war is part of politics. He argues that institutionalists do not truly define the world with these theories, so it is normal for their policies to fail.

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1- Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye assert that “From the origins of the modern state system, rooted in the terrible religious wars in and around Germany in the seventeenth century, most of the scholarship of international relations has tried to explain instability and war. What we need to explain now are stability and peace.” Do we owe stability to global interdependence? If yes, why do you think so?
Interdependence, which Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye mentioned in their work, is a concept that helps to explain the effective order in the current world. Some writers of that period defended the view that the war would cause great harm to everyone economically by preventing the development of trade. In fact, in Keynes' book, he explained in detail that actions that would cause the collapse of the German economy could harm both the British and French economies. Nonetheless, Interdependence cannot be realized only in terms of economy, it also occurs in terms of war. For example, the vulnerability of the United States and the Soviet Union to nuclear destruction was an obstacle to their entry into the war. States always see war as an option just to maintain their continuity and stay safe. At the same time, their States must be mutually dependent on each other for their well-being. If this state of dependency changes, the stability of the global system will also change.

2- What does the article on “Pathologies of International Institutions” mean when they say IOs are independent actors? What is the basis of autonomy and what kind of power they carry in the real world?
The authors stated that IOs are more than a reflection of states, they can take place in global politics as a single power and an independent organization. In addition, the fact that IOs are powerful actors with independent influence on the world has created the possibility that a basis for autonomy can be provided. Nonetheless, IOs use power when constructing the social world. Neoliberals focused on IOs to help states overcome societal problems and provide lasting cooperation, Realists focused on stabilizing forces in world politics, and Constructive focused on more humane characteristics of I0s. Therefore, the researchers, based on theoretical foundations, suggested that IOs may lead to some undesirable behaviors.

3-According to the article, explain 2 pathologies inherent in IOs with examples.
Bureaucratic universalism has to simplify diversity in order to produce universal rules and categories independent of external factors. This bureaucratic view is expressed as the ability to transfer technical knowledge between conditions. For example, it is argued that the formula applied by the IMF to combat the rapid depreciation in the exchange rate during the Asian financial crisis was not successful and policies should be created accordingly.
Bureaucracies create rules that will provide a predictable response to environmental stimuli to prevent decisions from leading to error and problematic decisions. However, when bureaucracies shrink, environmental and institutional developments occur. therefore, deviations from established rules need to be calculated and over time some exceptions become the rule. For instance, before 1980, UNHCR saw return as only one of the permanent solutions to refugee crises. In their view, the return had to be both safe and voluntary so that forced return did not violate the international legal principle of non-refoulment, which is one of the cornerstones of international refugee law. According to many commentators, UNHCR has lowered barriers to return over the years. This led to the normalization of deviations and deviations from organizational norms accumulated over time. As a result, there has been a reduction in barriers to return and an increase in the frequency of involuntary returns.

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1-What is the basic argument of Haas's article? does he think that it is possible to establish cooperation and how?
The concept of a regime that considers power differences and the existence of hierarchies between states as important is discussed. Evolutionist holists think that the results of previous experiments will also change because their basic perceptions of the contemporary world are changing rapidly. Desired changes can occur independently of a certain power hierarchy, and desired regimes are determined according to this teleological dynamic. In this article, Haas designed the regime understanding in a cognitive and all-perceptual way. Social classes and governments change their minds about individual and collective gains under conditions of complex interdependence. Thus, the existence of an unstable hierarchy of issues on the international agenda means that minds are constantly changing. Nevertheless, the focus is on changing knowledge and goals. Haas believes that cooperation is possible between the parties concerned. There may be some problems and conflicts in negotiations. However, he argues that as long as the parties agree on the benefits to be obtained from the cooperation, conflict will not arise. For example, British investment in Argentine beef production and power plants in the 19th century was recognized by all relevant actors as beneficial to both Britain and Argentina. At that time, there was no problem in the negotiation of capital and technology transfers that were deemed appropriate. As a result, cooperation only emerges and turns into conflict when the parties cannot agree on its benefits. However, there is still a need to regulate their interdependence if they want to maintain cooperation despite the conflict.

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How is governance (or international regimes) evolved in the following areas in the 20th century?

Telecommunication
Telecommunication services started to develop with the invention of the telegraph and the telephone in the 19th century and achieved significant changes until the 21st century with the invention of various technological developments and technological new tools. In 1865, the International Telegraph Union was established for individuals to communicate over a single international network. However, with the change and development of networks and devices, the International Radio Union (ITU) has adopted informal understandings. But governments must respect the frequencies of foreign firms. Interacting with multiple governance structures, ITU is one of the organizations focused on communication. It pays great attention to technical standards and prevents interference in radio broadcasts. While the development of the internet caused globalization and the spread of technology to the world, it also brought up the possibility of new governance problems. The changing balances in internet governance enabled the state and IGOs ​​to act together. The global digital divide in the financing of telecommunication infrastructure was causing problems in developing countries. That's why, through the ITU, the UN gathered WSIS and made incentives to solve the problems created by the internet. An advisory group was formed to discuss internet governance issues involving civil society actors such as IGOs. While in the nineteenth century, only one state and IGO were active, in the twenty-first century, this situation began to take place in governance with many stakeholders, especially ITU.

Labor issues

In the 19th century, two industrialists, Welsh Robert Owen and Frenchman Daniel Legrand, advocated the International Labor Organization (ILO) to protect workers from abuse. Later, the International Trade Union Federation was formed in 1913 to protect the rights of workers. With the right to vote in many European countries, labor also gained political importance, and then the ideas of these two industrialists were accepted at the Paris peace conference. Thus, the ILO became an autonomous organization within the League of Nations. Setting standards of treatment for workers has been its main activity. While the eight conventions he created were accepted by many countries, the United States only adopted conventions prohibiting forced and child labor. By 1946, the ILO became an UN-specialized agency. It conducts its work through the International Labor Conference, the Governing Board, and the International Labor Office, each a tripartite representative body made up of government officials, employers, and workers. This combination of government and non-governmental representatives is a unique approach, unlike any other IGO. Initially, the ILO focused on standards for improving the working conditions of male wage earners. These Standards were later revised to include occupational health and safety. In recent years, the ILO has aimed to address inequalities stemming from globalization by focusing on job creation, labor rights, and women workers. These issues of the ILO overlap with trade issues and the work of the World Trade Organization (WTO). International governance efforts on labor issues have a long history. Other areas of economic activity have become the subject of international cooperation since the end of the Second World War.

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What is climate crisis?

Climate crisis is a term that describes global warming and climate change and its effects. The IPCC considers the basis of climate change as warming of the atmosphere and ocean, decreasing the amount of snow and ice, rising sea levels, and increasing greenhouse gas concentrations. In the Fifth Assessment Report, published in early 2014, it is emphasized that the human impact on climate change is clear, and the rate of change is increasing, but mitigation and disaster prevention are still possible. In 1988, the IPCC was established with the encouragement of bureaucrats from the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) to recognize the problem of climate change. Its purpose is to synthesize information on climate change and suggest possible responses. Over time, the IPCC caught the attention of scientists, providing to build a community around this topic. In 1992, at the UN Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro, with the participation of nearly one hundred countries, signed the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC), the first step towards establishing a regime to manage climate change. Then, in 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was added to the UNFCC, which aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and requires developed countries to reduce these emissions according to a timetable. This protocol aims to meet local emission targets by funding the greenhouse gas reduction projects of developed states and private companies in developing countries.
How is governance established in the environmental issue area? Who is involved in the governance of environmental issues?

International environmental issues have become part of the public agenda over the last 50 years, largely as a result of existing long-term trends. First, there was a gradual expansion of scientific knowledge that allowed people to collect data that tracked environmental trends. Subsequently, the number of environmentally oriented non-governmental organizations such as the Bird Conservation Society and the Sierra Club, the Wild Fauna Conservation Society and the International Union for Conservation of Nature increased.  The growing interest in the environment has resulted in the mobilization of environmental activists and the consolidation of the concept of interdependence of all living things in the public consciousness. In the following years, interest in environmental problems expanded to include both the protection of the natural environment and the containment of the destructive effects of industrialization. Biologist Garrett Hardin's article, published in 1968, helped lay the groundwork for the theoretical and practical dilemmas of mutual benefit posed by many environmental issues. Nearly fifty years later, the effort to establish multifaceted environmental governance for a wide range of issues continues. International conferences sponsored by the UN, such as non-governmental organizations and epistemic societies, have played an important role in the development of global environmental governance. They brought environmental issues to the international agenda and provided frameworks for negotiations and subsequent institutionalization. Only UN-sponsored conferences have also addressed the evolution of environmental governance. Environmental NGOs rarely unite in approach or ideological orientation. Some prefer to work in the present situation and others oppose any change, while others want radical change. In addition, Environmental NGOs can take critical positions as they are not dependent on nation-states and do not depend on states for funds. Still, the impact of NGOs on environmental governance is a matter of debate and cannot be easily evaluated. Epistemic communities play a vital role in global environmental governance processes. By the 1970s, dominant epistemic communities had formed of resource managers and liberal economists interested in the international environment. As interest in environmental issues increased, ecologists and other environmental scientists in various specialities formed subject-specific epistemic societies. Scientists are the cornerstones of these epistemic communities, serving as professionals who can provide analyzes of key data needed to uncover issues and consult governments and international organizations on policy options.

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1. What are some of the advantages and pitfalls of the UN operations of peacekeeping?
The peacekeeping operation tries to maintain peace by intervening within the framework of an international administration of a multinational force consisting of soldiers, police, and civilians in order to prevent, soften and end the disagreements and hostilities between the parties. Peacekeepers oversee and monitor the peace process in post-conflict areas. According to academics, the presence of peacekeepers significantly reduces the risk of renewed war, and even more, peacekeepers will lead to fewer battlefields and civilian deaths.The International Intervention and State Sovereignty Commission is examining the normative and operational change resulting from UN security operations. In one of the ICISS reports, he mentioned the responsibility to protect and the importance of humanitarian intervention. Because in humanitarian intervention, it is important to act correctly in the phase from the rights of the responders to the rights of the victims and the obligations of outsiders to take action. However, the responsibility to protect includes not only responding when large-scale casualties occur but also preventing armed conflict and helping to restore communities. In UN operations, a military initiative helps to suppress ethnic violence, create a humanitarian space and protect basic human rights. From a political standpoint, intervention normally requires the support of local voters and affected locals in troop-contributory countries – otherwise, it could have been a debilitating backlash, as happened on both fronts in Somalia in the early 1990s. A well-planned, systematic response is required, but approval must be sought from both the troop-providing states and the local population in the conflict area.

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What are some points of agreement and disagreement among states?
As of 2013, there were about 1,200 multilateral environmental agreements and 1,500 bilateral agreements. In general, these agreements discuss the normative aspects of a certain topic, allow for data collection, and demand voluntary limitations on local actions that cause harm to other countries. Less focus is placed on the evaluation of implementation and adaptation tools. This leads to changes in themes and scope with the increase in the number of agreements. Before the 1970s, agreements were typically carried out in accordance with a species or a specific local or regional issue. In recent years, many agreements have made changes to existing contracts. Some of these are linked to specific organizations, while others are independent, autonomous arrangements. When there are procedures for resolving disputes and support is given for the creation of state capacity, states are more inclined to take part in environmental agreements. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, which covers approximately 34,000 specific species, provides an example of a flexible agreement. The highest level of protection is given to species that are in risk of going extinct, and commerce is outlawed, as it was in 1989 for the African elephant. Trade is allowed for species that require moderate protection, including polar bears and grizzly bears, but is extremely orderly. The parties shall meet every two years to determine whether species should be added, deleted, or transferred from one list to another. State and regional differences in levels of protection change this flexibility. TRAFFIC confirms compliance with CITES decisions by working directly with governments to provide information, monitoring, education and training programs for wildlife trade practitioners. It also organizes campaigns to reduce the demand for products in East Asian countries.
How effective global governance is?
For a long time, states' compliance with international agreements and their implementation have been used as the primary measure of effectiveness. However, as Oran Young (1999) points out, effectiveness is a complex, multidimensional concept. According to subsequent studies, qualitative and quantitative analysis are required to ascertain the behavioural alterations of different actors and the environmental impacts of particular agreements or norms. Studies conclude that environmental regimes are important. However, regimes have a strong or moderate causal effect in terms of programmatic activities and improving data and reducing uncertainty. A comprehensive study is undoubtedly required to answer the question of the effectiveness of environmental governance. Effective global governance needs to be actually addressed and sometimes resolve global governance issues. A scholar mentions that this directly or indirectly is the main problem of inequality. Relevant inequalities include significant asymmetries in political, social, and economic power as well as disparities in welfare. Effectively addressing inequality is now crucial for equality, justice, and fairness as well as for reasons of global security.

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What are the basic premises of economic governance today? Why do we need to internationally govern the economy?
Economic Globalization and Africa Economic globalization has become a part of life for most states and people, with positive and negative effects throughout the world since the early 1990s. It caused the percentage of people living in extreme poverty worldwide to drop in 1981, but more than 1.4 billion people still live on less than $1.25 a day. In the Human Development Index created by the UN Development Program in 2014, almost all states made progress compared to 1990. Although Africa is the least developed continent, economic and human development has also made progress. There has been some growth in institutions through reforms by Bretton Woods, structural adjustment programs, and debt reduction initiatives. There have been good developments in individual life in many countries. The reduction in the number of deaths from the disease, the increase in life expectancy and the decrease in child mortality rates are the main indicators of human development as well as an expanding view of development. Population increases in Latin America, Asia, and Africa did not decline in the face of economic growth. Support was provided to the development of their countries through international trade. Asian countries contribute to the development of Africa by turning to natural resources. Large international banks also see African countries as suitable places for attractive investment opportunities. African economic governance has also improved, thanks to a partial donor community. In addition, although a few African countries have achieved Western standards of democratic governance, most of the more authoritarian regimes have moved towards better governance overall, with more efficient tax collection systems and an increased emphasis on rooting out corruption. Despite this optimism, Africa remains the continent most in need of development. Although economic growth has taken place, there is not enough employment and effective social services to support the growing young population. Rural-urban inequalities have damaged the relationship between growth and poverty reduction. Thanks to this African experience, it seems that economic growth does not necessarily lead to human development for all states or all individuals.