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This article explains why affirmative action provides more equitable opportunities for a top-notch college education. Using race as a factor in admissions has made its ways to the Supreme Court to uphold decisions against affirmative action.
https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2022/01/30/needed-affirmative-action-in-college-admissions/

This article talks about a recent report by the Education Trust on Black and Latinx enrollment at 101 public colleges found only 9 percent of Black students are enrolled. The percentage of Black students have fallen since 200 and recommendations to increase access is being discussed with high school guidance counselors. The recommendations include adjusting recruitment strategies, improving campus diversity and reducing the role of standardized testing in admissions in minority schools.
https://www.insidehighered.com/admissions/article/2020/10/26/will-conversation-turn-action-when-it-comes-issues-racial-equity

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The Supreme Court has agreed to take up a case that will allow it to rule again on whether universities may consider race in admissions decisions - and given the makeup of the conservative-dominated panel, affirmative action supporters are concerned.

The case in point involves admissions at Harvard University and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, which use race as a factor in admissions in ways that lower courts have found compliant with previous Supreme Court rulings. But earlier decisions upholding affirmative action were made before the court's membership tilted firmly to the right during the Trump administration.

Race-conscious university admission policies to face Supreme Court review

For years, race-based affirmative action has been losing support in the United States - but this post explains why it is still important. It's not just to reverse historical discrimination - something that it seems many conservatives would rather have us forget - but also because of the benefits of diversity to individual students and American society.

America historically prided itself on being a melting pot of cultures. Some people may pretend college admissions are based on a meritocracy, but, of course, they aren't, and race-based affirmative action has been a critical mechanism to help create diverse communities at schools.

I asked Natasha Warikoo, professor of sociology at Tufts University, about this issue, and below you can read her analysis about why race-based affirmative action is still important. She is the author of the 2016 book " The Diversity Bargain: And Other Dilemmas of Race, Admissions, and Meritocracy at Elite Universities." Her new book, being published in May, is " Race at the Top: Asian Americans and Whites in Pursuit of the American Dream in Suburban Schools."

I very rarely include bibliographies in blog posts, but this subject warrants a reading list for those who are interested, so you will find Warikoo's at the end. The piece is also loaded with links.

What you should know about race-based affirmative action and diversity in schools

By Natasha Warikoo
1. Simply put, American society continues to suffer from racial inequality, so affirmative action provides more equitable opportunities for a top-notch college education.
Racial inequality in the United States stems partly from the ongoing knock-on effects of past exclusion and discrimination. For example, White families have had more opportunities over generations to accumulate wealth; that wealth often aids middle-class Whites as they go to buy their first home. The average White family today holds more than $170,000 in net assets, compared with just $17,000 for the average Black family. In turn, middle-class Black families tend to live in more disadvantaged neighborhoods than middle-class White families. This affects where their children go to school, and who they go to school with.

But history is not the only driver of racial inequality. Decades of research have shown that unequal opportunities continue to shape the educational experiences of Black, Latino and Native American youths, even within the same schools, and even with well-meaning teachers. To take one example, when tested for unconscious bias, most teachers show pro-White, anti-Black bias. In turn, when teachers hold implicit racial bias, their Black students have demonstrably worse learning outcomes. Black youths also experience more disciplinary surveillance at school and harsher punishments for the same behaviors compared with their White peers.

In contrast, White youths tend to enjoy many privileges in the United States. These privileges include growing up, on average, in more affluent neighborhoods and attending higher-performing schools than Black and Latino youths, even of the same social class; and having parents with more financial resources to support their development. Increasingly, Asian Americans, too, benefit from privileges previously associated with Whites. The two largest subgroups of Asian Americans - Indian Americans and Chinese Americans - have incomes and levels of education that, on average, surpass those of Whites, due in part to U.S. immigration policy since the 1960s, which has made it much easier for highly educated Asians to move to the United States compared with low-skilled Asians.

Studies show that even middle- and upper middle-class Black Americans don't reap the benefits associated with financial security that others enjoy. A recent study found that Black adults in the United States born in households with incomes above the 80th percentile (in 2019, more than $142,000 per year) are as likely to fall to the bottom 20 percent as they are to remain in the top 20 percent; in contrast, White adults are five times as likely to remain in the top 20 percent as they are to slip to the bottom 20 percent.

Affirmative action helps to account for these historical and contemporary inequities, and makes a difference in the lives of its beneficiaries. Attending an elite college improves future earnings for Black and Latino students. In contrast, the research is unclear on whether attending an elite college makes a difference for future earnings for White, non-low-income, non-first generation students. Scholars think this difference is because students from families with fewer resources are more likely to draw on the connections they make in college for future opportunities, compared with those whose parents can already provide those connections, no matter where they go to college.
2. Affirmative action benefits all students by exposing them to diverse perspectives on campus.
Residential segregation in the United States means that many kids will grow up with little interaction with kids of other races. This is particularly true for White kids. After Supreme Court Justice Lewis F. Powell Jr. voiced acceptance for the "diversity rationale" in the 1978 Bakke decision, social scientists set out to understand just how diverse learning environments shape educational experiences, if at all. We now know the considerable benefits to all students of having a quorum of classmates of all races. It makes students more likely to socialize with peers of other races, which in turn seems to improve their intellectual engagement and performance. It even bolsters their leadership skills. Experiencing a diverse student body in college is associated with having diverse friendships, greater civic engagement and positive racial attitudes many years after graduation.
3. Affirmative action leads to more-diverse leadership, which is essential for sound decision-making and legitimacy.
Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, in the 2003 Grutter v. Bollinger case, argued that a lack of diversity in leadership of society would delegitimate that leadership in the minds of many citizens. That is, national unity and effective governance required that people of all racial groups should see themselves in the leadership of the country, which signals that people like them are included in social opportunities.

A comparison with Britain, where no affirmative action exists, is informative here. When Barack Obama was elected president in 2008, many in Britain asked why Britain did not have a cadre of potential leaders who are Black like the United States did. Indeed, many U.S. underrepresented minority leaders have pointed to affirmative action as having enabled their social position, including Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor and Obama. In contrast, despite about 14 percent of Britain's population identifying as Black or Asian/South Asian, the country has never had a prime minister of color, nor a Supreme Court justice of color.

Affirmative action is also an effective policy to address the goal of increasing diversity among professionals, such as doctors, lawyers and teachers. One study found that Black graduates of selective colleges went on to earn advanced degrees in large numbers, despite having overall lower-than-average SAT scores than their White peers on campus, coming from families with fewer economic resources and earning lower grades than their peers on average.

If selective colleges are to adhere to the mission of contributing to the public good that so many of them espouse, they must provide opportunities to talented and eager teens from a range of backgrounds. Affirmative action is one small mechanism to increase the likelihood that Black, Latino and Native American youths have a realistic shot at the privileges that education at the likes of Harvard, the University of North Carolina and other selective colleges can provide. Without it, White and Asian American students, too, will miss out on the opportunity to better understand a wide range of life experiences and perspectives.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alba, R.D., J.R. Logan and B.J. Stults 2000. " How Segregated Are Middle-Class African Americans?" Social Problems 47(4): 543-558.

Barnes, R. 2014. " Justice Sonia Sotomayor defends affirmative action." The Washington Post. Retrieved Oct. 15, 2021

Bowcott, O. 2020. " UK Supreme Court Should Have a BAME Justice 'Within Six Years'." The Guardian. Retrieved Oct. 17, 2021

Bowen, W.G. and D.C. Bok 1998. The Shape of the River: Long-Term Consequences of Considering Race in College and University Admissions. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press.

Bowman, N.A. 2010. " College Diversity Experiences and Cognitive Development: A Meta-Analysis." Review of Educational Research 80(1): 4-33.

Bowman, N.A. 2011. " Promoting Participation in a Diverse Democracy: A Meta-Analysis of College Diversity Experiences and Civic Engagement." Review of Educational Research 81(1): 29-68.

Census, U.S. 2020. HINC-05. Percent Distribution of Households, by Selected Characteristics Within Income Quintile and Top 5 Percent., United States Census.

Chang, M.J. 1999. " Does racial diversity matter? The educational impact of a racially diverse undergraduate population." Journal of College Student Development 40(4): 377-395.

Chetty, R., N. Hendren, M.R. Jones and S.R. Porter 2019. " Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States: An Intergenerational Perspective*." The Quarterly Journal of Economics 135(2): 711-783.

Chin, M.J., D.M. Quinn, T.K. Dhaliwal and V.S. Lovison 2020. " Bias in the Air: A Nationwide Exploration of Teachers' Implicit Racial Attitudes, Aggregate Bias, and Student Outcomes." Educational Researcher 49(8): 566-578.

Dale, S.B. and A.B. Krueger 2002. " Estimating the Payoff to Attending a More Selective College: An Application of Selection on Observables and Unobservables." The Quarterly Journal of Economics 117(4): 1491-1527.

Dale, S.B. and A.B. Krueger. 2011. " Estimating the Return to College Selectivity Over the Career Using Administrative Earnings Data." NBER Working Paper 17159. Retrieved April 3, 2015.

Davis, T.M. and A.N. Welcher 2013. " School Quality and the Vulnerability of the Black Middle Class: The Continuing Significance of Race as a Predictor of Disparate Schooling Environments." Sociological Perspectives 56(4): 467-493.

Fischer, M.J. 2008. " Does Campus Diversity Promote Friendship Diversity? A Look at Interracial Friendships in College*." Social Science Quarterly 89(3): 631-655.

Gurin, P. 1999. " The compelling need for diversity in higher education." Gratz et al. v. Bollinger et al. No. 97-75231 (E.D. Mich.) and Grutter et al. v. Bollinger et al. No. 97-75928 (E.D. Mich.) (pp. 99-234). Ann Arbor, Mich., University of Michigan.

Jacoby-Senghor, D., S. Sinclair and J.N. Shelton 2016. " A Lesson in Bias: The relationship between implicit racial bias and performance in pedagogical contexts." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 63:50-55.

Jayakumar, U.M. 2008. " Can Higher Education Meet the Needs of an Increasingly Diverse and Global Society? Campus Diversity and Cross-Cultural Workforce Competencies." Harvard Educational Review 78(4): 615-651.

Jayakumar, U.M. and S.E. Page 2021. " Cultural Capital and Opportunities for Exceptionalism: Bias in University Admissions." The Journal of Higher Education: 1-31.

Johnson, H.B. 2006.The American Dream and the Power of Wealth: Choosing Schools and Inheriting Inequality in the Land of Opportunity. New York, Routledge.

Lee, J. and M. Zhou 2015. The Asian American Achievement Paradox. New York, Russell Sage Foundation.

McIntosh, K., E. Moss, R. Nunn and J. Shambaugh. 2020. " Examining the Black-White Wealth Gap." Brookings Institution. Retrieved Oct. 16, 2021.

Owens, A. 2020. " Unequal Opportunity: School and Neighborhood Segregation in the USA." Race and Social Problems 12(1): 29-41.

Shedd, C. 2015. Unequal City: Race, Schools, and Perceptions of Injustice. Russell Sage Foundation.

Sidanius, J., S. Levin, C. van Laar and D.O. Sears 2008. The diversity challenge: social identity and intergroup relations on the college campus. New York, Russell Sage Foundation.

Skiba, R.J., R.H. Horner, C.-G. Chung, M.K. Rausch, S. L. May and T. Tobin 2011. " Race Is Not Neutral: A National Investigation of African American and Latino Disproportionality in School Discipline." School Psychology Review 40(1): 85-107.

Starck, J.G., T. Riddle, S. Sinclair and N. Warikoo 2020. " Teachers Are People Too: Racial Bias Among American educators." Brookings Institution.

Swarns, R. 2008. " Delicate Obama Path on Class and Race Preferences." The New York Times. Retrieved Oct. 17, 2021.

U.K. Cabinet Office Race Disparity Unit. " Ethnicity facts and figures."

Warikoo, N. 2022. Race at the Top: Asian Americans and Whites in Pursuit of the American Dream in Suburban Schools. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.

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Perspective | Why race-based affirmative action is still needed in college admissions

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The Supreme Court is taking up yet another challenge to affirmative action. This time, the conservative-dominated court is likely to eliminate race-conscious practices in college admissions.

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This article is about a case brought to the United States Supreme Court regarding affirmative action as it relates to admission at Harvard and University of North Carolina and upholding race conscious admissions. The students in this case want the courts to rule that colleges cannot use race as a factor in college admissions (Walsh, 2022).

·       This relates to my topic as it proves to eliminate admissions based on race

·       It will eliminate the diversity of college campuses an require college admissions to change their admissions to a more “holistic” application process.

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Padlet Slide #3 Professional Association (National Association of Colleges and Employers)

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Padlet Slide #3 Professional Association (National Association of Colleges and Employers)

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NACE research found that career and paid internship opportunities and disproportionate and marginalized groups and underrepresented in paid internships. Large portions of unpaid internships goes to white students, male students and non-first generation college students. Inequity in education is the start of these disparities
(www.naceweb.org)

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I interviewed a co-worker who has been employed with INROADS for the past 10 years as a Senior University Relations Manager. Brenda Williams recruits’ students of color for INROADS professional leadership and development program from colleges and universities in the western region of the United States. She offers assists Talent Managers and Program Managers to assist them with sourcing students for paid summer internship opportunities. She is a graduate of North Texas State University with a degree in accounting. She worked for an accounting firm immediately upon graduating and realized her passion was in higher education as a recruiter for an organization in which she was alum while attending college. It was a way for her to give back to her community by working for an organization that provided the skills she needed as a young, Black, female college student in obtaining a leadership position at one of the largest accounting firms in Dallas. She travels extensively in her role to campus career fairs, partners with career centers and meets with clubs/organizations to share her story and recruit minority students to join the INROADS Internship program. INROADS also has a College Links Program, that prepares high school students for entrance to college with leadership academies, tutors and ACT/SAT preparation classes and also guides them through admission processes and college interviews. Brenda is passionate about helping first generation college students of color obtain admission to Ivy league colleges and works with them to make sure they achieve academic success. Her passion is due to barriers first generation college students as it relates to entry and the unique barriers these students face.  She has created webinars to address first generation students creating a sense of belonging on campus. Researchers have reported colleges/universities are using innovative approaches to foster a sese of belonging for first generation college students that does not focus on graduation or retention rates (Soria, 2012).
Soria, K. and Stebleton, M. (2012). Breaking down barriers. academic obstacles of first generation students at research universities Retrieved at https://files.eric.ed.gov.

There is an inequity in higher education at Ivy League college and universities across the country. Many schools have created ways to make college entrance more accessible to Back and Hispanic students from low-income and underserved students (Camera, 2022).  These colleges and universities want to create a more diverse and inclusive campus due to the recent rise in social injustices and realizing that education is tied to economic equity and recent studies show disparities in economic mobility for Blacks and Hispanics.

·       Students of color remain under-represented on college campuses

·       Diversity on college campuses enhances the educational opportunities of all backgrounds, when considering race for admission practices, such as affirmative action

·       The goal is to remedy economic inequities by encouraging colleges to look closely at non-traditional factors that may define academic success factors often overlooked in traditional admission requirements (Maxwell, 2019).

Racial inequality in the United States stems from the long history of exclusion and discrimination. Unequal opportunities shape educational opportunities of Black and Hispanic students (Strauss, 2022). Minorities who lack educational opportunities face economic inequity throughout their lives. White Americans far greater economically with a college education than Blacks.

Brenda Williams, Senior University Relations Manager, INROADS

Brenda gets her research from National Association of College and Employers as they report on inequities in education. There are no legal or compliance issues she monitors related to recruitment for INROADS, but in recruiting minority students, the organization cannot exclude all students who are interested in the INROADS program. Although Brenda’s department does not work with students who are trying to obtain admission to college, she is aware of the need for affirmative action in college admissions and how it will affect the one she recruits students at Ivy League institutions. Equity in education is an area she researches as it affects inequity in a student’s career. Brenda relies on NACE to provide data on college admissions and statistics on paid and unpaid internship disparities among students of color and how to resolve those disparities.

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As an Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) Program Manager it is important that I identify with students from a cultural perspective in higher education. I work for a non-profit organization called INROADS and their mission for the past 52 years has been removing systemic barriers to economic mobility for people of color. I provide an innovative curriculum of college and career readiness creating pathways for STEM, entrepreneurial and business professions for students from underrepresented groups in executive leadership. My audience is first generation, Black and Brown college students from across the country who are changing the narrative in their community and environment starting with higher education to work towards their academic goals and career goals. I chose the topic Race and College Admissions because there continues to be barriers to educations for minorities in Ivy League Schools across the country. In 2018, then President Donald Trump, reversed President Obama’s policy encouraging colleges/university to consider race as factor in college admissions (Marcus, 2018).
https://hechingerreport.org/facts-about-race-and-college-admission/

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The Trump administration has reversed Obama-era policies encouraging universities to consider race as a factor in admission.

The Justice and Education departments jointly announced this week that they had rescinded guidelines encouraging colleges to racially diversify their campuses. The guidelines are nonbinding but represent the view of the departments, which said in a joint statement that they went "beyond the requirements of the Constitution."

Opponents of considering race in admission say doing so discriminates against whites.

Forty-two percent of white students aged 18 to 24 were enrolled in college in 2013, compared to 34 percent of black and Hispanic students that age, according to the U.S. Department of Education.

Enrollment in the 468 best-funded and most selective four-year institutions is 75 percent white, the Georgetown University Center for Education and the Workforce reports. Enrollment at the 3,250 lowest-funded community colleges and four-year universities is 37 percent black and Hispanic. *These figures have been corrected to reflect the findings in the cited report.

Larger and larger proportions of nonwhite students go to the least selective institutions with the fewest resources, whose nonwhite enrollment had grown from 31 percent in 1995 to 43 percent by 2009, the last period for which the figures were studied.

Nearly a third of black and Hispanic students with high school grade-point averages of 3.5 or better end up at community colleges, compared to 22 percent of white students with the same grades, the Georgetown research found.

Seventy-two percent of black students go into debt to pay for their educations, compared to 56 percent of white students, the Education Department reports.

Nearly 72 percent of white students finish a four-year degree within six years, compared to 56 percent of Hispanic and 46 percent of black students, the National Student Clearinghouse Research Center says.

Thirty-three percent of white Americans 25 and older have at least a bachelor's degree, compared to 19 percent of blacks and 16 percent of Hispanics, according to the Education Department.

This story about racial factors in college admissions and completion was produced by The Hechinger Report, a nonprofit, independent news organization focused on inequality and innovation in education. Sign up for the Hechinger newsletter.

Republish our articles for free, online or in print, under a Creative Commons license.

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Race and ethnicity in college admissions: The Trump administration has reversed policies encouraging the consideration of race as a factor. Here are the facts.

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Grutter v. Bollinger

Race sensitive admissions program because the considerate of race was one factor in the decision making process and individualized consideration was given to each applicant.
539 U.S. 306 (2003)

123 S. Ct. 2325

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Fisher V. University of Texas At Austin

Holding that employment cases “have little purchase in his challenge to university admissions.

Concludes that UT’s reliance on Texas demographics reflects attention to the community it serves.

631 F.3d 213 (5th Cir. 2011)

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Hopwood v. Texas

Holding that “the use of ethnic diversity simply to achieve racial heterogeneity, even as part of the considerations of a number of factors, is unconstitutional.
78 F.3d 932 (5th Cir. 1996)

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Lesage v. State of Texas

Reversing summary judgement because of testimonial conflict over when race factored into admissions process.

158 F.3d 213 (5th Cir. 1998)

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Padlet Slide #10 Local Administrative Law/Policy/Rule

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Padlet Slide #10 Local Administrative Law/Policy/Rule

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Dallas Independent School District mission is to eliminate systemic disparities and ensure equity for all students which is based on Senate Bill 3. This bill provides a guide for all schools to provide the same education platforms  throughout the district  so all students get the same resources on all campuses and history is taught that identify with the demographics in each school district.
https://www.dallasisd.org/SB3

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Racial Equity Office / Senate Bill 3 (SB3)

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Senate Bill 3 (SB3) en español Dallas ISD remains committed to educating all students for success, which includes preparing students to be good citizens who are informed, engaged, and able to impact the world around them in positive ways. We provide equitable opportunities for students to learn an…

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The complexities and pressures of the college application process can result in students and parents skirting the edges of ethical behavior in order to gain an edge in admission. Some may not understand the formal or informal agreements they've entered into; others may be well aware that they are trying to "game the system.”

https://professionals.collegeboard.org/guidance/applications/ethics

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Padlet Slide #12 Personal Connection to the Legal and Ethical Standarords

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Padlet Slide #12 Personal Connection to the Legal and Ethical Standarords

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My personal connection to this legal and ethical issue allows me to understand the application of the law because as a Black woman, I realize the inequities in education have long lasting effects. History repeats itself as it relates to barriers in education for students who are discriminated against because of their race and social class. Laws were enacted to ensure equality. Historically Black Colleges and Universities were created because Blacks were not allowed in White colleges. Affirmative action was implemented as a law because Blacks were still being discriminated against when it came to admitting students of color. Research proves that there is economic equity among Blacks and Whites in America that is a direct results of their educational experiences and lack of resources in admission to Ivy League Colleges. This is unacceptable and it affects me because I work with colleges who are understaffed and lack resources that other colleges have. HBCUs do not get the financial resources that White universities received. High school students are not prepared to enter Ivy League college unless admission requirements are changed and students are allowed to enter based on affirmative actions or inclusive admissions that students of color can relate too.

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Padlet Slide #13 Bulleted list of Recommendations / Best Practices for Compliance

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Padlet Slide #13 Bulleted list of Recommendations / Best Practices for Compliance

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·       Its not enough to have conversations, Colleges and universities needs to push towards action and past just talks about inclusion on campus

·       Consider race to diversify college campuses.

·       Go beyond statements of equity and get rid of legacy admissions

·       Get rid of standardized testing scores in the selective admissions process that has been ruled as biased.

·       Examine methods to integrate diversity and inclusion into programs and institutions

·       Clarify practical practices of racism in higher education

·       Explore individual and institutional interventions to address racism in college admission practices