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Dual-language education, formerly called , refers to academic programs that are taught in two languages (*Since the term bilingual education has negative associations, it is now more commonly called dual-language education, among other terms). While dual-language education has existed in the United States for roughly two centuries, and it reached it height of popularity in the 1970s, the use of dual-language education in public schools has declined significantly in recent decades due to legislative actions that have sought to limit its use, conflicting research on its benefits, pedagogical and ideological disagreements, and diminished funding and resources supporting the approach.

Students who come from non-English-speaking backgrounds, who are not proficient in English, and who require specialized or modified language instruction, are known by a variety of names in the education community: English-language learners (ELLs), English learners (or ELs), limited English proficient (LEP) students, non-native English speakers, language-minority students, and either bilingual students or emerging bilingual students.

When used, dual-language education is generally seen as a way to ensure that non-English-speaking students, or students who are not yet proficient in English, are given opportunities to succeed in and complete their education. While schools and teachers may use a wide variety of dual-language strategies, each with its own specific instructional goals, the programs are typically designed to simultaneously develop English fluency, content knowledge, and academic language -the knowledge, skills, and cultural proficiencies needed to succeed in an academic program.

There are few main forms of dual-language education:

Transitional programs provide students with some level of instruction in their primary or native language for a certain period of time-generally one to three years-before students transition into English-only instructional programs. They are known as "one-way" programs because they only serve one group-non-native English speakers.

Maintenance programs provide students with concurrent instruction in English and their primary language throughout their elementary-school years-typically pre-kindergarten through sixth grade-with the goal of developing English fluency and academic literacy in both languages. (Both transitional and maintenance programs include instructional strategies associated with English as a second language).

Two-way enrichment programs teach both native and non-native English speakers in two languages with the goal of developing bilingual fluency. In some cases, monolingual English-speaking students may be immersed in second-language instruction alongside native speakers of the language with limited English ability.

Although dual-language programs take a wide variety of forms from school to school, the programs generally include the following features:

Dual-language curriculum and instruction: Depending on the specific model being used, the curriculum is typically presented bilingually and may be divided into distinct blocks of time-e.g., day one in English, day two in Spanish, day three in English, etc. Instruction typically does not include straight translation from language to language-teachers move through the curriculum as they would in an English-only course. Students in dual-language programs are generally required to meet the same learning standards and graduation requirements as other students.

Bilingual teachers and instructional staff:If schools cannot employ bilingual teachers, they may pair monolingual English teachers with an assistant or educational technician who speaks the native language of the students in a class.

Dual-language evaluation: When possible or required, students entering dual-language programs will be tested in English and their primary language to determine their proficiency levels in English and their first language. Careful attention is given to their knowledge of both conversational language (the language used in social interactions) and academic language (the language used in educational settings).

Culturally and linguistically relevant learning materials:When available, students are given texts, videos, software applications, tests, and other instructional resources that are produced in their primary language, which may also include content and references that reflect the students' specific cultural background.

Dual-language assessments and accommodations: When they are not being tested on their language proficiency, such as in a math course, dual-education students may be in their primary language. They may also be given various testing accommodations , such as bilingual dictionaries or additional time to complete a test.

Bilingual orientation and liaisons:Incoming students and their families may be provided some form of orientation, particularly if the students are recently arrived immigrants or refugees who are unfamiliar with the expectations and of American public schools. Orientation sessions will be conducted in their native language, and bilingual students or staff members-sometimes called parent liaisons or home liaisons-may be assigned to maintain regular contact with the incoming students and their families.

Reform

As noted above, dual-language education has been in decline in the United States in favor of English-only instructional approaches such as English as a second language or sheltered English instruction.

Like multicultural education , dual-language education is predicated on the concept of -or the principal of fairness and equal educational opportunity in education. By providing modified language instruction and specialized academic support to non-English-speaking and limited-English-proficient students, it is believed, schools can accelerate their acquisition of English and academic literacy, as well as the knowledge and skills they are expected to learn in school. If limited-English-proficient students are denied instruction in their native language, the reasoning goes, schools reduce the students' ability to understand what is being taught and meet the same learning standards as English-speaking students (there is strong evidence that the skills and concepts learned in one language can be transferred to another), which can give rise to learning gaps , achievement gaps , opportunity gaps , and other issues.

Bilingual education gained momentum following legislation passed by the United States Congress and a later decision by the Supreme Court of the United States. In the wake of reports on high dropout rates and low academic-achievement levels among non-English-proficient students, the Bilingual Education Act of 1967 began providing funding for transitional bilingual programs. In 1974, the Supreme Court's Lau vs. Nichols decision-which advocates perceived to be as important to the education of non-English-speaking students as the Brown vs. Board of Education decision was for African Americans-stated that students whose primary language is not English do not have equal educational opportunity without specialized language instruction. While the decision did not recommend a particular remedy, the federal government publicly supported transitional bilingual programs throughout the 1970s.

Debate

Given the culturally sensitive and often ideologically contentious nature of the peripheral issues raised by dual-language education-including politicized debates related to citizenship status, English primacy, immigration reform, and employment and social-services eligibility for non-citizens-it is perhaps unsurprising that dual-language education has been the object of debate and controversy, or that there has been a steady erosion of support for the approach over the past three decades (a cultural shift that contributed to the abandonment of the term bilingual education). For example, a significant number of states have adopted "English as the official language" statutes, and citizen referendums have passed in other states prohibiting dual-language instruction except in special cases. In addition, states have generally favored English-only programs such as English as a second language and sheltered English instruction. While it is not clear how many dual-language programs now exist-or what models they use-the programs serve only a small proportion of English-language learners in the United States.

The issues of citizenship and fairness tend to be at the center of debates over dual-language education. Critics often argue that the use of the non-English languages in public school deemphasizes the role of English as a source of linguistic and cultural unification. While critics generally do not object to bilingualism-the ability to speak two languages-they often contend that dual-language instruction inhibits or delays the acquisition of English fluency. Advocates of the practice argue that when used judiciously and effectively-as in many two-way enrichment programs-dual-language education can improve academic achievement, educational attainment, and educational equity.

Given the wide variety of dual-language models and variations, researchers have found it difficult to conduct large-scale studies on their effectiveness, and the research that does exist has largely been inconclusive. Recent findings, however, clearly favor some form of native-language instruction, in tandem with English instruction, for students who are not yet proficient in English. Many proponents of dual-language education believe that the "non-compensatory" nature of two-way enrichment instruction contributes to the success of such programs, since they tend to inherently value, rather than stigmatize, the student's linguistic and cultural background.

The following are a few representative examples of debates related to dual-language education:

Citizenship status and language policies: One of the central debates about dual-language education, and related language policies, is whether public schools should be focused on the assimilation and acculturation of non-English-speaking students, including students who may not have full citizenship status. (While most English-language learners are United States citizens, the conflation of language ability and citizenship status often motivates and complicates ongoing debates.) Both advocates and critics generally agree that all students should become fluent in English and that a bilingual citizenry is a worthy goal. Nevertheless, some educators, school reformers, elected officials, and policy makers do not see linguistic and cultural diversity as a valuable educational asset in schools. Opponents of dual-language education may argue that programs intended solely for language-minority students should be temporary, transitional, and assimilationist-i.e., that they should be designed to promote the cultural assimilation of students into mainstream American society. These critics may be unconcerned about students maintaining their native language and cultural connections, and they may also cite the growing number of non-English-speaking adults in the United State as evidence of a splintering within American society. Advocates, on the other hand, may argue that acculturation-which favors multicultural education and the maintenance of native language ability alongside the acquisition of English proficiency-would strengthen the country both culturally and economically.

Immigration: While most language-minority students were born in the United States and are full citizens, some critics believe that dual-language programs encourage illegal immigration. Advocates contend that there is no evidence for such claims, and that millions of eligible students would benefit from some degree of instruction in a language that they know and understand. Nonetheless, a handful of states have passed laws that criminalize the enrollment of undocumented immigrant students in public schools.

Curriculum, instruction, and assessment: Since limited-English-proficient students have to meet the same state-required learning standards and graduation expectations that apply to English-speaking students, dual-language education has significant implications for how students are taught. For example, textbooks and other instructional materials may be translated from English or produced outside of the United States, and English-language learners may be given accommodations on standardized tests that some might perceive to be unfair to other students. Since dual-language programs typically do not present both English and non-English versions of the same content-i.e., each lesson, unit, or school day is taught in alternating languages-there may be concern that less-proficient students could fall behind academically, lose motivation, or drop out of school. Some critics of dual-language education may cite examples of students remaining in these programs long after they achieve fluency in English, and they may also express concern about the separation of bilingual children from their English-speaking peers, which may delay assimilation. Proponents argue that what students are learning in their native language will transfer to their English instruction, and that teachers who cannot converse with their students will be unable to design meaningful instructional experiences for them.

Staffing and resource allocation: Since dual-language programs must have bilingual teachers or support staff, the practice may raise concerns about funding and hiring. For example, some districts might prioritize the hiring of bilingual educators, which may be perceived as unfair to other candidates and academic departments or to the students who will not benefit from additional teachers in other areas. (This type of staffing debate also intersected with ongoing debates related to affirmative action.)

Teacher preparation: As the number of language-minority students increased in the United States, it became clear that many teachers, particularly those from monolingual English backgrounds, were not well prepared to teach them-either in English or another language. As a result, schools, districts, universities, state departments of education, professional associations, and accrediting agencies began to develop a wide variety of policies and strategies to address the problem. Some states, for example, created specific teaching licenses and preparation requirements for dual-language programs. While some of these actions helped stabilize school staffing or improve instructional quality for some students, their inconsistent application often perpetuated the perception that limited-English-proficient students were being taught by unqualified teachers.

Parent participation: Because of the linguistic, cultural, and economic barriers faced by many language-minority parents and families, they may struggle to actively and meaningfully participate in their children's education. Consequently, they may be unfairly perceived as uncaring or disengaged.

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Dual-language education, formerly called bilingual education, refers to academic programs that are taught in two languages (*Since the term bilingual education has negative associations, it is now more commonly called dual-language education, among other terms). While dual-language education has existed in the United States for roughly two centuries, and it reached it height of popularity [...]

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History of English Language Teaching | TEFL Articles | EnglishClub

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The English language teaching tradition has been subject to tremendous change, especially throughout the twentieth century.

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Scaffolding Literacy Instruction for English Language Learners

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Systemic Functional Linguistics for the English Language Arts Classroom

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Systemic Functional Linguistics: An Introduction

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An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics (Edited)

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Theories, Methods & Techniques of Teaching - ESA Methodology

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When teaching English, you must prepare and plan to create a beneficial and constructive learning experience for your students.

Engage-Study-Activate (ESA) is the most effective teaching methodology. Teachers who use ESA can productively organize their lessons. Through ESA, students are focused and highly motivated to learn.

First coined by Jeremy Harmer in his book "How to teach English", ESA is a method of structuring your lessons in three elements. The different stages of ESA can be flexible and used to keep students engaged at all times.

The Engage Phase - Warming Up

It is essential to always start a lesson with the engage phase. It is here where students start starting and thinking in English. Before learning new content, students need to prepare for learning English. Games, showing pictures, discussions, listening to music, brainstorming vocabulary and storytelling are some excellent activities to engage and immerse students in the class.

It is paramount that all students participate and interact with the class during the engage phase. Teachers should focus on facilitating engagement and making sure that every student has at least spoken once before moving on.

Once the engage phase has finished, students should be thoroughly warmed up and eager to begin the next part of the lesson.

The Study Phase - Learning New Things

This phase is mainly the board work of the lesson. It is here where students will learn or review English language topics. Teachers can use textbooks, study materials, videos and drilling exercises to help students learn and use the English language accurately. Other activities include gap fill quizzes, matching exercises and word order arrangement.

After students learn the topic of the lesson, the teacher then checks their understanding. As a teacher, you must never ask the question "do you understand?" as students are naturally inclined to answer yes despite not fully understanding.

Instead, ask a question about what's been taught and see how they respond. If the student answers the question about the topic correctly, then they will have understood. In cases where students don't understand, the teacher will go over the text again and ask more questions.

The Activate Phase - Using English Practically

The final aspect of an ESL lesson is the activate phase, where students use what they have learned in activities such as role-plays, dialogues, debates and surveys.

The purpose of the activate phase is to apply the topics learned in the study phase in a realistic situation. By doing this, students will begin to use the English language. As with the engage phase, it is vital that every student participates and speaks during the activities.

During this stage, teachers help students with their pronunciation, rhythm and fluency. Teachers can do this through elicitation and demonstration.
Teachers must conduct the activate phase at the end of the lesson as the way students perform will be an indicator of how much they understood during the study phase. If there are gaps in the students' learning at this stage, then teachers will need to focus more on improving the study phase.

Different Types of ESA Lessons

Straight-Arrow ESA Lesson

The most common application of the ESA method, teachers simply start with the engage phase and end with the activate phase.

An example lesson plan of a Straight-Arrow ESA lesson

Teaching Aids

Worksheets
Name cards

Learner Objectives

Students should be able to identify and use comparative adjectives in sentences by the end of the lesson.

Teacher Objectives

Improve my boardwork, elicitation and refine my teaching style.

Anticipated Problems for Students

Pronunciation
Confusion between "-er" and "more" comparative adjectives.

Solution

Drilling and thorough explanation of the grammar.

Anticipated Problems for Teachers

Losing track of the sequence of the lesson plan and time.

Solution

Have the lesson plan next to me at all times. Always check the time.

Engage

Use pictures to elicit adjectives based on appearance. As students say adjectives, write the opposites.

E.g. tall-short, fat-thin, young-old, etc.

List around 10-12 words on the board.

Explain that adjectives can be used to describe appearances and then give an example of a comparative adjective.

Select two students with one being taller than the other and write a gapfill sentence on the whiteboard.

E.g. Tom is taller than Emily.

Elicit the opposite:

Emily is shorter than Tom.

10 minutes

S -> T

Study

Activity #1

Create three columns and write the list of adjectives in the first column.

Ask students for the comparative forms of the adjectives and write them down in the second column.

In the third column, explain how to create the comparative form by writing (adjective + er) or (more + adjective)

Activity #2

Hand out the first worksheet that has a chart of adjectives and comparative adjectives and ask students to fill in the missing words.

Activity #3

Hand out the second worksheet that has gap fill exercises.

E.g. This brown cat is ________ than the white cat.

20 minutes

S -> T

Activate

Activity #1

Each student gets a card with a random name and fact.

Each student gets a fact sheet headed with "name" and "fact".

Teach students how to ask these questions.

1. What is your name?
2. What is your fact?

Students go around the class and ask their classmates these questions, filling in the sheet as they go.

Activity #2

Once they have asked everyone and filled in the information on their fact sheet, students will create sentences about their classmates using comparative adjectives.

Students will then stand up and say some of their sentences to the class.

10-15 minutes

Boomerang ESA Lesson

The structure of a Boomerang lesson is Engage-Activate-Study-Activate (EASA).

Unlike a Straight-Arrow lesson, a Boomerang lesson dives straight into the activate phase of the lesson before the study phase, then finishing by reactivating the students.

During the initial activate phase, students will most likely be unable to use the language correctly. They will make mistakes with grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation, which will reveal gaps in the students' knowledge.
Once the students have learned the new topic, they will then do the activity again, filling in any gaps they may have had at the beginning of the lesson.

An example boomerang lesson

Engage: Discussion of different jobs and occupations.

Activate: Role-play as different types of people e.g lawyer, police officer, firefighter, etc.

Study: Use boardwork and worksheets to enhance students' vocabulary and understanding of different jobs.

Activate: Repeat the role-play. This time, students will have more vocabulary to use and thus make the activity more fun and exciting.

The objective of a Boomerang lesson is accuracy of the English language and consistently improving through good practice.

Patchwork ESA Lesson

A patchwork ESA lesson always begins with the engage phase and finishes with the activate phase. However, what happens between these phases can be arranged by the teacher as they see fit.

An example structure of a patchwork lesson can be E-A-S-A-E-S-A.

The patchwork lesson is flexible and can be used to target specific areas of student learning. If students need to increase their understanding of a topic, then a study phase will be conducted. To make a lesson more interesting, a teacher can initiate the activate stage or use the engage stage to introduce new topics. Anything is possible.

Why ESA?

The ESA methodology is the most organized and time-efficient way of conducting a lesson. It will allow students to learn in an engaging, exciting, productive and fun way.

The engage phase sparks the initial interest in the topic, the study phase is the absorption of new knowledge, and the activate phase puts everything into practice.

This methodology can help you as an ESL teacher to structure your lessons to fit your style of teaching and educational needs of your students. It is by far the best method of teaching English.

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The Engage-Study-Activate (ESA) Method of Teaching | English Teacher Guide

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When teaching English, you must prepare and plan to create a beneficial and constructive learning experience for your students. Engage-Study-Activate (ESA) is the most effective...

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Theories, Methods & Techniques of Teaching - Total Physical Response

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Teacher Toolkit: Total Physical Response

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Theories, Methods & Techniques of Teaching

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ESA is a common methodology that teachers use when teaching students another language. It is also a large part of your TEFL certification course. By using the layout of the ESA method to plan your lessons, they will be more structured, organized and effective.
This post was written by our ITTT graduate Casandra L.
Listen to this blog post:

What is ESA?

ESA stands for engage, study, and activate. By using ESA, it gives teacher's the flexibility to conduct a classroom in an organized and productive way. ESA is extremely important when it comes to teaching, because it keeps the students interested, motivated, and eager to learn more. That is why all teachers, especially new ones, should learn the ESA method when teaching students a new language.

The Engage Phase

The first phase that teachers should always start the lesson with is the engage phase. In the engage phase, the teacher simply gets the students ready to participate in the lesson. Engaging the students can include showing pictures, realia, contrasts, discoveries, discussions with the whole class, miming and acting, prompting the students to answer, and using questions to get the students thinking and speaking in English. The goal of the engage phase is to get the student's attention and to elicit the meaning of words or topics that will be covered in the lesson. This phase is extremely important because it gives the teacher a chance to include all the students in the activity. The engage phase also helps the students feel more comfortable and ready to learn.

Also read: 10+ Activities For Teaching English Summer Camp

The Study Phase

After the teacher has engaged the students, they then move on to the study phase. The study phase can consist of many activities, such as studying from texts and dialogues, example sentences, crosswords, gap-fill exercises, word searches, matching games, and drilling. The purpose of the study phase is for the teacher to actually teach the students new words or topics and show them the correct way of using them. This phase is also where any errors may be corrected and discussed in a tactful way. During this stage the teacher can help students come to a better understanding of each subject so they can learn and move forward in the best way possible.

Also read: 7 Activities for Teaching Passive Voice in the ESL Classroom

The Activate Phase

Lastly, the teacher will conclude with the activating stage. The activate phase may include discussions that are for the whole class, small groups, or even pairs, role-play, story building, tasks such as posters or advertisements, simulations, and debates. The activating stage is where students put to work the things they learned in the study phase. By activating the students, it will help the teacher to know how well they have understood the material that was discussed in the class. It is very important to make sure you always engage the students first and activate the students last.

Also read: The Best Apps to Have on Your Phone While Teaching English Abroad

Benefits of Using the ESA Method

In conclusion, it is of utmost importance that teachers learn the ESA method of teaching. By learning this method, it will help teachers to stay on top of things in an organized manner. It will also help students to learn in a fun and productive way. The engage phase keeps students interested, the study phase helps students to learn, and the activate phase helps put into practice what they have learned. ESA can be structured in any way that is best for the teacher and topic she or he is teaching. The most common structure of ESA is the straight arrow method which starts with an engage stage, then a study stage, and then concludes by activating the students. Teachers can also use a boomerang structure or patchwork structure. All that matters is that the teacher starts off by engaging the students and ends with activating the students.

When teachers learn about the ESA method of teaching, it will equip them to be more effective teachers. In turn, making effective students.

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ESA Methodology - What Is It and Why Should You Use It in the Classroom?

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ESA is a common methodology that teachers use when teaching students another language. It is also a large part of your TEFL certification course. By using the layout of the ESA method to plan your lessons, they will be more structured, organized and effective. This post was written by our ITTT graduate Casandra L.

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In this edition of Conversations with Tim, Tim speaks with Rosalie Lincoln and Cathy Moses about their work in the Lower Kuskokwim School District in Alaska to preserve and revitalize the Yugtun language.

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WIDA develops and provides proven tools and support to help multilingual learners, and their educators, succeed.

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Across the country, teachers and other educators share the exciting but sometimes difficult challenge of teaching English, literacy skills, and academic content to a growing number of English language learners (ELLs).

This is a rich section filled with strategies, ideas, recommendations, resources, videos, and news from the ELL field. Resources are organized by the topics below and additional Resources by Grade are also available in our ELL Basics section.

What You'll Find in This Section

The first year of working with ELLs can be full of challenges. Fortunately, there are a number of resources to help! Colorín Colorado has compiled this list to help new ELL teachers navigate their experiences in the classroom. These resources may also be helpful for veteran teachers who are new to teaching ELLs.

How can we help English language learners successfully meet the Common Core State Standards? This resource section offers ideas and materials including classroom videos, teacher interviews, and bilingual parent tips.

Learn more about how schools and families can collaborate to ensure that ELLs, including those with special needs, have the appropriate support and services to meet their unique needs.

Resource Library

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Across the country, teachers and other educators share the exciting but sometimes difficult challenge of teaching English, literacy skills, and academic content to a growing number of English language learners (ELLs). This is a rich section filled with strategies, ideas, recommendations, resources, videos, and news from the ELL field.

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Culturally responsive teachers adhere to TESOL's 6 Principles for Exemplary Teaching of English Learners

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The Center for Culturally Responsive Teaching and Learning (CCRTL) exists for making cultural responsiveness a meaningful aspect of everyday life. Being culturally responsive is an approach to living life in a way that practices the validation and affirmation of different cultures for the purposes of moving beyond race and moving below the superficial focus on culture.

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How to Select Culturally and Historically Responsive Text | Scholastic

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By selecting culturally and historically responsive text, youÃ Ã Â¢ ll cultivate the genius within your students and create spaces for mutual empowerment, confidence, and self-reliance.

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“Well, societies usually say that they have two linguistic systems, one for each named language.” Is this, then, two linguistic systems? “Bilinguals, to be sure, have two named languages, but that is only when seen from the social or outsider point of view.  But when seen from the point of view of their own linguistic system, it is more accurate to think in unitary terms, and to assume that they have a single system. The term translanguaging should be taken in the sens of transcending, ‘going beyond,’ the two named languages of bilinguals (English-Spanish, English-Russian Zaopteck-Spanish, etc.), or the tree of trilinguals, or the many of multilinguals, and to think of bilinguals/multilinguals as individuals with a single linguistic system (the inside view) that society (the outside view) calls two or more named languages” (p. 10).  Garcia, O., & Kleyn. T. (2016). Translanguaging with multilingual students. Routledge.

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Top Ten Lessons Learned from Ofelia García

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Over 10 percent of students in the United States-more than 4.8 million kids-are English language learners (ELLs), and the number is on the rise. Though these students do not learn differently than their native-English-speaking peers, they do have particular educational needs.

To learn about these needs-and best practices for addressing them-I interviewed a range of educators and observers, including Larry Ferlazzo, an educator and author of The ESL/ELL Teacher's Survival Guide; longtime teachers of English as a second language (ESL) Emily Francis and Tan Huynh; and the journalist Helen Thorpe, who spent a year observing a teacher who works with ELLs.

The group emphasized that the strategies listed here, which include both big-picture mindsets and nitty-gritty teaching tactics, can be incorporated into all classrooms, benefiting both native English speakers and ELLs.

1. Cultivate Relationships and Be Culturally Responsive

No surprise here. A successful classroom, our educators agreed, is one in which students feel known, appreciated, and comfortable taking emotional and intellectual risks. That requires intentional planning and consistent messaging by the teacher.

Emily Francis, an ESL teacher in Concord, North Carolina, makes clear that she wants her students to "embrace their culture and their language as a foundation of who they are" and to consider their acquisition of a new culture and language "not as subtractive, but as additive." To help support students who may never have attended school before or may be coping with migration-based trauma, Francis emphasizes that little things make a big difference. "The first thing that I need to think about is, how is my student feeling in my classroom?" she says. "Are they sitting next to a buddy they can ask a question in their home language? Do they feel comfortable tapping me on the shoulder if they have to go to the bathroom?"

But creating a supportive environment is also about cultivating an appreciation of diversity-it's critical that both the curriculum and the classroom environment honor and reflect the lives of the students. For instance, Francis makes certain that her classroom library is reflective of her students' diverse backgrounds and identities.

ESL teacher Katie Toppel, who teaches near Portland, Oregon, champions the value of home visits to get to know students' families and takes care to incorporate the particulars of students' lives, such as pets' names and favorite sports, into lessons. Students are most engaged when they feel a personal connection to a lesson or unit, a connection that's created in part by a teacher's investment in culturally competent relationships.

2. Teach Language Skills Across the Curriculum

English language learners should not be learning the fundamentals of English in isolation; they should be applying their developing language skills to rich academic content in all subjects.

"It is key that in mainstream classrooms, teachers understand their role as language teachers," says Valentina Gonzalez, a district leader in Katy, Texas, suggesting that all teachers should be aware of the specialized idiom they work within. "If we teach math, then we teach the language of mathematics. If we teach science, then we teach the language of science." Math teachers, in other words, should take the time to teach the unfamiliar vocabulary of mathematics- add, subtract, calculator, solve -concurrently with the teaching of math skills.

3. Emphasize Productive Language

The educators I interviewed agreed that productive language skills-hard-to-master dimensions of language fluency like speaking and writing-should be front and center from day one, even if students feel hesitant about them.

Beginning ELLs often develop receptive language skills like listening and reading first. Educators who are unaware of the typical path to fluency may believe that students who can follow verbal or written directions will be able to produce oral or written language, but that's usually not the case.

To support reluctant speakers, Tan Huynh, an educator who blogs at Empowering ELLs, suggests using sentence frames. "For example, when a science teacher wants ELLs to produce a hypothesis, they might offer the sentence, 'If _____ was added, then _____ because _____.' This sentence frame provides clues that empower ELLs to sound and think like scientists," Huynh says.

Andrea Honigsfeld, a professor of education at Molloy College in Rockville, New York, suggests that all lessons touch on every letter of the acronym SWIRL, which stands for Speak, Write, Interact, Read, Listen. The approach intentionally privileges productive language skills "from the beginning," she says.

4. Speak Slowly-and Increase Your Wait Time

Easier said than done. Still, many of the teachers I spoke to said this simple change is vital. You can record yourself speaking in class to measure your cadence, and adjust.

"Adding in an extra three to five seconds after we pose a question offers all students time to think," explains Gonzalez. "However, for English learners, it also gives time to translate, process their thinking, translate back into English, and develop the courage to answer. If we call on students too quickly, many of our students will stop thinking about the answers-or trying to answer at all."

That means undoing some of our own habits, according to Larry Ferlazzo, a high school ESL teacher in Sacramento, California. "Researchers have found that typically most teachers give one to two seconds between asking a question and expecting a student response," he says. "The same researchers have shown that if you wait three to five seconds, the quality of responses is astronomically greater."

5. Differentiate-and Use Multiple Modalities

All kids learn better when they engage with material in multiple ways: Lessons that involve writing, speaking, drawing, and listening, for example, give students four opportunities to deepen their understanding of the work. For ELLs, those additional engagements also provide a little breathing room so they can work through the language barrier.

Helen Thorpe, a journalist who spent a year observing Eddie Williams's classroom in Denver in order to write a book about immigrants called The Newcomers, marveled at Williams's method of differentiation. "Eddie would enunciate very clearly in English multiple times, he would write it on the board, and he would go to the projector to give a visual. And, finally, he'd be asking the kids to verbalize aspects of the lesson themselves," she says, tracing Williams's efforts to move his students from receptive to productive language fluency.

Toppel uses a strategy called QSSSA to scaffold classroom discussions with ELLs. The letters stand for Question (the teacher poses a question, then gives ample think time); Signal (a designated motion like a thumbs-up, a finger on the nose-something that lets students indicate that they're ready to answer); Stem (the teacher provides a sentence starter for the question-for example, for "What is your favorite place to read a book?" the stem might be, "My favorite place to read a book is _____"); Share; and Assess.

6. Incorporate Students' Native Languages-and Don't Be Afraid of Technology

Bilingualism is the goal, of course, not replacement.

Ferlazzo uses a strategy called "preview, view, review," which leverages a student's native language skills as a foundation for learning the new language. He introduces a topic and encourages students to preview it in materials in their home language (often using multilingual videos and other online resources); he then teaches the topic in English, and then has students review the information in their home language.

Ferlazzo also encourages teachers to embrace technologies that students find helpful, like Google Translate. He stresses that the app can be a useful way for students to translate words quickly-but warns that it can quickly "become a dependency" if it's used as more than a handy dictionary.

Thorpe agrees that Translate can take pressure off teachers, who sometimes find that they "just stand at the front of the room and say things over and over. And if the kids didn't know what those words are, they're out of luck." Translation technology means you can say it once (or twice) and let the students use the technology to translate key words and phrases.

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6 Essential Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners

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We interviewed educators with decades of experience in teaching ELLs and tapped a network of experts and observers to find the strategies that work.

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The population of English language learners (ELLs) in U.S. public schools is on the rise. Learn about the most effective ways to teach ELL students (or ESL students), how to create a welcoming classroom, and ways to promote family involvement.

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Reflections on Teaching English Learners

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Since the TESOL International conference was supposed to take place at the end of this month, I thought it would be timely to repost a piece about TESOL's publication, The 6 Principles for Exemplary Teaching of English Learners. My longtime colleague, co-author and friend, Dr. Deborah Short, was lead writer on the book and is the current TESOL president so it seemed fitting to hear from her about TESOL's 6 principles and how they align with the SIOP Model. I'm sure you'll enjoy her informative guest blog - especially in times like these when we're unable to hear from experts like Deborah in person!

Deborah: The 6 Principles for Exemplary Teaching of English Learners (TESOL, 2018) presents pedagogical foundations that every teacher of English learners should know, including research on second language development so teachers can make informed instructional and assessment decisions, strategies to promote bi/multilingualism, and methods for effective instruction and assessment. The 6 Principles represent an assets-based approach to language development and the book showcases a vision that language specialists are professionals with substantive expertise to share with colleagues.

TESOL developed the 6 Principles to advance the quality of English language teaching. Because English is the most popular new language to learn worldwide, it is important that all educators have a common understanding of second language learning theory and effective instructional and assessment design. When educators have a resource with contemporary research on pedagogy and second language acquisition, they can create beneficial conditions for learning in their classes. The 6 Principles are the core of exemplary teaching and apply to all educational settings where students are learning English as a new language or learning content through English.

The SIOP Model (Echevarria, Vogt & Short, 2000, 2017), which we developed to integrate academic language learning with content area instruction, is the perfect framework for actualizing the 6 Principles. The SIOP Model helps teachers plan and deliver effective instruction so students meet high academic standards and develop their English language skills. Let's consider each of the 6 principles and show how implementing SIOP will help teachers meet them.
Principle 1: Know your learners
Knowing who your students are is at the center of effective instruction. Principle 1 encourages teachers to gain information about their learners, including their educational and linguistic backgrounds, their interests and talents, their cultures, and their families. With this knowledge, teachers can leverage assets the students have (e.g., first language literacy) and enrich their lessons with resources that learners bring to the classroom. Teachers also can anticipate gaps in knowledge that students might face.

When SIOP teachers consider the features of the Lesson Preparation component as they write their plans, they look at student data regarding proficiency levels in order to target instruction appropriately. They can then set language objectives and adapt content according to student needs.

The Building Background component calls on teachers to tap personal experiences and knowledge students have about their home country and cultures to build or activate knowledge needed for lessons. Suggested techniques include visuals, video clips, field trips, Quickwrites, KWL charts, structured turn and talks, anticipation guides, and concept maps.

Teachers recognize student assets and see the value of native language use in the classroom. The Interaction component reminds teachers that using the L1 strategically is beneficial.

Principle 2: Create conditions for language learning
Teachers have control over the culture in their classroom. Principle 2 prompts them to create a safe space for the learners so they are comfortable taking risks with language and learning new academic routines as they develop their skills. Teachers can create a positive climate that motivates the learners and a physical setting that promotes language use, such as by grouping students at desks or tables.

To support literacy development, SIOP teachers pre-teach key vocabulary so students have greater access to texts-those they will read and those they will write. Key techniques shared in the Building Background component include 4 Corner charts, Frayer maps, contextualized word walls, foldables, and personal dictionaries.

To promote collaborative discussions recommended in the Interaction component, teachers post anchor charts of signal words and academic language frames that are used to express functions (e.g., compare, persuade, evaluate). Teachers also configure learning groups deliberately as called for by the task and lesson objectives. Further, they teach students how to function in groups, both in terms of accomplishing their assigned roles and in utilizing discourse moves, such as turn-taking.

SIOP teachers know that avid reading supports language acquisition so they build multilingual classroom libraries with books on curricular topics and books for pleasure reading. They look for books that reflect the students' cultures and home countries, and ensure the selection includes texts at multiple reading levels.

Principle 3: Design high-quality lessons for language development
Principle 3 represents the core of instruction. The lessons, whether delivered in an English language class or a general education class, must have clear outcomes and use varied inputs to present information to the students. High-quality language lessons encourage the practice of authentic language coupled with relevant and meaningful content. Teachers help students think critically, use learning strategies, and regulate their learning. Teachers also differentiate instruction as needed.

In many ways, the SIOP Model epitomizes Principle 3. We believe that SIOP's most significant contribution to instructional practice is the focus on having content and language objectives in every lesson. This hallmark of SIOP fits right in with the clear outcomes stressed in this principle.

SIOP calls for meaningful activities in each lesson, the use of variety of techniques to make content comprehensible, attention to learning strategies and higher-order questioning, and extensive practice and application that uses language authentically in academic ways.

SIOP teachers may differentiate the way content information is presented (e.g., using supplementary materials or native language resources, adding visuals or audio supports, building background knowledge with a small group of learners while others in class do a Graffiti write to activate knowledge they already have) or the task that is assigned (e.g., some students work in pairs, students choose from options of a final product, the length is adjusted by proficiency level). However they do not differentiate the content and language objectives.

Principle 4: Adapt lesson delivery as needed
Just ask any teacher-Not all lessons go as planned. Principle 4 shows teachers that making adjustments is part of the teaching and learning process. By checkingstudent comprehension frequently, teachers can find out if a lesson is going off-track or if some students have not understood the material. Instead of waiting until the unit test which could be a week or more away, teachers can start adjusting immediately. They might present the information in a different way, find additional materials to support the students' comprehension, or work with a small group of students to review the content while the rest of the class completes another task.

The Lesson Preparation component encourages teachers to think in advance about adaptations of content and supplementary materials that might be required for some students. The Lesson Delivery component holds teachers accountable for meeting the objectives so they must be continually monitoring student learning as the lesson unfolds.

The Strategies component suggests verbal, instructional, and procedural scaffolding to increase comprehension. SIOP teachers paraphrase text or student discourse. They incorporate graphic organizers into activities so students can capture important information in structured ways (as in how a Venn diagram frames the similarities and differences). They remind students of steps in a process, perhaps through illustrated directions.

The Review and Assessment component encourages teachers to use group response techniques to check comprehension. If students are struggling, SIOP teachers may reteach or provide additional practice.

Other ways that SIOP teachers adjust their lesson during instruction include modifying their speech, changing the pacing of activities, giving clear explanations of assignments with models of a finished product, and increasing wait time for student responses.

Principle 5: Monitor and assess student language development
The best lesson is worthless if students haven't learned anything at the end of it. Thus it is important to monitor informally during a lesson and more formally with regular assessments. Principle 5 focuses on language development and calls on teachers to monitor student errors but provide feedback strategically. Teachers can take notes or use a rubric to record data on students' language use. Teachers are also expected to let students demonstrate their growing knowledge base through various types of assessments-reports, recordings, tests, and so forth.

SIOP's Review & Assessment component addresses this principle directly. SIOP teachers monitor student language and content knowledge throughout a lesson. When errors are noted, a teacher may make an explicit correction at the moment, recast what a student has said, prompt a student to self-repair a written or oral statement, or plan a mini-lesson for the class in a near-future lesson.

SIOP teachers use a range of assessment techniques to ensure students are making progress towards learning objectives. These include quick responses like thumbs up/thumbs down, 3-2-1 fingers (show 1 if you got it [the concept]; 2, are getting it, or 3, don't get it), and written answers on a whiteboard. Assessment activities built into lessons include Numbered Heads, Send a Problem, vocabulary games, and computer-based programs like Kahoot and Quizlet.

SIOP teachers assess student work with language development in mind. Teachers learn to analyze the work in two ways: one, to determine if a student conveys an understanding of the content knowledge (even if grammatical or nonconsequential vocabulary errors are present), and two, to determine if the academic language is used appropriately and shows growth in linguistic knowledge.

Principle 6: Engage and collaborate within a community of practice
Principle 6 wraps around the other 5 principles and focuses on how teachers can become better professionals and thus improve the instruction they provide. To meet this principle, teachers continue their own personal professional learning, perhaps by joining a teacher association or attending conferences. Teachers also collaborate with colleagues-they co-plan lessons, enhancing language practice opportunities and/or co-teach, sharing responsibilities with all students in a classroom.

Just by reading this blog and following this website, you are engaging in a community of practice. And most SIOP teachers do. They are dedicated to their field and their learners and strive for new knowledge to improve their instruction.

Some of you participate in book study groups and PLCs where you share your expertise with colleagues. You may help with lesson planning, with the selection of materials, or with explanations of language proficiency levels and interpretations of test results.

Many of you act as mentors or coaches for other teachers and help them implement these 6 principles and features of SIOP in their classrooms.

A growing number of you are co-teachers. In so doing you bring to life the SIOP Model every day and give students more access to language and content learning.

To sum up, remember that by implementing the SIOP Model you are giving students a leg up-helping them access the content they need in school and pushing their academic English development forward. You are also meeting the 6 Principles that TESOL has set out as universal guidelines for language teaching and learning.
References
Echevarria, J., Vogt, M.E. & Short, D. (2017). Making Content Comprehensible for English Learners: The SIOP Model, Fifth edition. Boston: Pearson.

Echevarria, J., Vogt, M.E. & Short, D. (2000). Making Content Comprehensible for English Language Learners: The SIOP Model. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

TESOL International (2018). The 6 Principles for the Exemplary Teaching of English Learners. Alexandria, VA: Author.

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Reboot: Does SIOP Teaching Fit with TESOL's 6 Principles?

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Since the TESOL International conference was supposed to take place at the end of this month, I thought it would be timely to repost a piece about TESOL's publication, The 6 Principles for Exemplary Teaching of English Learners.

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BridgeUniverse - TEFL Blog, News, Tips & Resources

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By Johanna Kawasaki
January 22, 2021

There's no single way to teach English and, in fact, there have been many popular approaches over the years. These are a few of the top ESL teaching methods used in the classroom today, including communicative language teaching (CLT) and total physical response (TPR). Learn more about these and other methods and how you can apply them to a real-life classroom in Bridge's Master Certificate course.

Why learn ESL teaching methods?

There are many reasons why learning a few basic ESL teaching methods is a must for both new and experienced teachers. Here are some ways that learning the most popular methods of teaching ESL can help you as an English teacher:

Demonstrating knowledge of these ESL teaching methods and strategies makes you more marketable.

Discussing these strategies for teaching ESL students and using TEFL/TESOL buzzwords during an interview can improve your chances of getting hired.

Using a variety of methods in the ESL classroom makes you a more effective and engaging teacher.

Understanding pedagogy helps you design better ESL materials and lessons, as you can strategically select activities and use learning objectives that will benefit your students.

What are some popular ESL teaching methods?

Method #1: Direct method

For the direct method, all teaching is done in the target language, translations are not allowed in class, and the focus lies heavily on speaking instead of grammar. This makes the direct method a very student-centered strategy that has gained popularity in recent years.

Students are supposed to learn the target language naturally and instinctively, which is why the direct method is also called the "natural approach." Mistakes are corrected as they happen in class, and teachers reinforce the correct usage of the language with praise.
Get more ideas for correcting students' mistakes by taking Bridge's 20-Hour Micro-credential course: Error Correction in the EFL Classroom.
Method #2: Communicative language teaching (CLT)

Communicative language teaching is perhaps the most popular approach among the methods of teaching ESL today. CLT emphasizes the students' ability to communicate in real-life contexts, and students learn to make requests, accept offers, explain things, and express their feelings and preferences.

Since CLT focuses on teaching language through real-world assignments and problem-solving, it's less concerned with grammar accuracy and instead focuses on fluency.
Promote communication and fluency in your classroom with these ESL speaking activities for adults.
Method #3: Task-/project-/inquiry-based learning

This teaching strategy for ESL students can sometimes be considered a part of CLT, but it heavily emphasizes the students' independence and individuality. Inquiry-based learning is a modern approach that is becoming widely popular at schools all over the world. By asking questions and solving problems with the teacher as a mere learning facilitator, student motivation and participation in tasks and projects is thought to increase.

Method #4: Total physical response (TPR)

You may have heard of this teaching strategy for ESL before, but what exactly is TPR? Total physical response has become a very popular approach in which students react to the teacher with movement, such as miming, gesturing, or acting out the language.

For example, the teacher and students might make an exaggerated frown and pretend to cry when learning the word "sad." TPR suggests that students learn the target language best through physical response rather than by analysis.

Method #5: An eclectic approach

Many teachers choose from the collection of humanistic approaches (TPR, for example) and communicative approaches (the direct method and CLT), as well as many other teaching strategies for ESL learners, and use what works best for them.

For example, a teacher who uses mostly the direct method may occasionally do a lot of grammar explanation when teaching a test preparation class, or a CLT advocate may borrow some aspects of the direct method or use TPR.

Pro Tip: A great way to combine or develop teaching methods is to frequently reflect on your teaching style by using a journal where you write down comments, note adjustments, and brainstorm how you can change certain methods or procedures if necessary.

The list of ESL teaching styles doesn't have to end here! You can find your own favorite TEFL/TESOL method from among those listed above, combine several strategies for teaching your ESL students, or develop your own ESL teaching methods and techniques.

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5 Popular ESL Teaching Methods Every Teacher Should Know

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By Johanna Kawasaki January 22, 2021 There's no single way to teach English and, in fact, there have been many popular approaches over the years. These are a few of the top ESL teaching methods used in the classroom today, including communicative language teaching (CLT) and total physical response (TPR).

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An Asset-based Practice for Teaching Bilingual Readers

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An Asset-based Practice for Teaching Bilingual Readers

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K-12 Instructional Models for English Learners: What They Are and Why They Matter

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K-12 Instructional Models for English Learners: What They Are and Why They Matter

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K-12 Instructional Models for English Learners: What They Are and Why They Matter

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Ample data on English Learner (EL) student outcomes provide evidence of the steep challenge these students face in developing grade-level academic language and content knowledge. These data point to a critical question: are local schools and school districts using appropriate instructional program models to meet EL needs? While the effectiveness of specific instructional models for these students—such as dual language, transitional bilingual, and English-only approaches—have attracted the attention of researchers and policymakers, instructional programming actually provided by schools or school districts is often a mix of different models or approaches. For this reason, it is crucial that a range of stakeholders—including state and local education agency leaders, legislators, school board members, and community advocates—have a clear picture of what programs are offered to EL students and factors that might indicate whether they are appropriate and effective choices.

To improve understanding about the critical nature of the choices schools make with regard to EL instruction programs, MPI’s National Center on Immigrant Integration Policy released an issue brief, the second in an EL Insights series, that describes the goals and main features of common instructional models and key factors that often shape their selection and implementation by schools. In this webinar, the brief’s author, Julie Sugarman, discusses the key features of EL instructional models, how they are sometimes woven together to address language- and content-learning needs of students, and factors that can account for varied approaches within and across schools.

Other experts discuss state- and district-level approaches to supporting schools in implementing effective EL program models. They highlight the evolution of bilingual and dual language programming in Madison, Wisconsin, and New York State’s implementation of English as a New Language units of study as the foundation for more effective EL programming. Both speakers illustrate how, in order to improve the academic trajectories of EL students, ongoing reflection guided policy revisions and changes to the design and support of EL programs.

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English as a Second Language – ESL Program Models | ELL/ESOL

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Hi-Lo Books Webinar: Gamification in the Classroom for English Language Learners

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Exploring a Gamified Learning Tool in the ESL Classroom

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Exploring a Gamified Learning Tool in the ESL Classroom

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Gamification is becoming an increasingly popular concept in teaching. Today's "digital residents" have grown up with video and computer games, and they look for excitement. The fast pace of many games fits their short attention spans. The concept of "gamification" - using game elements in non-game contexts to motivate and persuade - is moving from marketing to teaching. While games have long been part of a language teacher's bag of tricks, teachers can benefit from learning about the elements of games that will help us appeal to today's learners.

The page on Game Mechanics offers a description of several of the game mechanics that could be used in the classroom, while the page points out ways that game mechanics can be added to specific classroom actions. Games and Gamified Activities

Once you have a sense of what gamification is, the Class Gamification worksheet can help you put it into practice.

The page provides references and links to additional reading, including a download of my brief article on the difference between gamification and game-based learning.

Recent presentations (see links below; many more o n the Resources page)

2021 NCTE workshop "Gamifying your class: Why and how" - form

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Gamification is becoming an increasingly popular concept in teaching. Today's "digital residents" have grown up with video and computer games, and they look for excitement. The fast pace of many games fits their short attention spans. The concept of "gamification" - using game elements in non-game

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Bridges serves a population of immigrant students who have recently entered public high schools, are new to English, and who may have had interrupted and/or inconsistent schooling in their home country. These include:

• All Newcomer multilingual learners: English learners who have been in the U.S. three years or less;
• Students with Interrupted or Inconsistent Formal Education (SIFE), or students with literacy or math skills two years below grade level;
• SIFE with Developing Literacy (SDL), SIFE who are new to print or have a reading level below the third grade in their home language.

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The 'Invention' of the Natural Method of Language Teaching
Erwin Escher

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The Completely Straightforward Guide to the Direct Method of Language Teaching

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The Completely Straightforward Guide to the Direct Method of Language Teaching

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The direct method of language teaching is a cool concept that allows you to teach a foreign language with no use of English. Teach students how to be natives!

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The Direct Method - The Amazing World of Teaching

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The direct method of teaching, which is sometimes called the natural method, and is often (but not exclusively) used in teaching foreign languages, refrains from using the learners' native language and uses only the target language. It was established in Germany and France around 1900 and contrasts with the Grammar Translation Method and other traditional approaches.

The basic idea of the Direct Method was that second language learning should be more like first language learning (lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translation between first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammatical rules)

Classroom instruction was conducted in the target language.

Grammar was taught inductively.

Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.

Both speaking and listening comprehension were taught.

Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.

Why should I use this method?

In contrast with the GTM, the Direct Method is on target. It can be very effective at creating fluent speakers of the target language who can actually use it to get by in day-to-day situations.Teachers may also ask the students questions, have them fill in the blanks in an example sentence, or have them read from a work of literature. All of these techniques emphasize the Direct Method's core strength---teaching students to be able to speak the target language rather than merely be able to translate it.

Strengths:
- This method is focused on question-answer patterns.
-Grammar is taught inductively.
-The most important aspect is spoken language, so that pronunciation and grammar are taken into account.
-STT should be more than TTT on the time during the lesson.
-Instructions are given in the target language.

Weaknesses:
- There is no attention to some areas like reading and writing.
-It is not convenient for large classes.
-For people that are accustomed to teach or to be taught with the Grammar Translation Method, Direct Method may not hold well.

Opportunities:
- On the one hand, it will be a good chance for students to improve our knowledge about Grammar and to excel our pronunciation, and at the other hand it is a good method for intermediate and advanced teachers to make student´s skills float. Comparing this method with the Grammar Translation, this one will open more doors now.

Threats:
- As we swrote before, some risks of this method are that for being focused in Grammar and pronunciation, teachers will neglect reading and writing activities, and a good teaching method must fullfill the four skills activities: Reading, Writing, Speaking & Listening.﻿

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The Direct Method - The Amazing World of Teaching

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The direct method of teaching, which is sometimes called the natural method, and is often (but not exclusively) used in teaching foreign languages, refrains from using the learners' native language and uses only the target language. It was established in Germany and France around 1900 and contrasts with the Grammar Translation Method and other traditional approaches.

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Dual Language Instruction: An Overview (Part I)

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During the past school year, I worked on two fascinating projects related to dual language instructional programs. One project was to compile and review state data on the policy and practices of dual language education programs across the United States. This work for the U.S. Department of Education is being led by Diane August at the American Institutes for Research.

The other project was to provide support to the Syracuse City School District in New York State as the district implemented and scaled up its dual language programming. Needless to say, I've been more aware of the benefits of dual language programs for ELLs than ever before. (As a side note, my own three kids are enrolled in a Spanish dual language program in Fairfax County Public Schools in Virginia.)

As part of my focus on dual language programs, I'm hearing more from teachers, administrators, and policymakers about the complexities of implementing the CCSS within the unique dual language program model. Part I of this blog post will detail the need for dual language programs and the expansion of dual language programs. It will also include some recommended resources at the end. Part II will examine four particular challenges associated with implementing the CCSS in dual language settings.

What Are Dual Language Programs?

Let's start by making sure we're all using the same terms, since there is still a lot of variance in the ways in which people refer to dual language programs. Dual language programs, broadly defined, are educational programs in which students learn academic content in the partner language - such as Spanish, Mandarin, or Arabic - and in English. Now, let's be a little more specific about the languages the students speak who are enrolled in dual language programs. Two-way dual language programs are made up of ELLs fluent in the partner language and English-speaking peers. One-way dual language programs are made up students predominantly from one language group, either the partner language or English.

Need for Dual Language Programs

As educators of ELLs, we tend to have a deep appreciation of the multiple benefits of multilingualism, including heightened cultural understanding, greater metalinguistic awareness, increased cognition, and even potential delay in the onset of dementia and other symptoms of Alzheimer's. Basically, this is not news to us! In particular, dual language programming has been shown to promote the academic achievement for ELLs as well as native English speaking groups enrolled in dual language programs. For example, see the recent results of research conducted in North Carolina by Drs. Thomas and Collier. Overall, they found reading and math scores of students in two-way dual language education in six districts in that state to be higher for all dual language students, regardless of ethnicity, socioeconomic, ELL, or special education status. A recent study in Portland, OR also found that students in immersion programs become better readers than their counterparts.

Yet while the United States has made progress, we still have a long way to go to catch up to other countries in terms of fostering students' multilingualism. The U.S. could be doing much more to provide the types of dual language programs that draw from and expand students' existing linguistic and cross-cultural skills, better positioning them for roles in a global economy - while developing or preserving languages that students may then try to learn later in high school or college if they haven't learned them as children. To learn more about the rich history of bilingual education in the U.S. and research about different kinds of bilingual instruction, see the article Bilingual Education: Reviving an American Tradition written for AFT's Fall 2015 edition of American Educator byClaude Goldenberg and Kirstin Wagner.

Expansion of Dual Language Programs

According to the Center for Applied Linguistics, thirty-seven states and Washington, DC have implemented dual language programs, and the demand for programs has gained momentum across the country. While the term "bilingual education" had a negative connotation attached to it and a complex history in this country, there is a positive spin on the term "dual language." Some states and districts stand out in terms of the strides they are making with widening the scope of their dual language programs. Utah has long been regarded as leading the way in implementing statewide dual language programs for ELLs as well as native English speakers. Delaware is following suit to ensure all its students speak two or more languages, and the highly diverse New York City schools are increasing their dual language programs. Here are some numbers for you to consider:

As part of dual language expansion efforts, state Seals of Biliteracy have also seen an uptick. These seals are a form of special recognition on high school diplomas and student transcripts for students (ELLs and non-ELLs) who can demonstrate fluency in two or more languages. Seals of Biliteracy have already been approved in thirteen states, and these seals are under consideration in several more states. You can take a look here for a U.S. map and information on the latest statewide policies across the country. Additionally, in a recent groundbreaking collaborative effort, four prominent organizations recently drafted Guidelines for Implementing the Seal of Biliteracy intended for states and districts to use to ensure consistency in the meaning of the Biliteracy Seal.

Interestingly, the Seal of Biliteracy began in California in response to Proposition 227, a state law which banished bilingual programs. In the article featured above, Laurie Olsen of Californians Together writes,

"Large numbers of immigrant children were entering California schools with a language other than English, but the vast majority were losing those languages in a subtractive pattern - as they become more English proficient, they lost the home language. California schools had become a monolingual system. And yet, research was mounting about the benefits of bilingualism, employers were increasing seeking workers with the skills to speak and reach across diverse communities, and the advent of the 21st century was stirring new dialogue about the kind of skills young people might need for the new global, diverse century.

Californians Together, a coalition of 23 statewide parent, professional and civil rights organizations focusing on improving policy and practice for the education of English Learners, decided to take on the challenge of developing a campaign to create a shift in paradigm from seeing language diversity as a problem to viewing language diversity as an asset - from viewing bilingual programs as a deficit and compensatory kind of approach, to realizing the benefits that accrue from such schooling."

These grassroots efforts paved the way for what would become a national movement and a significant shift in how we think about language learning, identity, and culture.

Looking at the Big Picture

Finally, before we get into the CCSS-specific considerations of dual language instruction in Part II, I'd like to take a moment to put the conversation about dual language within some historical context. As mentioned above, "bilingual education" has a lot of mixed connotations. The enthusiasm about dual language programs and the Seal of Biiteracy is an important step forward given our difficult history regarding language instruction in this country. As Edward Tabet-Cubero, assistant superintendent of curriculum and professional development for Santa Fe Public Schools, notes in a recent article about Santa Fe's dual language programs, "I found myself in college paying tuition to attain a language that was beaten out of my family." Such powerful words that describe extreme actions to extinguish ELLs' home languages are especially poignant in today's context of the expansion of dual language programs (as well as increasingly heated rhetoric about immigration) and serve as a reminder that these issues can be painful for families.

In addition, as part of the recent growth in dual language programs, we must also consider how race and class differences play out between ELLs and native English speakers in the classroom and ensure dual language programs are truly beneficial to ELLs, not only native English speakers - particularly if ELL families do not have access to the resources or information that will allow them to advocate for dual language programming. Helping ELL families understand the value of developing and maintaining the home language, as well as of being bilingual, is an important first step in paving the way for dual language programs. Often, families are reluctant to choose dual language programming, thinking that it will get in the way of their children's success in English. This can be especially difficult depending on their own experiences with language. Yet good information and patient, respectful conversations over time can help families embraces the benefits of dual language learning for their children, such as communicating with relatives or having more job opportunities.

To learn more about the social and political issues surrounding dual language, as well as the particular issues that may be connected to instruction in particular languages, take a look at Colorin Colorado's interviews with Ken Schneider, co-director of the documentary Speaking in Tongues. If you have a chance to see the film as well, it's well worth it!

Now that we've set the stage for talking about dual language programs, let's take a look at what that means in an era of college- and career-ready standards in Part II of this blog post!

Recommended Resources

Importance of Home Language Series: This multilingual series of tip sheets from Head Start's Cultural and Linguistic Responsiveness center, co-authored by Colorín Colorado Manager Lydia Breiseth, highlights the value of maintaining a family's home language and being bilingual.

Early Literacy Instruction in Dual Language Preschools (Spanish/English): This article by Dr. Karen Ford discusses strategies for optimizing literacy instruction in Spanish/English dual language preschools.

Early Literacy Instruction in Spanish: Teaching the Beginning Reader: This article by Dr. Karen Ford and Dr. Rebecca Palacios shares some ways that early Spanish and English literacy instruction are similar and different. It also explains the order in which reading skills are typically taught in Spanish and suggests activities in the classroom and at home that complement instruction.

The Home Language: An English Language Learner's Most Valuable Resource: In this article written for Colorín Colorado, Dr. Fred Genesee discusses the research supporting the importance of a child's home language. In addition, Dr. Genesee explores the question of why an approach that is well-supported by research has been largely ignored in the era of "research-based" policy.

Language Castle: This website from dual-language early childhood expert Karen Nemeth offers wonderful resources supporting anyone who is working with children who speak multiple languages.

Guiding Principles for Dual Language Education, Second Edition: The Guiding Principles for Dual Language Education were developed as a tool to help dual language programs (two-way immersion, heritage language, foreign language immersion, or developmental bilingual programs) with planning and ongoing implementation. Program issues are addressed in seven strands: Assessment and Accountability, Curriculum, Instruction, Staff Quality and Professional Development, Program Structure, Family and Community, and Support and Resources. (Available for sale through the Center for Applied Linguistics store.)

Videos featuring Dr. Rebecca Palacios

The following videos featuring Colorin Colorado advisor and early childhood education expert Dr. Rebecca Palacios offer insights into what makes a strong dual-language program and what a successful program looks like. Dr. Palacios is also a teacher mentor, a founding member and former vice chair of the National Board For Professional Teaching Standards.

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Dual Language Instruction: An Overview (Part I)

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During the past school year, I worked on two fascinating projects related to dual language instructional programs. One project was to compile and review state data on the policy and practices of dual language education programs across the United States. This work for the U.S.

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There are several different models for dual language immersion (DLI) programs, based on the percentage of instructional time in each language.

The most common are the 90:10 and the 50:50 models.
Guiding Principles for Dual Language Education: Strand 3, Instruction, Principle 1

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There are several different models for dual language immersion (DLI) programs, based on the percentage of instructional time in each language. The most common are the 90:10 and the 50:50 models. Guiding Principles for Dual Language Education: Strand 3, Instruction, Principle 1

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Zaretta Hammond "Culturally Responsive Teaching" at the San Francisco Public Library

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Zaretta Hammond "Culturally Responsive Teaching" at the San Francisco Public Library

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Our Culture Our Schools Culturally Responsive Education in New York City (Intro)

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Our Culture Our Schools Culturally Responsive Education in New York City (Intro)

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Program Models & Teaching: Doing What Works for ELs by Ed on its Head

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Program Models & Teaching: Doing What Works for ELs by Ed on its Head

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In this episode, let's consider why you should pay attention to and care about the program models used in schools for educating emerging bilinguals.

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EP 5 -- Teaching Bilinguals (Even if You're Not One): The Benefits of Bilingual Ed

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Enjoy! Please feel free to browse, print, use (attribution is kindly appreciated)!

I create these graphic texts because:

It helps me think and write! Creating graphic texts as part of my writing process helps me brainstorm, structure, outline, surface themes, work through metaphors, clarify my thoughts, and summarize. Thinking my ideas through visually helps me generate language to articulate them and vice versa.

I hope they help you! A graphic text can be a quick and accessible tool for getting familiar with new information, prompting reflection, inviting dialogue, generating new ideas, and supporting professional learning.

Please browse below for my infographics and conversation starters about LILAC & Translanguaging .

You can also check out the infographics I've created on Other Assorted Favorite Topics.

Also, please explore the #TakeCareIsTheCurriculum Charts and Resources.

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Infographics, Conversation Starters & Other Resources

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Enjoy! Please feel free to browse, print, use (attribution is kindly appreciated)! I create these graphic texts because: It helps me think and write! Creating graphic texts as part of my writing process helps me brainstorm, structure, outline, surface themes, work through metaphors, clarify my thoughts, and summarize.

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"The crown jewels of CUNY-NYSIEB, these guides offer dozens of strategies and approaches for teachers working with emergent bilingual students at all grade levels and in all program models." --CUNY

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Encourage bilingualism through stories!

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Ofelia Garcia & Li Wei - Translanguaging: Language, Bilingualism and Education (2014)

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The best book on translanguaging, written by a renowned expert!

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Shows teachers how to strategically navigate the dynamic flow of bilingual students? language practices to (1) enable students to engage with and comprehend complex content and texts, (2) develop students? linguistic practices for academic contexts, (3) draw on students? bilingualism and bilingual ways of understanding, and (4) support students? socioemotional development and advance social justice

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The Translanguaging Classroom: Leveraging Student Bilingualism for Learning

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The Translanguaging Classroom: Leveraging Student Bilingualism for Learning [García, Ofelia, Ibarra Johnson, Susana, Seltzer, Kate] on Amazon.com. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. The Translanguaging Classroom: Leveraging Student Bilingualism for Learning

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Children from families in which English is not the language of the home represent a rapidly increasing percentage of students enrolled in U.S. schools. Language minority students can be found in schools across the country, not just those in large cities or in areas near the U.S.-Mexican border. All schools must be prepared to meet the challenge of an increasingly diverse student population, including many students who are not proficient in English.

The effectiveness of various program models for language minority students remains the subject of controversy. Although there may be reasons to claim the superiority of one program model over another in certain situations (Collier 1992; Ramirez, Yuen, and Ramey 1991), a variety of programs can be effective. The choice should be made at the local level after careful consideration of the needs of the students involved and the resources available.

ESL program models

ESL programs (rather than bilingual programs) are likely to be used in districts where the language minority population is very diverse and represents many different languages. ESL programs can accommodate students from different language backgrounds in the same class, and teachers do not need to be proficient in the home language(s) of their students.

ESL pull-out
This is generally used in elementary school settings. Students spend part of the school day in a mainstream classroom, but are pulled out for a portion of each day to receive instruction in English as a second language.
ESL class period
This is generally used in middle school settings. Students receive ESL instruction during a regular class period and usually receive course credit. They may be grouped for instruction according to their level of English proficiency.
The ESL resource center
This is a variation of the pull-out design, bringing students together from several classrooms or schools. The resource center concentrates ESL materials and staff in one location and is usually staffed by at least one full-time ESL teacher.

Bilingual program models

All bilingual program models use the students' home language, in addition to English, for instruction. These programs are most easily implemented in districts with a large number of students from the same language background. Students in bilingual programs are grouped according to their first language, and teachers must be proficient in both English and the students' home language.

Early-exit bilingual programs
These are designed to help children acquire the English skills required to succeed in an English-only mainstream classroom. These programs provide some initial instruction in the students' first language, primarily for the introduction of reading, but also for clarification. Instruction in the first language is phased out rapidly, with most students mainstreamed by the end of first or second grade.
Late-exit programs
These differ from early-exit programs "primarily in the amount and duration that English is used for instruction as well as the length of time students are to participate in each program" (Ramirez, Yuen, & Ramey, 1991). Students remain in late-exit programs throughout elementary school and continue to receive 40% or more of their instruction in their first language, even when they have been reclassified as fluent-English-proficient.
Two-way bilingual programs
Also called developmental bilingual programs, these group language minority students from a single language background in the same classroom with language majority (English-speaking) students. Ideally, there is a nearly 50/50 balance between language minority and language majority students. Instruction is provided in both English and the minority language. Students serve as native-speaker role models for their peers. Two-way bilingual classes may be taught by a single teacher who is proficient in both languages or by two teachers, one of whom is bilingual.

Other program models

Some programs provide neither instruction in the native language nor direct instruction in ESL. However, instruction is adapted to meet the needs of students who are not proficient in English.

Sheltered English or content-based programs
These group language minority students from different language backgrounds together in classes where teachers use English as the medium for providing content area instruction, adapting their language to the proficiency level of the students. They may also use gestures and visual aids to help students understand. Although the acquisition of English is one of the goals of sheltered English and content-based programs, instruction focuses on content rather than language.
Structured immersion programs
These use only English, but there is no explicit ESL instruction. As in sheltered English and content-based programs, English is taught through the content areas. Structured immersion teachers have strong receptive skills in their students' first language and have a bilingual education or ESL teaching credential. The teacher's use of the children's first language is limited primarily to clarification of English instruction. Most students are mainstreamed after 2 or 3 years.

Conclusion

Successful program models for promoting the academic achievement of language minority students are those that enable these students to develop academic skills while learning English. The best program organization is one that is tailored to meet the linguistic, academic, and affective needs of students; provides language minority students with the instruction necessary to allow them to progress through school at a rate commensurate with their native-English-speaking peers; and makes the best use of district and community resources.

Citations

Excerpted from: Rennie, J. (1993). ESL and Bilingual Program Models. ERIC Digest. ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics. Digest based on an article in (August, 1993) Streamlined Seminar (vol. 12, no.1). National Association of Elementary School Principals.

References

Collier, V. P. (1992). A Synthesis of studies examining long-term language minority student data on academic achievement. Bilingual Research Journal, 16, p. 187-212.

Garcia, E. (1991). Education of linguistically and culturally diverse students: Effective instructional practices. Educational practice report number 1. Santa Cruz, CA and Washington, DC: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 338 099)

Lucas T., Henze, R., & Donato, R. (1990). Promoting the success of Latino language minority students: An Exploratory study of six high schools. Harvard Educational Review, 60 (1), 315-340.

McKeon, D. (1987). Different types of ESL programs. ERIC Digest. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics.

Pease-Alvarez, L., Garcia, E., & Espinosa, P. (1991). Effective instruction for language minority students: An early childhood case study. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 6, 347-361.

Ramirez, J. D., Yuen, S. D., & Ramey, D. R. (1991). Longitudinal study of structured English immersion strategy, early-exit, and late-exit transitional bilingual education programs for language-minority children. San Mateo, CA: Aguirre International.

Tikunoff, W., Ward, B., van Broekhuizen, D., Romero, M., Castaneda, L.V., Lucas, T., & Katz, A. (1991). A Descriptive study of significant features of exemplary special alternative instructional programs. Washington: U. S. Department of Education, Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs.

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Program Models for Teaching English Language Learners

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Children from families in which English is not the language of the home represent a rapidly increasing percentage of students enrolled in U.S. schools. Language minority students can be found in schools across the country, not just those in large cities or in areas near the U.S.-Mexican border.

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Effective Ways to Approach ELL Programs (with support for dual language): "While there are five common methods for addressing ELLs’ language needs, the most successful is a high-quality Dual Language program."

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Today, approximately 5 million students are considered English-language learners (ELLs) in the United States. ELL is a broad term that refers to students who are learning English as an additional language, but identification varies from state to state. Recent trends show that the number of ELLs continues to rise across the nation. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) reports that the percentage of ELLs in public schools increased from 8.1% in 2000 to 10.1% in 2017. ¹ While most ELLs are in elementary school, nearly 800,000 are in high school. As for middle school, in 2015, 33% of ELLs were in grades 6-12 (which includes the middle grades), according to the Pew Research Center. ²

Spanish is the most prevalent home language and represents 75.2% of all ELLs (3.8 million students) and 7.7% of all public school students. ³ After Spanish, the next most common languages are Arabic and Chinese. However, within the U.S., ELLs speak more than 400 languages.

Bilingual Education in the United States

Bilingual education programs involve sustained use of a student's home language in which instruction occurs in English and the home language, with students developing bilingualism, biliteracy, and multicultural understandings. ⁴ While there are different types of programs for ELLs, with many only in English, it is up to schools to decide which method is best for their students.
Challenges
ELLs face numerous obstacles to education in the U.S. According to Education Week, a lack of resources and adequate support from school staff are a few of the challenges to bilingual education. ⁵ ELLs are most successful with trained support and teachers who recognize "similarities and differences between first- and second-language development, and the importance of nonverbal communications and visual aids in language acquisition" and who also "recognize the difference between conversational language and academic language." NCES has found that students who speak English as a second language are more likely to struggle with academics and less likely to graduate than students who are not ELLs when they are not provided with the kind of instruction and advanced academic coursework they need.6 In the 2016-17 school year, only 66% of ELLs graduated from high school on time compared to 85% of non-ELLs who did so.7
Program Models
While there are five common methods for addressing ELLs' language needs, the most successful is a high-quality Dual Language program. ⁸ Another option is a "maintenance bilingual education" program, which allows students to become literate in their home language by providing them language arts classes in their home language. This approach supports biliteracy rather than focusing solely on becoming proficient in English. Dual Language or "Two-way Immersion" programs involve both native and non-​native English speakers. These programs aim to have ELLs and native English speakers learn the same content in both languages, benefiting all students (ELLs and native English speakers) in the classroom.
Legislative Background of Bilingual Programs
In 1839, Ohio became the first state to adopt a bilingual education law, and many states followed suit by the end of the 19th century. The Bilingual Education Act was passed in 1968, which provided federal funding to encourage local school districts to incorporate native-language instruction but did not require it in schools. Eventually, many programs that taught home languages in addition to English closed, and the Act proved to be a weak piece of legislation. ⁹

In 1974, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Lau v. Nichols "that simply placing ELLs in mainstream classes taught in English without attending to their language needs denied those students a meaningful education." Since the court ruling, federal policy has worked to address the needs of ELLs by including the adoption of bilingual education programs that allow students to become proficient in English while also having access to instruction in their home language. However, restrictions on bilingual education across the country, such as Proposition 227 in California-which was later repealed-have made it harder for school leaders to make the appropriate instructional decisions for their ELLs.

Moving Forward

The Vineland Public School system in NJ has been recognized for its successful bilingual education and English as a Second Language (ESL) programs, which have garnered the district four Model Program designations from the state department of education. JoAnne Negrin, supervisor of ESL and bilingual programs in Vineland, says that ELLs' success stems from the "real emphasis on building academic knowledge in their first language."10 Given students' results on state standardized tests, the program has shown that ELLs can succeed academically while learning two languages at once.

Another step that educators can take in supporting ELLs is to create more equitable opportunities for standardized tests. Currently, federal law under the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) requires schools to assess all students. However, for some ELLs, standardized test scores may not reflect how much they have learned if the test is conducted solely in English, which has resulted in ESSA encouraging states to offer home-language assessments. As of Spring 2020, only 31 states and the District of Columbia offered them, most commonly in math or science and sometimes in reading/language arts and social studies. ¹¹ Broadening such assessments can accurately reflect ELLs' progress and help them succeed academically.

Policy Recommendations

For bilingual education and ESL programs, principals play an important role in the success of implementation by being knowledgeable about bilingualism, biliteracy, and their school's emergent bilingual population. Each school and school leader can advocate for expanding bilingual education programs through local policy implementation. In a Colorín Colorado article (available at bit.ly/3aybsgR), Kate Menken offers recommendations based on her experiences working with ELLs in New York City schools:

Developing schoolwide language policies that are consistent and cohesive with the desires of the community. They should be used to establish coherent K-12 language programming for ELLs in which diversity is regarded as a resource.

Having research, rather than tests, drive instruction for ELLs. Teachers must have the space for instruction that goes beyond test preparation.

Supporting home-language instruction-doing so will aid students' development of English literacy.

For policymakers, researchers propose the following: ¹²

Supporting schools in developing clear and cohesive schoolwide language policies and in their decisions to teach ELLs their home language.

Moving away from over-reliance on standardized tests to allow other measures of student achievement in addition to tests.

Including ELLs in accountability systems that are valid, appropriate, and fair.

Allowing for the measurement of progress rather than simply outcomes on high-stakes exams.

Advocating for ELLs must occur at both the local and federal levels by implementing direct changes to language policies in schools and demanding federal support. School leaders can advocate for ELLs and make decisions based on the research that finds that teaching home languages in schools is best for both ELLs and the entire student body.
Jenny Rodriguez is a senior at American University in Washington, D.C. She was an intern with the NASSP Policy & Advocacy Center during the summer of 2021.
References

¹National Center for Education Statistics. (n.d.) English language learners.

²Bialik, K., Scheller, A., & Walker, K. (2018). 6 facts about English language learners in public schools. Pew Research Center.

³National Center for Education Statistics. (2021). English language learners in public schools.

⁴Menken, K. (2017). Leadership in dual language bilingual education. Center for Applied Linguistics.

⁵Mitchell, C. (2019, May 14). Overlooked: How teacher training falls short for English-learners and students with IEPs. Education Week.

⁶U.S. Department of Education. (n.d.). Academic performance and outcomes for English learners.

⁷National Center for Education Statistics. (2018). Table 219.46. Public high school 4-year adjusted cohort graduation rate (ACGR), by selected student characteristics and state: 2010-11 through 2016-17. Retrieved from nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d18/tables/dt18_219.46.asp.

⁸Roberts, C. A. (1995). Bilingual education program models: A framework for understanding. The Bilingual Research Journal, 19(3&4), 369-378.

⁹Goldenberg, C., & Wagner, K. (2015, Fall). Bilingual education: Reviving an American tradition. American Educator.

¹⁰Marko, D. M. (2018, June 6). Vineland ESL, bilingual programs win state honors. Daily Journal.

¹¹Education Commission of the States. (2014). What methods are used to identify English language learners?; and Sugarman, J., & Villegas, L. (2020, June). Native language assessments for K-12 English learners: Policy considerations and state practices. Washington, D.C.: Migration Policy Institute.

¹²Menken, K. (n.d.). Language policy recommendations for policymakers and educators. ¡Colorín Colorado! Retrieved from colorincolorado.org/article/language-policy-recommendations-policymakers-and-educators.

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Today, approximately 5 million students are considered English-language learners (ELLs) in the United States. ELL is a broad term that refers to students who are learning English as an additional language, but identification varies from state to state. Recent trends show that the number of ELLs continues to rise across the nation.

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Theories, Methods & Techniques of Teaching - Audio Lingualism

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Theories, Methods & Techniques of Teaching - Suggestopedia