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In the Brown II Aftermath we think that there was a lot of violence/intimidation tactics to prevent people of color from attending formerly white schools

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In response to Brown II, many schools purposely defied the decision and
attempted to remain segregated.

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There was a lot of backlash and some schools were determined to stay segregated

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We think that it was in order meet the wants of both ends. One side demanded for integration, while the other side was against it. The court decision had to be unanimous thought to prevent chaos. S this was their way of meeting in the middle, they integrate, but deliberately, slowly.

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Three years after the Brown decision, Mallory still found that segregated education was the norm for her two children. Alongside with lawyer Paul Zuder and eight other mothers, dubbed the "Harlem 9," they won the right to transfer their children outside of their district (as the New York Board's zoning  policies ensured that black children remained in inferior, segregated schools).

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seven black teachers were fired by the Moberly school district  because of "poor performance" but those claims weren't supported. Naoimi Brooks and six other black teachers challenged the district and said they were denied their jobs because of their race. The widespread os firing black teachers was a consequence of the Brown vs Board of Education

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Many schools and entire school systems were shut down in attempts to block integration. The Virginia Supreme Court however declared that as unconstitutional.

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Freedom Schools were temporary, alternative, and free schools for African Americans mostly in the South. They were originally part of a nationwide effort during the Civil Rights Movement to organize African Americans to achieve social, political and economic equality in the United States. The most prominent example of Freedom Schools was in Mississippi during the summer of 1964.

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When the school board of Mansfield, Texas, a farming town of 1500 people, admitted 12 Black students to all-white Mansfield High School, white residents took to the streets in protest. On August 30, 1956, the first day of school, mobs of white pro-segregationists patrolled the streets with guns and other weapons to prevent Black children from registering. The mob hung an African American effigy at the top of the school’s flag pole and set it on fire. “A second effigy was hung on the front of the school building. Soon afterward, the Mansfield School Board voted to “exhaust all legal remedies to delay segregation.” In December 1956, the United States Supreme Court ordered the Mansfield school district to integrate immediately, but Mansfield public schools did not officially desegregate until 1965.

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On Monday, Feb. 3, 1964, 464,000 New York City school children, almost half of the city’s student body, boycotted school as part of a protest against school segregation. Though segregation in New York was not codified like the Jim Crow laws in the South, a de facto segregation was evident in the city’s school system. The protest culminated in a march across the Brooklyn Bridge to the Board of Education building on Livingston Street in downtown Brooklyn.

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As the ink dried on the “Brown v. Board of Education” case, seven Black teachers were fired by the Moberly School District due to what they were told was “poor performance,” although it appears those claims were largely unfounded. Naomi Brooks, the lead plaintiff in the “Naomi Brooks V. School District of Moberly, Missouri” and six other Black teachers, challenged the district, claiming they were denied their jobs for the 1954-55 school year due to their race.Though Black teachers were common at the time, the ruling is believed to have pushed Black professionals to choose other careers. This widespread firing of Black teachers in the South was an unintended consequence of Brown vs. Bd. of Ed.

Alejandro Bailey

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Medgar Evers was a prominent Civil Rights activist in Mississippi. He became the first NAACP field secretary for Mississippi after he helped with a test case by applying to the state-supported University of Mississippi Law School and was rejected based on his race. He began to help organize boycotts, set up local chapters of the NAACP, conduct actions to integrate private owed buses, help integrate public schools, and register voters. He was assassinated on June 12th, 1963 by a white supremacist and KKK member.

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Medgar Evers - Civil Rights Activist | Mini Bio | BIO

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This was a movement created by Senator Harry F. Byrd Sr.  to unite white politicians in Virginia to oppose the desegregation of schools. A commission of Public Education was created in order to prevent integration. They caused many schools to shut down rather than having them be integrated.

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- In 1954, about 82,000 black teachers were responsible for teaching 2 million black children. In the 11 years immediately following Brown, more than 38,000 black teachers and administrators in 17 Southern and border states lost their jobs.
- 90% of black Principals lost their jobs in 11 Southern states
- In North Carolina, the number of black principals dropped from 620 to 40 from 1967 to 1971.
- In Texas, 5,000 "substandard" white teachers were employed, while certified black teachers "were told to go into other lines of work
- In June 1955, a group of white residents in Greenville, Miss., demanded that local school boards fire black teachers who were registered voters.
- In August 1955, the Georgia State Board of Education adopted a resolution barring teachers from membership in the NAACP.

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Thousands of black teachers lost jobs

In the spring of 1953, with the Brown vs. Board of Education desegregation case pending in the U.S. Supreme Court, Wendell Godwin, superintendent of schools in Topeka, sent letters to black elementary school teachers. Painfully polite, the letters couldn't mask the message: If segregation dies, you will lose your jobs.

"Our Board will proceed on the assumption that the majority of people in Topeka will not want to employ negro teachers next year for White children," he wrote.

A year later, the high court declared segregation unconstitutional. Over the next 20 years, thousands of black educators in Topeka and elsewhere lost their jobs. Researchers say the firings decimated the black teaching force and educational tradition, helping set the stage for decades of poor performance by black students.

It's a little-known and unintended consequence of the ruling, but observers say the nation is still paying the price. "By and large, this culture of black teaching died with Brown ," says Vanessa Siddle Walker of Emory University, author of Their Highest Potential: An African American School Community in the Segregated South.

In 1954, about 82,000 black teachers were responsible for teaching 2 million black children. In the 11 years immediately following Brown, more than 38,000 black teachers and administrators in 17 Southern and border states lost their jobs.

In Arkansas, for instance, virtually no black educators were hired in desegregated districts from 1958 to 1968. In Texas, 5,000 "substandard" white teachers were employed, while certified black teachers "were told to go into other lines of work," says Carol Karpinski, an independent researcher and New York City educator.

Black principals fared even worse. By some estimates, 90% lost their jobs in 11 Southern states. Many were fired, and others retired. Still others lost their jobs for minor transgressions, such as failing to hold monthly fire drills. Those who stayed often were demoted to assistant principal or to coaching or teaching jobs. Others were offered clerical or even janitorial work.

In 1964, Florida had black principals in all 67 school districts. Ten years later, with integration underway and the black school-aged population growing, only 40 districts had black principals.

In North Carolina, the number of black principals dropped from 620 to 40 from 1967 to 1971.

Because school districts usually closed down all-black schools during desegregation, black educators were easier to fire, despite often having better credentials than their white peers.

National Education Association data from the period show that 85% of minority teachers had college degrees, compared with 75% of white teachers.

"It's not just that they were trained," Walker says. "They were well-trained." But their jobs were still imperiled, researchers say.

In June 1955, a group of white residents in Greenville, Miss., demanded that local school boards fire black teachers who were registered voters. That August, the Georgia State Board of Education adopted a resolution barring teachers from membership in the NAACP.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 gave the federal government power to stop the firings, but observers say enforcement was spotty. Teachers got little help from unions - in the mid-1950s, the American Teachers Association, an all-black union, was too weak, and the larger National Education Association "was controlled by prejudiced people," says Helen Pate-Bain, NEA's president from 1970-71.

Teachers' attitudes have changed since Pate-Bain first attended NEA's annual meeting in 1959. "The big conversation was against integration of schools. Teachers had to grow up as well."

By the mid-1960s, even integration supporters were worrying that black students weren't always being well-served in their new schools, that Brown could bring about "a wholesale destruction of the black educational tradition," says historian David Cecelski, author of Along Freedom Road : Hyde County, North Carolina and the Fate of Black Schools in the South.

"By that point, the Southern grass roots, African-Americans, were growing ambivalent about school integration in this very profound way," he says. "And not school integration per se, but the way in which Brown's legacy was being enacted. Many parents were regretting it."

Losing so many black teachers only helped sour more families on Brown.

"It took a chunk out of the black middle class," says Linda Tillman of Wayne State University.

Educators say the effects are still with us: From 1975 to 1985, the number of black students majoring in education dropped by 66%, says Mildred Hudson, chief executive officer of Recruiting New Teachers, a Massachusetts organization that helps train and retain teachers. "Those of us who would have been teachers stopped majoring in education."

In 2000, 84% of teachers were white, while only 61% of students were white. Blacks make up about 17% of public school students but fewer than 8% of teachers; in 2000, 38% of public schools had not a single teacher of color.

The NAACP anticipated some job losses. In 1955, it created a "Department of Teacher Information and Security." At the time, a U.S. Health, Education and Welfare Department attorney observed, "In a war, there must be some casualties, and perhaps the black teachers will be the casualties in the fight for equal education of black students."

J.K. Haynes, head of the Black Louisiana Education Association, put it more bluntly: "In any great social change, someone is likely to lose his job." Brown vs. Board of Education

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USATODAY.com - Thousands of black teachers lost jobs

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Thousands of black teachers lost jobs In the spring of 1953, with the Brown vs. Board of Education desegregation case pending in the U.S. Supreme Court, Wendell Godwin, superintendent of schools in Topeka, sent letters to black elementary school teachers. Painfully polite, the letters couldn't mask the message: If segregation dies, you will lose your jobs.

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Upon desegregation in 1957 in Baltimore, Maryland, the Clifton Park Junior High School had 2,023 white students and 34 black students; ten years later, it had twelve white students and 2,037 black students. In northwest Baltimore, Garrison Junior High School's student body declined from 2,504 whites and twelve blacks to 297 whites and 1,263 blacks in that period.

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The Gray Commission was made up of 32 white Democrats in Virginia. Its purpose was to stop the integration of schools in Virginia. The Commission asked the General Assembly to pass legislation that would allow for an amendment of the state constitution to repeal the compulsory school attendance law. This would allow Governor Stanley to close schools instead of integrating.

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"Are you going to wait until Congolese rape your daughters! Are you going to let these burr-heads into your schools! Do something about it now!”-

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Eisenhower issued an executive order to send 1000 troops from the 101st Airborne Division to Little Rock to allay the unrest after the Little Rock school board voted to desegregate their high schools. They protected the Little Rock Nine for their first day of school.

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In North Carolina, there was often a strategy of nominally accepting Brown, but tacitly resisting it. On May 18, 1954 the Greensboro, North Carolina school board declared that it would abide by the Brown ruling. This was the result of the initiative of D. E. Hudgins Jr., a former Rhodes Scholar and prominent attorney, who chaired the school board. This made Greensboro the first, and for years the only, city in the South, to announce its intent to comply.

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This one was strange because we all know that there was like white flight and such but apparently they started closing schools in order to not allow for there to be schools to integrate. There was also a lot of issues with the fact that integrating would mean that black teachers would be teaching white children and so it posed an issue because school didn't want to hire black teachers anymore.

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White Citizens Council (New Orleans and Leander Perez)

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White Citizens Council (New Orleans and Leander Perez)

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Perez helped organize the White Citizens' Council , white supremacist "front organizations for the Ku Klux Klan", among them the Citizens' Council of Greater New Orleans. His speech against integration is credited with catalyzing a mob assault on the school administration building. Perez arranged for poor whites to attend a segregated private school without charge, and he helped to establish a new whites-only private school in New Orleans.

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70% of African Americans voted for Kennedy. He was cautious of his response to the decision, fearful of losing his democratic base of supporters, of who a majority were black. When he came into office, they had only just been granted the right to vote.

Intervened in the James Meredith case. When Meredith was allowed to attend school, he was physically blocked from entering the building, and Kennedy telephoned his aggressor reminding him to comply with the Supreme Court's decision.

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Three years after the Brown vs Board of Education decision, Mallory found that, due to the zoning districts in Harlem, there was still racial segregation in the schools. She hired a lawyer, Paul Zuber, to fight the education zones that forced black children into bad schools. She advocated for an 'open transfer' policy that would allow parents to send their kids outside of their district to other schools. She also got into some crazy drama when she befriended a black nationalist and had to flee to Cuba to avoid being murdered by the KKK.

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NAACP field secretary in Mississippi; rejected by Ole Miss law school because of race; worked to organize boycotts and civil disobedience actions across Mississippi. Murdered by Byron De La Beckwith in 1963, who was not convicted until 1994

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Byrd and his southern political possy decided almost immediately to announce that they would defy the Brown decision. They are the ones that issued the call for the "Massive Resistance".

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In Little Rock Arkansas, 9 African American students were the first to de-segregate a formerly all white school after Brown v Board of Education. On the first day of school, the governor of Arkansas called in the Arkansas National Guard to prevent the students from going into the school. Later, President Eisenhower took control by assigning national troops to escort the students to school.

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Prior to Brown v Board, Native Americans also suffered segregation, with dark-complexioned children being barred from white schools. They rallied with MLK as he fought for desegregation and were permitted to integrate.