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Historical MindMap Timeline - Bilingual Education

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Historical MindMap Timeline - Bilingual Education

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The Manifest of Destiny was a term and theory coined in 1845 where it was believed that the United States was destined to expand its democracy and expand to the entire North American continent. This they believed to be the will of God. With this philosophy, they justified their forced removal of Native Americans and others from their home. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican-American War and Manifest of Destiny in 1848. This added territory to the US including what is now California, Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, and Wyoming. Although this may have benefited the US it dislocated and mistreated Native Americans, Hispanic, and others of their territories to which now belonged to the US. Because of this bilingualism is something that had continued to be persistent in the US most because certain territories belonged to those of other languages. Although they were pushed over, languages such as Spanish and others spoken by immigrants have been part of what shaped bilingual education in the US. It comes to a thought that if the Manifest of Destiny had not occurred there could have been changes in the way bilingual education would be today it could have been an easier or tougher path.

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1855- Californian legislature mandating English only

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1855- Californian legislature mandating English only

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Five years after gaining statehood, and only seven years after being surrendered to the United States by Mexico, California passes a law mandating English-only instruction in public schools. (The law was not repealed until the late 1960s, with legislation signed by then-Governor Ronald Reagan.)

-Kathleen Sanchez

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Many Indigenous people were removed to reservations, and moved to mainly the west. They were forced to learn European- American culture, and their Native American culture was suppressed. This also brought the Indian Appropriation act to happen in 1871. This act declared that Indigenous people were no longer considered members of " sovereign nations" and the US government could no longer establish treaties with them.

Annotations: This goes to show the importance of culture in education, because for many these students suffered. By taking away their culture they took away a part of their identity of who they are. Its important to embrace diversity and not suppress it.

Yongli. (2020, March 13). Indian Appropriations Act (1871). Articles | Colorado Encyclopedia. Retrieved October 25, 2021, from https://coloradoencyclopedia.org/article/indian-appropriations-act-1871.

-Kathleen Sanchez

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The Bennett law was passed in Wisconsin in  1889. This was made so that schools districts would use English to teach major subjects from a young age until they graduate. This was soon overturned in 1890 by opposing German- Americans who lived in Wisconsin.

-Kathleen Sanchez

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The supreme court case which allowed people to legally separate people based of their race. This law started " separate, but equal facilities" so that people wouldn't complain about using the same facilities.  Plessy was a man who was 7/8 Caucasian and 1/8 black. Even so when he decided to sit in the "white" section he got in trouble because in their eyes he was only black. He was sent to prison and fought in court about his rights. This was the start of segregation which not only started in trains, but also for schools and other facilities.

Annotations: When this took place it affected a lot of people's way of living. They were given the same opportunities, but were still segregated in the process. In education this affected students because they were separated by race, and although they say they would get equal opportunities, one side (whites) would get more opportunities more then the other

History.com Editors. (2009, October 29). Plessy v. Ferguson. History.com. Retrieved October 25, 2021, from https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/plessy-v-
ferguson.

-Kathleen Sanchez

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The case of 1923 of Meyer v. Nebraska starts off in Hamilton County where Robert Meyer is caught in his classroom by a prosecutor, Meyer was teaching bible and religion stories to elementary students (students' parents had approved of this.) After the local prosecutor had witnessed this, he went and filed charges against Meyer. The law began after World War I, the state of Nebraska created a new law that prohibited the use of foreign languages in grades below the ninth. Meyer will then go into the Trial Court where he gets fined and loses, he then continues to fight and loses again in the Nebraska Supreme Court, later he appealed to the United States Supreme Court. This time they ended up favoring Meyer and he won by a 7-2 decision. The U.S. Supreme Court argued that this violated the fourteenth amendment and that the protection of the constitution extends to all, even to those who speak other languages besides those born with English only.

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With the civil rights movement strongly progressing, and in addition other trials going on all over the country fighting for equal treatment and justice, it was a good time to fight and stand up for equal education. Oliver Brown was the father of a nine year old student named Linda Brown who at the time attended Monroe Elementary School in Topeka Shawnee County in the state of Kansas. In the south, at this time several states were still under the mandate of segregation, so it meant African American students were not allowed into all white ( or more privileged) schools. Oliver Brown and 13 other parents were very upset that this was still happening, change was needed. They all argued and fought in a trial case explaining that segregation in public schools does have a severe lasting effect on students, but they were denied. In the next couple of years about 5 more cases across the states in the south had been consolidated into one case, then finally Brown v. Board of Education had made it to the United States Supreme Court. And a lot of arguing in attempt to get equal treatment, on May 17th 1954 the Supreme Court had ruled in favor of Brown in a 9-0 decision. Although this case legally ended segregation in the country, it was not easy still when black students began to attend schools with whites, hatred and racism was still hot and continuing.

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The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 happened during an era of rapid immigration and an energized civil rights movement. The act had been the first time the Federal Government recognized that English Language Learners needed help throughout the country. Many state and local education systems were already in place, especially in the West, where English Language Learning programs for students whose first language was not English. What the Bilingual Education Act did was provide funding/grants for education systems. This response's intention was to even out the playing field and futures for these students regardless of their citizenship status in the United States. The Act offered very few guidelines for instruction of ELL students, and local school districts, and state had to create their own programs. Because of this, when school districts created Bilingual Education Programs, they risked violating desegregation laws by separating these students into special classes.

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During the 1980’s the state of Texas and their school districts there had power to deny enrollment to non US citizen children. The reason for not accepting these children was because if the districts did serve those who are undocumented, then they could lose severe state funding. After a family of an undocumented child was rejected, they and four other families gathered to file an action suit against a Texas school district (Plyler v. Doe.) Plyler, was fighting for his children's education, but ends up losing both in the District Court & the Court of Appeals, but until finally, it reaches the United States Supreme Court. Plyler v. Doe in 1982, the issue was if a law denying free public education to undocumented immigrant children was unconstitutional under the fourteenth amendment. Brennan was part of the majority that had been voting for free education to all children regardless of their status.  Brennan says “It protects all people within a state's jurisdiction, including undocumented immigrants.” He also continued but added on that these children have no control over their parents illegal entry into the United States. Overall, Texas should have needed more than just a rational basis to deny basic education to children who come in and are undocumented.

Annotation: The importance of the U.S. Supreme Court case of Plyler v. Doe 1982 was to give rights through the fourteenth amendment. In the end of the nineteenth century, an extreme amount of people coming illegally to the United States had made it even more crucial to start this debate of public education to those who are were undocumented. Texas school districts for an extreme amount of time were not allowing acceptance of these non U.S. citizen children. Texas school districts had used the excuse of it "ruining the quality of education for other students who were citizens." At the time, Texas law was if you allowed undocumented children into the school district then you would lose all your state grants/funding. This is the main reason why Texas school districts still wanted to charge an extreme amount if they were to accept an undocumented child into their school.

Baker, C., & Wright, W. E. (2021). Chapter 9 Historical Introduction to Bilingual Education in the United States. In Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (6th ed., pp. 176-178).

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The Seal of Biliteracy reforms the effort if education where leadership of the ELL students are advocated under the legislation that was passed to recognize the bilingual skills. It went under National Association for Bilingual Education (NABE) and the American Council of Teachers of Foreign Languages (ACTFL). The Seal of Biliteracy is an award given by a school district or county office of education that recognizes students that studied or attained proficiency in two or more languages by high school graduation. The intent  of this Seal is to help the students be recognized for the value of their academic success and benefit from bilingualism. ELL students demonstrate bilingual skills when they reach the proficiency level on the state English language proficiency on the exam and passing their language arts exam. With that, Native English and heritage language speakers demonstrate different proficiency skills  through their advanced levels of world language courses or by the determinacy of their language proficiency scores. The Seal of Biliteracy moved from restrictions on bilingual education under the "English for Children" initiatives eliminating the Title VII Bilingual Education Act and the lack of recognition and values of Bilingualism under NCLB. There are fears that the Seal faces which become overwhelming to the English speakers who have a second language and the low income and ELL students who use two or more languages. Also, the symbolic gestures degree status is significant and taken seriously. In result, a question that the Seal of Biliteracy focuses on is "what states focus on helping students develop and maintain bilingualism and biliteracy?" This emphasizes on ELL students because when they enter school as emergent bilinguals and become dominant English speakers with weak oral language skills. The outcome of these language programs serve English speaking students rather than ELL and heritage language students.

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2002 No child left behind (NCLB) Act-Title VII Bilingual Ed. 

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2002 No child left behind (NCLB) Act-Title VII Bilingual Ed. 

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No Child Left Behind Act was approved on Dec 13, 2001 and signed into law on January 8, 2002. The focus from this act was to make sure every child received bilingual education focusing on what they lacked which was English. There intent was to put back their emergent bilinguals since they were English learners and learned other languages. NCLB was help responsible for the success of academic performance and English Language development of the LEP students. The emphasis of state test taking purpose and requirements are to prioritize the English acquisition. Establishing academic standards and ensuring all students in different subgroups (ethnicity, special Ed. and LEP) make yearly progress where state tests are passed. Besides success in test taking, there was also failure which ELL's were subjected with critical assessment without preparation. The failure was a cause of insufficient funding from the bilingual programs and were evaluated in the start by the Castaneda v. Pickard court case. As a result, the ELL's performance on tests were low and required additional resources and blamed the school and teachers for the lack of support.  The changes that were implemented in the Bilingual Education Act under the No Children Left Behind lead to a grant program that enhanced English Language Acquisition and placed the ELL students in an environment were there wasn’t any ESL students. The law did not require bilingual programs as a necessity in schools though there was a lack of performance which noted several negative outcomes. Some include higher drop out rates, few curriculum achievement in English and Mathematics, inequality between schools and measuring the LEP subgroups, and the loss of fluent bilingual teachers and aids.  The re-authorization of the ESEA took place in 2007 leaving the requirements for NCLB for additional eight years despite unrealistic expectations and failures associated. The shortage of teachers and requirements in bilingual education continues to exist today and are seen more in districts that show high levels of poverty. The NCLB act focus on the range of instructional approach that enforces agencies and the programs to provide full participation to remain on appropriate education levels both state and federal.

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Title IV focused on the prohibiting any discrimination in educational institutions. Congress passed the Civil rights Act where there was federal funds from the US government to impede school segregations in Bilingual Education. This legislation was applied to all bilingual educational institutions, preschool through secondary schools, and professional schools including private and public institutions. This title states that no person, of any race or color, national origin, shall be excluded from or denied the benefits of any program receiving federal financial assistance. Primarily, there was a precedent in federal control of America making public schools explicit to control money income to shape their policies. After that, the federal Office of Education was responsible to determine whether the school system was working around segregation conditions and providing equal education to bilingual students. For instance, there was a separation of physical education classes that provided equal sport teams for either gender. The purposeful pattern of segregation released reports on several districts where court decisions noticed the drop out rates in races showing what had happened over the years. The struggles and demands for racial justices and educational opportunities pervaded campaigns for vocation.

With that, the protection of all students at any bilingual institute were guides and respected at all times. There was protection and sexual harassments protection of sex discrimination under gays, lesbian, bisexual, and transgenders. Title IX allowed the federal Office of Civil Rights (OCR) to handle complaints about bullying and launch investigations if necessary. This minority had high reports of sexual harassments and sexual violence which led to limitations and expansion reshape of districts and policies who implemented bilingual education. Federal government control expanded Title IV rights to LGBT after the Republican Party control was gained. Students with disabilities were encompassed when the civil rights movement focused on the equality of educational opportunities as well. Bilingual students with special needs had the opportunity to participate equally in schools with the expectation of receiving extra help. The political movement for federal legislation focused on aiding students who had disabilities to be in educational groups with other children's to seek the education that they deserve. The conditions that students with disabilities were subjected to was that they required having the same education access to assure services that were designed for them are meet.

The struggle of sex discrimination and students with disabilities increased second generation segregation which is still a problem.  The inequality educational opportunity was reduced to contribute to the importance of improving human controls. School districts considered secondary opportunities that reduced the affects of students abilities that will stop them from comparing them to labor market improvements. Social change was an active concern that affected equality of opportunities and equality of educational opportunity.

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2015- Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) -Re-authorization of the ESEA 

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2015- Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) -Re-authorization of the ESEA 

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Every Student Act Success was re-authorized in 2007 after eight years when the US Congress approved the bipartisan legislation under a new federal education law.  The Every Student Act Success was signed by President Barack Obama into law on Dec 10,2015. This Act brought the No Children Left Behind because it recognized the failures of NCLB and achievement expectations on standardized state tests. The ESEA flexibility program gives goal settings and intervene with low performing schools. Aside from state tests, they take into consideration English proficiency levels and achievement targets for students to have several opportunities to learn from and demonstrate growth rather than meeting a test score. With that program, the progress of students is tracked and addresses areas of concern and ensure that the needs of ELL's are met. One point that is important in this act are the requirements that have to be met for ELLs. This includes making progress and attaining a higher level in English proficiency alongside the achievement  of academic testing requirements in Title I. The law change focused ELL students under the accountability requirements of Title I where language needs are to be met and there would be testing in students home language is preferred.  In reversal to the key policy of Obama, ESEA removed the requirement of teacher evaluations to be tied to the test scores of students to relieve pressure of those who were help accountable. Obama also forbid the US Secretary of Education from forcing stated to adopt further Common Core State Standards and allow any changes to be made. Donald Trump became the 45th president of the US in 2017. The implementation of ESSA had begun and there was a slow-out during the 4 years of Trumps administration that took 3 years. The new requirement of the ESEA's plan review  to be approved took 2 years after the reformed the results of the ELL standardized tests. The Migration Policy Institute (MPI) conducted an analysis of the approved state ESSA plans and the concerns of English Learners education to advocate teachers, students, and officials and guide them  if they fail to attain English language proficiency (ELP).

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2019- Congressional Caucus of America's Languages established/ Covid-19

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2019- Congressional Caucus of America's Languages established/ Covid-19

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The Congressional Caucus on America's Language was established on November of 2019. By a Republican, Don Young of Alaska and a Democrat named David Price from North Carolina. The claim of the Caucus is aimed to set national increase of the study of world languages, improve education for ELL's and Native Americans, address the shortage of biliterate and bilingual citizens in the US who need national security. Furthermore, the re-authorization of  the Native American Language Act signed my President Trump in Dec 2019. This grant program provides funding to the Native communities and establishes revitalization of improvement in Native economies. In February of 2020, there was an Act that was passed named "Supporting Young Language Learners Access to Bilingual Education" . It was designed to provide federal grants to help districts from Pre K-5th grade with dual language immersion program resources for communities of low income. With support of the Seal of Biliteracy there are implementation such as loan reliefs for teachers who are dual learners. In 2020, the proposals were on committee levels where the terms of growing the bilingual education was provided with support. Today, there was an issue that affected the bilingual education and students due to Covid-19. During the bilingual education and this effect, schools in the US shut down and focused on online learning which worsened the academic rates and led to a lack of federal and state leadership in local schools. The districts were negatively impacted and had a significant effect on ELL students due to online challenges and complications they faced. The provision of bilingual education and support for ELL students were complicated because there was a lack of technology and online instructions.

Annotation: The Congressional Caucus on America's Language Act had a significant impact on Bilingual education in the US. There were implementations of the ESSA that students and school boards experienced through the modification of their plans. There was an underway that changed the learning resources for ELL students and shifted the mandated testing requirements to address where students lack most and increased stress on the state. The administration practice had to consider the programs and the benefits for ELL students to value and promote bilingualism. There were issues  that students faced as well as the staff due to insufficient needs and advocacy. This was best seen and experienced by the 20th century when Covid-19 affected bilingual education and leadership was implemented in schools to find solutions and make students academically succeed. The pandemic lead to inequalities in he US because there was social racialization between communities that were struggling from schooling, infection, and deaths. One challenge that the bilingual education and programs found a solution to was that hey supported the ELL students and considered that it was best for teachers to prepare packets of homework to be completed and returned due to technical difficulties. Alongside, this effect brought everyone to frustration and different ways of teaching in order to educate the children and perform at state level. The history of bilingual education provided policies that emerge throughout time to benefit students and the bilingual programs that are available.

Baker, C., & Wright, W. E. (2021). Chapter 9 Historical Introduction to Bilingual Education in the United States. In Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism (7th ed., pp. 190–197). essay, Multilingual Matters.

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Was a ballot that took place in November 8, 1994 which passed. This proposition prohibits undocumented immigrants who lived in California to use public healthcare services, unless its for medical emergencies only. This also goes for public school education at elementary, secondary, and post-secondary levels. On November 11, 1994 Matthew Byrne, a federal district court judge, issued a temporary injunction that forbid the enforcement of proposition 187. Then Marianna Pfaelzer issued a permanent injunction.
-Kathleen Sanchez