# data[].attributes.body
Me encanta la realidad que una persona no debe hablar solamente un idioma; si eres latino y quieres aprender inglés, está todo perfecto—si prefieres mezclar su español con inglés, o viceversa, también está muy bien. En otras palabras, todos deben controlar su propia identidad.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A car ad on a Spanish-language radio station in New York mixes directions in Spanish with the phrase "quality-checked certified pre-owned vehicles." A sign in Springfield, Mass. warns young Latinos: "No Hangear" - don't hang out on this corner. Spanglish - a cross between Spanish and English - it seems, is everywhere. NPR's Bob Edwards talks about the language mix with Ilan Stavans, author of a new book, Spanglish: The Making of a New American Language.

Stavans, professor of Latin American and Latino Culture at Amherst College, says Spanglish changes so fast it's hard to pin down. His book includes a Spanglish dictionary. Some examples: "Backupear" is to back up a car, "yarda" is yard, "pregneada" is pregnant.

Though Spanglish has been around for some time, some people worry that it will corrupt the English language. But Stavans says its use can be inspiring.

"There are many people out there that speak English, Spanish and Spanglish. It is a language that, to this day, academics [distrust], that politicians only recently have begun to take it more into consideration. But poets, novelists and essayists have realized that it is the key to the soul of a large portion of the population."

"Latinos are learning English," he says. "That doesn't mean that they should sacrifice their original language or that they should give up this in-betweeness that is Spanglish. Spanglish is a creative way also of saying, 'I am an American and I have my own style, my own taste, my own tongue.'"

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A sign in Springfield, Mass. warns young Latinos: "No Hangear" -- don't hang out on this corner. Spanglish -- a cross between Spanish and English -- it seems, is everywhere. NPR's Bob Edwards talks with Ilan Stavans, author of a new book, Spanglish: The Making of a New American Language.

# data[].attributes.body
Me

Mi-ka (Korea-born, US-bred) - English + Korean (bilingual), studying Spanish

Siblings

Jun-ha (Korea-born, US-bred) - English monolingual, studying Korean* & French

Parents

Kye-yeon Jang (Korea-born, US immigrant) - Korean monolingual

Chang-su Jang (Korea-born, US immigrant) - Korean monolingual

Paternal Grandparents

Choon-yik Jang (Korea) - Korean monolingual

Hwa-ja Park (Korea) - Korean monolingual

Maternal Grandparents

Joo-yik Jang (Korea) - Korean monolingual

Bok-rae Lee (Korea) - Korean monolingual

*Jun immigrated to the US at age 2, thus speaks mostly English.

# data[].attributes.headline
Will Hispanic bilingualism survive in the U.S.?

# data[].attributes.subject
Will Hispanic bilingualism survive in the U.S.?

# data[].attributes.body
Como ya he dicho, el bilingüismo es muy beneficioso. Según este artículo, los investigadores dicen que los latinos no serán una parte de la minoría por 2055. Sin embargo, declaran también que cada vez menos latinos van a utilizar el español en el futuro—especialmente los que nacidos en Estados Unidos. Necesitamos enfocar en crear más currículos bilingües para nuestras escuelas.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Spanish-English bilingual programs have grown rapidly throughout U.S. schools.

Will Hispanic bilingualism survive in the United States?

NEW YORK - The Hispanic patient came into the Mount Sinai Beth Israel emergency room in New York with chest pain, and he was slipping in and out of consciousness. But it wasn't just the doctors and nurses by his side - so was Clarimel Vlakančić, 32, a bilingual medical interpreter who grew up in both the U.S. and the Dominican Republic. "I had to keep shouting at him, 'Sir, everything's all right, they're going to do this, they're going to do that,'" she said. "It was quite intense." In the end, doctors were able to stabilize him - with Vlakančić's help. "It's very rewarding when people are like, 'Thank you so much for helping me.' It just makes you feel good."

Being bilingual isn't always a matter of life and death, but it is a way of life for millions of Latinos in the U.S.

While many predicted that Spanish was never likely to erode the dominance of English in the United States to any significant degree, the number of bilingual speakers keeps growing, even as immigration declines.

An estimated 57 million Latinos live in the U.S., and three-quarters of them speak Spanish at home, according to the Pew Research Center. About a third of adult Hispanics are bilingual, speaking the most-used non-English language in the country.

However, that could change.

By 2055, an estimated 125 million Hispanics will live in the U.S. - the so-called "tipping point" when whites will become a minority. But as immigration slows and the U.S.-born Latino population grows, the number of Hispanics who speak English is on the rise.
Read this story in Spanish
As more Hispanics are born in the U.S., more young Latinos now speak English. In 2014, Pew found that 88 percent of Latinos ages 5 to 17 speak only English or speak it "very well," an increase from 73 percent in 2000.

And while 60 percent of U.S.-born Hispanics speak Spanish at home, that number fell from 66 percent in 2000.

"It's this weird paradox: we're getting this large increase in Spanish speakers and the very same time a tremendous decrease in Spanish speakers. The language tends to not get fully transmitted one generation to the next within families," said Phillip M. Carter, assistant professor of linguistics at Florida International University in Miami.
The future of bilingualism in the U.S.
While the share of Hispanics who speak Spanish at home may have dropped, the overall number of Spanish speakers - about 36.7 million - continues to rise due to the growth in the Hispanic population.

But as demographics change, a smaller share of Latinos may speak Spanish in the future. In 2014, 37 percent of Hispanic children and teens lived in English-only households, compared to 30 percent in 2000, according to Pew.

"It's unlikely by the time the tipping point happens [in 2055], U.S.-born Latinos will be as proficient in Spanish as they are in English," said Carter.

While other immigrant languages have dropped significantly in use, today's Latin American immigrant population is larger than previous foreign-language-speaking groups. "It's a numbers game," said Carter.

For example, around 4 million Italians emigrated to the U.S. between the 1880s and 1920s, accounting for about 13 percent of the U.S. immigrant population by 1960. By comparison, more than 19 million Latino immigrants lived in the U.S. in 2014, comprising nearly half of the foreign-born population.

"Current demographic trends suggest that we'll continue to see more Hispanics speaking English and fewer speaking Spanish, but that's not to say that Spanish will disappear from homes in the United States," said Jens Manuel Krogstad, a Pew Research Center editor.

"We found that bilingualism peaks with the second generation - that is, the children of immigrants. Among Latino children of immigrants, about half say they're bilingual, but when you get to the third generation, that share falls to 23 percent," he added.

The size of the Spanish-speaking population will depend on the flow of new immigrants, Korstad explained.
The cultural connection
Despite a growing number of English-dominant Hispanics, 95 percent of U.S. Latinos believe it's important for future generations to speak Spanish, according to Pew.

Monica Olivera, 42, exemplifies what's possible for Hispanics who have been in the U.S. for generations and want to pass down their language skills. The founder of the Mommy Maestra blog for Hispanic families who homeschool bilingual children, Olivera is a sixth-generation American on her mother's side with roots in Mexico, while her father was born in Spain. She married an English-speaking American, and now lives in rural North Carolina with few opportunities to use her language skills. "Even though Spanish was my first language, English became my dominant language," she said.

But now, she's teaching her two children, ages 10 and 12, to speak Spanish in order to connect to their roots, communicate with family, and have better economic opportunities when they're older. While consistency in speaking the language at home is challenging, she uses a variety of programs and teaching methods as a part of her children's homeschooling.

"I really wanted them to have that gift of language," she said. "Ultimately I want to raise global citizens. I want to raise my children to communicate with anyone, anywhere in the world."

But while Spanish may be tied to traditions or heritage, it's also subject to family dynamics. "Sometimes parents only use Spanish to scold or yell at their children or when they are expressing extreme emotions," said Carter, noting that students often tell him Spanish "is the language my mom yelled at me in." He added: "That leaves some kids in a state of emotional whiplash." And when children associate Spanish with negative experiences, they may be less likely to use the language.

Spanish use also varies on the opportunity and willingness to use it outside of the home. "Some people like me may speak only English at home but Spanish at work," said Mark Hugo Lopez, director of Hispanic research at Pew. "When I was growing up, speaking Spanish was something that people didn't do. People were trying to run away from all those things that were Mexican. That's changed now," he added.

Similarly, in Miami, the children of many Cubans who arrived in the 1960s speak little to no Spanish since they were intent on learning English and being accepted. At the time, bilingualism was seen in a negative light; there was a popular bumper sticker that read: "When the last English speaker leaves Miami please bring the flag with you."
The benefits of bilingualism

Mario Villafuerte / Getty Images

Experts have found numerous advantages to bilingualism. It has neurological benefits, stimulating synapses in the brain like music and aiding in attention and task-switching abilities. Plus, there are educational advantages. A Michigan State University study in Texas found that English-speaking children in bilingual programs did better on state math and reading tests than their English-speaking counterparts without those programs. There's also evidence bilingualism increases economic competitiveness. A University of Florida study found that fully bilingual Floridian Hispanics earn $7,000 more each year than their monolingual, English-speaking counterparts.

Given these advantages, schools around the country have invested in bilingual education methods. Dual-language programs have exploded in the U.S., growing from 260 programs in 2000 to around 2,500 in 2014. And it's programs like these that could help future generations of Latinos keep their language alive.

Chad Ransom, second-language services director for Teton County School District No. 1 in Jackson Hole, WY., helped launch a Spanish and English dual-language program in 2009 which now serves nearly 500 students from kindergarten to seventh grade. The idea was not only to close the achievement gap between native Spanish-speaking students and English-speaking students, but his research found that dual-language immersion is the "most effective program model for English-speaking students to be most successful in English." Every year, the program receives double the amount of applicants than it can accept, so Ransom plans to expand.

The results are clear: native English speakers perform equally or better than their peers outside the program on standardized tests, while native Spanish speakers close the gap by fifth grade, scoring around the 50th percentile nationally. The outcomes go beyond exams: one teacher observed that the dual-language students work together better than their counterparts outside the program, who are more likely to separate into cliques.

Ransom notes that the program also aims to make children successful once they finish school. "I think that you're more economically competitive in a global society," he said.

Being bilingual - and biliterate - can indeed pay off later in life.

Lissette Calveiro, 23, of Miami, Fl. grew up speaking Spanish at home with her mother and half-sister, Ecuadorian immigrants, and her father, a Cuban immigrant. At school and with peers, she spoke English, and with Latino friends, Spanglish. She says she dreams in English.

Political backlash against Spanish

Being bilingual has both practical and personal benefits. "It helps me connect with my parents' heritage," said Calveiro. Living in Miami, one of the country's most bilingual cities, she's able to give directions in Spanish and help English-speaking tourists. And working in public relations she's also had more opportunities, including doing TV spots, since she can speak and write in Spanish. "Being bilingual is a commodity in the professional world," she said. "It really helped me stand out."

Despite the benefits involved with bilingualism, the use of Spanish in the U.S. is often a political landmine, from English-only laws to California's Proposition 227, a ballot initiative in 1998 which largely eliminated bilingual classes in public schools.

Politics don't just impact laws affecting education - the political climate can affect how Latinos perceive language, says Carter. "If you watch the presidential election cycle, a child need only receive one message that Spanish should be walled out of the country or Spanish should be not used by politicians or Spanish should not be spoken in public," he said. "Those types of messages reinforce the idea that it's a bad language or a language not worth knowing."

And that's a particular risk this election year.

During the 2016 presidential campaigns, Donald Trump has not only fed anti-immigrant sentiment, but anti-Spanish sentiment, too. Despite his ubiquity in the media, Trump has repeatedly refused to speak to the Spanish-language press. In August, Trump attacked then-candidate Jeb Bush on Twitter for "speaking Mexican" and told Breitbart News that Bush "should really set the example by speaking English while in the United States." Sarah Palin, the 2008 Republican vice presidential candidate, chimed in, saying Latinos should " speak American." (Neither "Mexican" nor "American" are languages.)

In November, a group of prominent Latino intellectuals penned a letter to condemn Trump, saying: "The physical aggressions against Hispanics and repeated calls to prohibit the public use of the Spanish language have already started." And last month, Univision anchor María Elena Salinas was booed during a commencement speech at California State Fullerton when she briefly spoke Spanish.

But not everyone agrees with Trump. Californians will vote again on Prop 227 in November - this time, on whether to repeal it.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Will Hispanic bilingualism survive in the United States?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Will Hispanic bilingualism survive in the United States? NEW YORK - The Hispanic patient came into the Mount Sinai Beth Israel emergency room in New York with chest pain, and he was slipping in and out of consciousness.

# data[].attributes.headline
Why it's good to speak Spanish in America

# data[].attributes.subject
Why it's good to speak Spanish in America

# data[].attributes.body
Mucha gente no sabe que la habilidad de hablar en español (en EEUU) es muy ventajoso. “Los Estados Unidos tienen solamente un idioma,” algunas personas dicen—que es muy irónico, porque este país es una mezcla de varios idiomas y culturas. Ellos demandan que necesitamos hablar en inglés, porque debemos asimilar o integrase a la cultura mayoría—y a veces, insinúan que los hispanohablantes son, de alguna manera, inferiores. Muy por el contrario, los hispanos bilingües son más equipados para empleos futuros.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
It's hard to argue against that answer to the first question: It's clearly better for immigrants to speak the language of their adopted country. They will be more competitive for jobs and feel more connected to society. But the shortsightedness implied by the second question is troubling: a population that speaks several languages is helpful, not harmful, to America's economy and national security.

The conversation among conservatives about undocumented immigrants and what they perceive as a threat to American identity has indeed been ongoing. These days, it's tied to a virulent, anti-immigrant sentiment -- focused on "brown people"-- and apparently aimed at using "the other" to galvanize the base, especially during the campaign.

In this context, language is an easy target; it's the way foreign origins are most obviously expressed. We hear an accent, or English that's difficult to understand, and tag the speaker as an outsider, someone whose allegiances might not be clear.

This is why Donald Trump criticized fellow presidential candidate Jeb Bush for answering questions on the campaign trai l posed to him in Spanish in that same language; Trump turned what some might consider an admirable and politically useful skill into a mark of snobbery or out-of-touchness with "real" America.

And it's why some viewers took Vanessa Ruiz, a Hispanic news anchor in a heavily Hispanic state (Arizona), to task -- not for mangling Spanish-language words, but for pronouncing them correctly -- i.e. in a manner "Americans" could not understand.

Our nation of immigrants has plenty of words borrowed from other languages -- did you eat a taco today, or maybe have a latte? -- but our ethos of assimilation means even those words have to sound "right" to us, which often means they in fact sound wrong.

Taking things one step further, Trump ally Sarah Palin asserted recently that people who don't want to "speak American" in America have no business living here. And at Wednesday's earlier, second-tier CNN debate, Sen. Lindsay Graham said immigrants must "learn our language" to be allowed to stay in the country.

This blunt instrument line of reasoning is against our country's long-term interests. We need more, not fewer, multilingual people to settle in America -- and keep their native languages along with English -- if we want to be competitive in a globalized economy.

Yes, English is the world's lingua franca now, especially for business, diplomacy, and technology (which has greatly helped our nation's businesses to outsource to places like India), but mastering a foreign language has many layers of usefulness: it opens a window into how other people think and what they value, including how they feel about money (seen often through idioms). This is important knowledge for doing business with foreign entities.

Speaking multiple languages -- yes, Spanish among them -- simply creates more opportunities, more influence and potentially more profit as well.

It is surprising that Donald Trump has made linguistic ignorance one of his proud calling cards, given how heavily his businesses invest abroad, and how many foreign investors have a stake in his American-based enterprises.

The case for multilingualism can also be made for national security, an area Republicans deeply care about. Beyond the obvious benefits in espionage and other kinds of intelligence work, having new Americans who are able to keep their native languages -- Arabic, for example -- and not let them lapse, opens up the possibility of having a deep pool of interpreters for our involvements abroad.

If they are lucky, countries have nationals in service with fluency in the right languages, but it's common for armed services to have to utilize local people, indeed raising issues of trust as well as cost and logistics. This is one reason modern empires welcomed multilingualism and in fact invested in language schools for their personnel on the ground.

A multilingual America can only help the United States military, now that many operations abroad make heavy use of counterinsurgency warfare, with its higher and more diversified contact with the local population. In Iraq and Afghanistan, the United States had to depend heavily on local interpreters, and we are still involved in managing the difficult aftereffects of that engagement: interpreters our country hired and then left behind, and who are now subject to retaliation.

According to a 2009 report by the United Nations High Committee on Refugees, cited by Ben Anderson in his Vice News report "The Interpreters", one interpreter was being killed every 36 hours. Although the U.S State Department subsequently implemented a special immigrant visa program for Iraqi and Afghan translators and interpreters, the creation of this class of refugees is a testament to the power of language politics, and an example of the fallout from American insufficiencies in this area.

Isolationist tendencies have a long history in America, and desires like those professed by Palin, Graham, and Trump to hear only English around them come under this category. There is little question that people living in America should know how to speak English. But that is only part of a larger reality.

The world has changed. The ongoing refugee crisis and its extension into the heart of Europe shows that you cannot just shut out what you don't want to see and hear. It's not in our economic or national security interest to build walls around us, even of the linguistic kind.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
why it's good to speak spanish in america - cnn

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Why it's good to speak Spanish in America - CNN

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
It's hard to argue against that answer to the first question: It's clearly better for immigrants to speak the language of their adopted country. They will be more competitive for jobs and feel more connected to society. But the shortsightedness implied by the second question is troubling: a population that speaks several languages is helpful, not harmful, to America's economy and national security.

# data[].attributes.body
El número de hispanohablantes en Estados Unidos es más que lo de México o España. Sin embargo, hemos aprendidos que el bilingüismo—especialmente en los jóvenes, o las criaturas—es extremadamente beneficioso, porque promueve el uso del cerebro en una gran variedad de maneras. Entonces, muchos educadores están propugnando para implementar la educación bilingüe en más escuelas. Por ejemplo, piensan que los estudiantes hispánicos aprenderían más en un ambiente donde el español no es descuidado, ni solamente para comunicación en sus casas. La educación bilingüe promueve una actitud abierta hacia los idiomas y las culturas también, y creo que los son tan importantes en nuestra sociedad.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Anyone who felt the ice was thinning regarding the controversial nature of bilingualism education took it on the chin after the fallout from Coke's recent Super Bowl commercial featuring "America the Beautiful" sung in eight languages. Yeah, there are still plenty of myopic folks who simply believe, "Either speak English or leave."

Still, there are cracks in the anti-bilingual wall in terms of K-12 education with California legislators currently debating the elimination of Prop 227, which in 1998 effectively ended bilingual education in that state.

Florida International University Assistant Professor of Linguistics Phillip M. Carter told VOXXI the irony is the smoking gun in favor of bilingual education is tied directly to Prop 227's effect in Northern California, where such programs were allowed if more than 50 percent of parents signed waivers.

"There are very successful bilingual education programs in San Francisco City Schools for languages like Mandarin and Japanese," Carter said. "The data from those programs is very, very good. Those students do better than their peers in non-bilingual programs within the same district."

The reason why bilingual education programs produce higher-achieving students has to do with cognitive benefits such as enhanced understanding of mathematics, creativity and selective retention.

What's currently being proposed in California is to allow bilingual education, thus benefiting millions of Spanish speaking students who right now are taking English-only classes.

"The proposal is for dual language immersion (DLI) programs, which differ slightly from bilingual education programs," Carter said. "The goal is to give students education in all core areas in both languages - acquiring English and maintaining the home language if you're an immigrant student or acquiring the second language and maintaining English if you're U.S. born."

He added that DLI programs, which begin with young children, actually increase the cognitive benefits for students. This also effectively dispels the introduction of foreign language study in high school.

"You get less benefits the older you are when you learn the language, so that means it makes very little sense to block use of both languages until high school," Carter said. "That's a huge missed opportunity, not only for Latino students who come to school probably speaking Spanish and they forget it, but also in terms of the cognitive benefits all students regardless of language background will receive."

One of the more devastating byproducts of the bilingual education debate is its affect on the Latino family, which sends kids to school to learn English. The result is not only do the young students lose their cultural heritage and the ability to speak to their extended family in their native tongue, but deny themselves career opportunities.

"There's an astounding number of cascading effect on Latino families where parents and grandparents only speak Spanish and kids who only speak English or have receptive bilingualism, where they can understand their parents but aren't comfortable responding in Spanish," Carter said. "That's how language attrition takes place.

"Which you can say, 'OK, who cares? Do we need Spanish in the U.S.?' And you can say, 'Yeah, we do.' It's good for the students, and it's good for the local economies. Imagine if all of the millions of U.S. Latinos had full education in both languages, what kind of economic benefit that would usher in. It would be tremendous."

It's one thing to be able to communicate bilingually but what's lost on, say, Latino students who no longer study Spanish is literacy - these are skills that are desperately needed in places such as Southern California, the southwest and Miami.

Considering a bilingual education benefits all students - Latinos, African Americans, whites - Carter remains hopeful the concept will soon be embraced by all sides.

"The page is turning on account of globalization," Carter said. "I think that people from across the political spectrum are recognizing the globalizing forces on the economy and political systems of putting people in contact with one another from diverse places in ways that are unprecedented."

"Despite that inherent political nature of language issues, I think the tide is turning and people are starting to say 'OK, yes, actually this does make sense.'"

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Fight For Bilingual Education Programs In The U.S.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Fight For Bilingual Education Programs In The U.S.

# data[].attributes.body
Este video junta un grupo de latinos—una mexicana, una puertorriqueña, una dominicana, una venezolana, una nicaragüense, y un uruguayo. Ellos hablan sobre las peculiaridades de sus acentos en una manera alegre y divertida. Cada uno es tan distinta y difícil para imitar, pero en mi opinión, es interesante analizarlos.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.entities[].name
Puerto Rican Funerals & Dominican Barbers

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Every country in Latin America has its own, very different, way of speaking Spanish. Watch as these Latinos to imitate each other's accents! Accent or no accent YOUR VOTE COUNTS, register to vote TODAY: http://www.YourAmerica.com #VoteForYourAmerica Accentuating @ TheFlama.com http://www.theflama.com Add us on Snapchat: http://bit.ly/FlamaSnaps https://facebook.com/TheFlama https://twitter.com/theflama https://instagram.com/theflama https://theflama.tumblr.com

# data[].attributes.body
Creo que el acento argentino tiene un timbre muy sofisticado, como el italiano, probablamente porque sus consonantes son reducidos y también debido a sus [y] o [ll] sonidos distintos.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Uploaded by IamTheWhistler on 2014-07-02.

# data[].attributes.body
Aquí es una versión más reciente, cantado por un grupo que se llama ‘Il Divo.' Consiste en cantantes de orígenes diversos, como España, los Estados Unidos, Suecia y Francia. El cantante castellano utiliza una pronunciación tan suave consonantismo débil, y articula sus z suenan como 'th' (θ)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Quizás, Quizás, Quizás Dejen comentarios y comparten el vídeo se los agradesere . I like y Subscribe CUENTA DE FACEBOOK: https://www.facebook.com/ildivo.siempre

# data[].attributes.body
“Quizás, Quizás, Quizás” es una canción tan famosa en todo el mundo (tiene una versión cantado por Nat King Cole); escrito por un compositor cubano, Osvaldo Farrés. Me encanta esta versión con Andrea Bocelli, quien utiliza un acento mexicano, con fuerte consonatismo. Obviamente sus sonidos ’s’ son muy penetrantes, también.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Andrea Bocelli, Caroline Campbell - Quizas Quizas Quizas (Live From Portofino / 2012)

# data[].attributes.body
Obviamente los escritores utilizan la semántica como un recurso literario. Con el uso de la semántica una obra escrita podría ser más rica, con dual significados; a veces yuxtaponiendo los temas también.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Definition of Semantics

Semantics is one of the important branches of linguistics, and deals with interpretation and meaning of the words, sentence structure, and symbols. It deals with the reading comprehension of the readers, in how they understand others and their interpretations. In addition, semantics constructs a relation between adjoining words and clarifies the sense of a sentence, whether the meanings of words are literal or figurative.

Types of Semantics

There are two types of Semantics:

Connotative Semantic

When a word suggests a set of associations, or is an imaginative or emotional suggestion connected with the words, while readers can relate to such associations. Simply, it represents figurative meaning. Usually poets use this type of meaning in their poetry.

Denotative Semantic

It suggests the literal, explicit, or dictionary meanings of the words, without using associated meanings. It also uses symbols in writing that suggest expressions of writers, such as an exclamation mark, quotation mark, apostrophe, colon, or quotation mark.

Examples of Semantics in Literature

Example #1: Romeo and Juliet (By William Shakespeare)

Juliet:

"O, be some other name!
What's in a name? that which we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet;
So Romeo would, were he not Romeo call'd ..."

The above-mentioned quote is, in fact, conveying figurative meaning. However, its surrounding text clarifies the meaning. Juliet is using metaphoric language, arguing with Romeo that his family name is not important to her, because she only wants Romeo.

Example #2: A Portrait of An Artist As a Young Man (By James Joyce)

The use of denotation or general meaning can be seen in the very first chapter of James Joyce's A Portrait of An Artist As a Young Man, when Stephen expresses his feelings for his mother and father saying:

"His mother had a nicer smell than his father."

This sentence is conveying a denotative or general meaning that he likes his mother more than his father. Thus the meaning is understandable and acceptable for all types of readers around the world. Hence, the general acceptability for all people is the major factor for communicating with people successfully.

Example #3: Hamlet (By William Shakespeare)

In the famous soliloquy of Prince Hamlet, "To be or not to be," William Shakespeare has used a word that we use quite differently these days. Hamlet says:

"When we have shuffled off this mortal coil ..."

Here, "mortal coil" carries a connotative meaning that suggests life, as Hamlet compares death to sleep. However, we are using coils in different connection today, which means a series of spirals tightly joined together.

Example #4: Hedda Gabler (By Henrik Ibsen)

We can understand the use of semantics in the beginning of Hedda Gabler, in which Bertha mentions Hedda, saying:

"She's real lady. Wants everything just so."

This sentence lays emphasis on the implication that, unlike Hedda, other women are not real. That they neither have any discipline, nor structure in the schedules of their lives. In another dialogue, she says:

"But, Lord! I never dreamed I'd live to see a match between her and master George."

Here, an exclamation mark highlights Bertha's feelings of curiosity and astonishment. Her word choice, "never dreamed," shows her intensity of surprising emotions about class inequality.

Example #5: Night (By William Blake)

We can find use of semantic features in poetry more elaborately, as these features describe the meanings of sentences, phrases, and words, and make relations between them. These features include personification, simile, imagery, metaphor, and allusion. For example, in William Blake's poem Night, he uses all semantic features. The poet employs a simile to compare the beauty of the moon with a flower,

"The moon like a flower ..."

Then he uses a covert comparison between unlike things:

"And there the lion's ruddy eyes
Shall flow with tears of gold ..."

Here, the phrase "tears of gold" illustrates the value of tears. Then, we see personification:

"The feet of angels bright ..."

and imagery:

"The sun descending in the west,

The evening star does shine..."

This paints a picture in the minds of readers.

Function of Semantics

The purpose of semantics is to propose exact meanings of words and phrases, and remove confusion, which might lead the readers to believe a word has many possible meanings. It makes a relationship between a word and the sentence through their meanings. Besides, semantics enable the readers to explore a sense of the meaning because, if we remove or change the place of a single word from the sentence, it will change the entire meaning, or else the sentence will become anomalous. Hence, the sense relation inside a sentence is very important, as a single word does not carry any sense or meaning.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Semantic - Examples and Definition of Semantic

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Definition, Usage and a list of Semantic Examples in literature. Semantics is one of the important branches of linguistics that deals with interpretation and meaning of the words, sentence structure and symbols, while determining the reading comprehension of the readers how they understand others and their interpretations.

# data[].attributes.body
Me encanta que este video, diferente a muchos otros, promueve la evolución de las lenguas; es más optimista e iluminado. La oradora dice que el desarrollo de nuestras lenguas es crucial e importante—palabras de la jerga podrían ser influyentes también.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In this fun, short talk from TEDYouth, lexicographer Erin McKean encourages — nay, cheerleads — her audience to create new words when the existing ones won’t quite do. She lists out 6 ways to make new words in English, from compounding to “verbing,” in order to make language better at expressing what we mean, and to create more ways for us to understand one another.

# data[].attributes.body
Emma, escrita por Jane Austen, es lleno de comentarios sociales. El chisme y las mentiras celosas de adentro son velados como conversaciones respetuosos (casos cotidianos en la época victoriana); por tanto, podrías descubrir muchos ejemplos de máximas en esta novela.

# data[].attributes.body
Aquí es una representación visual de una lección famosa de Steven Pinker; explica la concepción del lenguaje como una ventana por relaciones sociales. Las definiciones en diccionarios no cubren todo—insinuamos y expresamos significados diferentes vía nuestras lenguas.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
RSA ANIMATE: Language as a Window into Human Nature

# data[].attributes.body
Aquí es una traducción de Aeneid, escrito por Virgil. Por supuesto, yo he leído su poema en inglés para una de mis clases de literatura, pero creo que no consideré mucho la versión latín/original cuando lo estudié. Ahora me interesa mucho el proceso de traducción, y quiero leer libros en latín algún día.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Arma virumque cano, Troiae qui primus ab oris
Italiam, fato profugus, Laviniaque venit
litora, multum ille et terris iactatus et alto
vi superum saevae memorem Iunonis ob iram;

I sing [of] arms and the man, who first
exiled by fate, came to Italy and to the Lavinian shores from the shores of Troy,
thrown much on both land and sea by the force of the gods
on account of the mindful anger of cruel Juno.

multa quoque et bello passus, dum conderet urbem, 5
inferretque deos Latio, genus unde Latinum,
Albanique patres, atque altae moenia Romae.

He also suffered much even in war, until he should establish a city,
and bring the gods to Latium, [from] whence the Latin race
and the Alban fathers and the walls of high Rome [come].

Musa, mihi causas memora, quo numine laeso,
quidve dolens, regina deum tot volvere casus
insignem pietate virum, tot adire labores 10
impulerit. Tantaene animis caelestibus irae?

O Muse, recall to me the causes, by means of what injured divinity
or suffering what [thing], did the queen of the gods drive a man
marked by piety, to turn so many crises, and to approach so many difficulties.
Are there such great angers for the celestial minds?

Urbs antiqua fuit, Tyrii tenuere coloni,
Karthago, Italiam contra Tiberinaque longe
ostia, dives opum studiisque asperrima belli;
quam Iuno fertur terris magis omnibus unam 15
posthabita coluisse Samo; hic illius arma,
hic currus fuit; hoc regnum dea gentibus esse,
si qua fata sinant, iam tum tenditque fovetque.

There was an ancient city, Tyrian colonists held it,
Carthage, far off opposite Italy and the Tiber's mouths,
Rich in wealth and most ferocious in eagerness for war;
Which Juno is said to have cherished more than all lands
With even Samos being subordinated; here were her arms,
Here was her her chariot; the goddess, for a long time, has
Strived and has cherished, for this to be a kingdom for all
Peoples, if the fates should allow.

Progeniem sed enim Troiano a sanguine duci
audierat, Tyrias olim quae verteret arces; 20
hinc populum late regem belloque superbum
venturum excidio Libyae: sic volvere Parcas.

But she had heard that a race was being led out of Trojan blood,
which would overturn the Tyrian citadels;
Hence, a people which was a king for great expanses and masterful in war
would come for the destruction of Libya: thus the Fates were turning.

Id metuens, veterisque memor Saturnia belli,
prima quod ad Troiam pro caris gesserat Argis-
necdum etiam causae irarum saevique dolores 25
exciderant animo: manet alta mente repostum
iudicium Paridis spretaeque iniuria formae,
et genus invisum, et rapti Ganymedis honores.

Juno, fearing this, and mindful of the old war,
which she had waged before Troy on behalf of her dear Greeks--
for the causes of her angers and fierce pains had not yet
fallen from her mind: the judgment of Paris stays stored up in her deep mind,
and the injustice to her scorned beauty,
and the hated race, and the honors of stolen Ganymede.

His accensa super, iactatos aequore toto
Troas, reliquias Danaum atque immitis Achilli, 30
arcebat longe Latio, multosque per annos
errabant, acti fatis, maria omnia circum.
Tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem!

Inflamed by these things even more, she was warding off the Trojans,
the remnants of the Greeks (the Greek slaughter), and of cruel Achilles,
far off from Latium on the entire sea, and they were wandering for many years,
driven by the Fates, around all the seas.
It was [a thing of] so much effort to establish the Roman people!

Vix e conspectu Siculae telluris in altum
vela dabant laeti, et spumas salis aere ruebant, 35
cum Iuno, aeternum servans sub pectore volnus,
haec secum: 'Mene incepto desistere victam
nec posse Italia Teucrorum avertere regem?

Barely out of sight of the Sicilian shore (or land, island)
they, happy, were unfurling their sails toward the deep water and
they were rushing through the foam of the salt (sea) with their bronze (keels),
when Juno, preserving an eternal wound under her chest (in her heart),
said these things to herself, "Am I to desist, conquered, from the beginning(of my plan),
and am I not able to turn away the king of the Trojans from Italy?

Quippe vetor fatis. Pallasne exurere classem
Argivom atque ipsos potuit submergere ponto, 40
45

But of course I am forbidden by the fates. Was Athena able to burn
the fleet of the Greeks and to drown them in the sea,
On account of the crime and the madness of one [man], Ajax , son of Oileus?
She herself, having hurled the consuming fire of Zeus from the clouds,
scattered the ships and she overturned the seas by means of winds,
she snatched up the man breathing fire out of his pierced chest with a whirlpool
and she impaled him on a sharp rock.

But I, who walk as the queen of the gods, both sister and spouse of Zeus,
wage war for so many years with one (measly) race!
And who now adores the name of Juno hereafter,
or will place honors as a suppliant on the altars?"

Talia flammato secum dea corde volutans 50

Turning such things with herself in her burned heart she comes to Aeolia,
which is the fatherland of the clouds, places pregnant with raging southern winds.
Here king Aeolius presses struggling winds and the roaring storms in a vast cavern
by virtue of his command and he restrains them by means of chains and prison.

Illi indignantes magno cum murmure montis 55
circum claustra fremunt; celsa sedet Aeolus arce
sceptra tenens, mollitque animos et temperat iras.

They (the winds), enraged, roar around their barriers with a great murmur;
Aeolus sits on his high throne holding a staff,
and he soothes their minds and calms their angers.

Ni faciat, maria ac terras caelumque profundum
quippe ferant rapidi secum verrantque per auras.

If he did not do this, they (the winds), swirling,
would of course carry the seas and lands and the vast sky
with them and they would sweep them through the breezes.

Sed pater omnipotens speluncis abdidit atris, 60
hoc metuens, molemque et montis insuper altos
imposuit, regemque dedit, qui foedere certo
et premere et laxas sciret dare iussus habenas.

But the almighty father (Jupiter) put them (winds) away in dark caves,
fearing this very thing, and he placed upon them a mound and tall mountains
and gave a king to the winds, who would know when ordered
(how to) restrain them and (how to) give them slack reins.

Ad quem tum Iuno supplex his vocibus usa est:
'Aeole, namque tibi divom pater atque hominum rex 65
70

To whom then, humble (on bent knee), Juno used these words:
"Aeolus, for, to you the father of the gods, and the king of men
gave [the power] to soothe the waves and to raise them by means of the winds
A race hateful to me now sails the Tyrrahenean Sea,
bringing Troy into Italy and along with the conquered household gods:
Strike power into the winds and overturn their submerged ships,
or drive them off course and scatter their bodies in the sea.

There are to me (I have) twice seven (fourteen) Nymphs of outstanding body,
of whom she who is most beautiful in body is Deiopea,
I shall join you in stable marriage, and I shall declare her to be your property,
so that she fulfills all the years with you in exchange for such great merits,
and in order that she might make you a parent by means of beautiful offspring."

Aeolus said this in response: "Yours is the labor, Oh queen, to figure what you wish;
it is right for me to receive orders. You reconcile for me, whatever this is of a kingdom,
you reconcile for me the scepter and Jupiter, you give it to me to recline at the feasts of the Gods,
you make me powerful of (over) storms and clouds."

Haec ubi dicta, cavum conversa cuspide montem
impulit in latus: ac venti, velut agmine facto,
qua data porta, ruunt et terras turbine perflant.

When these things were said, he struck the hollow mountain on its side
with a turned spear point: And the winds, as if a battle line had been formed,
rushed wherever a door (opportunity) is given and blew through the the lands
with their storming.

Incubuere mari, totumque a sedibus imis
una Eurusque Notusque ruunt creberque procellis 85
Africus, et vastos volvunt ad litora fluctus.

They settled upon the sea, and together the East Wind and South wind rush,
and the African wind from their deepest seats
and they roll their enormous waves towards the shores.

90
praesentemque viris intentant omnia mortem.

The shouts of men follow and the rattling of ropes.
Suddenly they snatch away the clouds and the sky and the day out of the Trojan's eyes;
Black night settles upon the sea, the heavens thunder and the upper air
sparkles with thick fires, all things stretch for shadows an instant death for man.

Immediately, the bits/pieces of Aeneas are slackened by cold (fear):
He groans, and holding double (folded?) palms to the stars
he says such things with his voice (out loud): "Oh three times and four times, blessed
(are you) for whom it occurred (by accident) to fall under the high walls of Troy
before the faces of your fathers! Oh strongest of the race of the Greeks
Tydides (son of Tydeus = Diomedes )! That I was not able to fall on the Trojan fields,
and that I was not able to pour out this soul by means of your right hand,
where savage Hector lies because of the spear of the (grand)son of Aeacus (Achilles), where
huge Sarpedon (son of Zeus) lies, where the river Simois turns so many shields of men
and their helmets and their strong bodies, snatched under the waves!

(NOTE: This is the first time Aeneas' name is said in the Aeneid.)

105
Hi summo in fluctu pendent; his unda dehiscens
terram inter fluctus aperit; furit aestus harenis.

To him as he was uttering/tossing out such things, a gust
screeching/roaring because of the North wind (Aquilonus) opposing strikes the sail,
and it lifts the waves to the stars. The oars are broken; then it (the ship) turns its prow, and
it gives its side to the waves; the jagged mountain of water follows in a pile.
They hang on the highest wave; for them a gaping wave opens up the land between the seas

(NOTE: Imagine a cartoon. The physics make no sense for land to be between the waves - but Vergil sure knows how to make his descriptions interesting.)

Res Notus abreptas in saxa latentia torquet-
saxa vocant Itali mediis quae in fluctibus aras-
dorsum immane mari summo; tres Eurus ab alto 110
in brevia et Syrtis urget, miserabile visu,
inliditque vadis atque aggere cingit harenae.

Notus twists three (ships) snatched up into/against the hidden rocks--
which (rocks) the Italians call "altars" in the middle of the waves--
a huge back/spine at the top of the sea; Eurus (East wind) drives three (ships) from the deep into
narrows and the Syrtis (reefs), o wretched to behold,
and he (Eurus) smashes [them] against the shoals and encircles them with a wall of sand.

Unam, quae Lycios fidumque vehebat Oronten,
ipsius ante oculos ingens a vertice pontus
in puppim ferit: excutitur pronusque magister 115
volvitur in caput; ast illam ter fluctus ibidem
torquet agens circum, et rapidus vorat aequore vertex.

A vast wave strikes one (ship), which was carrying the people of Lycia
and faithful Orontis, onto its stern from its peak before the eyes
of (Aeneas) himself. The shipmaster is thrown off and headlong
he turns onto his head; but the swell (of water) three times in the same place
twists it, turning it in a circle, and the rapid whirlpool swallows (it) into the water.

Adparent rari nantes in gurgite vasto,
arma virum, tabulaeque, et Troia gaza per undas.
Iam validam Ilionei navem, iam fortis Achati, 120
et qua vectus Abas, et qua grandaevus Aletes,
vicit hiems; laxis laterum compagibus omnes
accipiunt inimicum imbrem, rimisque fatiscunt.

Swimmers appear in the vast whirlpool,
the arms of men, and planks, and the Trojan treasures through the waves.
The storm has now conquered the stout ship of Ilioneus and the stout ship of brave Achates,
and the one on which Abas was carried, and the one on which old Aletes was too;
They all welcome the enemy rain with the cords of their sides relaxed
and gape with cracks.

Interea magno misceri murmure pontum,
emissamque hiemem sensit Neptunus, et imis 125
130
Eurum ad se Zephyrumque vocat, dehinc talia fatur:

Meanwhile Neptune, deeply moved, feels that the sea is stirred with a great rumble,
and that the storm has been sent forth, and that the still waters
have been poured out from the deepest pools; and looking out from the deep,
he raises his calm head from the highest wave.
He sees the scattered fleet of Aeneas on the whole sea,
He sees the Trojans overwhelmed by the waves and by the crashing of the sky,
Juno's tricks and anger did not deceive her brother.
He (Neptune) calls Eurus (East wind) to himself and he says such things:

"Has such faith in your race taken hold of you?
Now you dare, o winds, to mix the sky and land without my power and to raise such great masses?
But it is urgent to settle the disturbed waves.

(Neptune says at 3:44 PM: @Eurus u overstepped ur bounderies bro)

Post mihi non simili poena commissa luetis.
Maturate fugam, regique haec dicite vestro:
non illi imperium pelagi saevumque tridentem,
sed mihi sorte datum. Tenet ille immania saxa,
vestras, Eure, domos; illa se iactet in aula 140
Aeolus, et clauso ventorum carcere regnet.'

Afterwards you will pay for your deeds to me with a not similar punishment.
Mature your flight, and say these things to your king:
Not to him but to me was the rule of the sea and the savage trident given by lot.
That man (Aeolus) holds the savage rocks, your homes, Eurus; let Aeolus throw himself around
in that court of his, and reign in the closed prison of the winds."

Sic ait, et dicto citius tumida aequora placat,
collectasque fugat nubes, solemque reducit.
Cymothoe simul et Triton adnixus acuto
detrudunt navis scopulo; levat ipse tridenti; 145
et vastas aperit syrtis, et temperat aequor,
atque rotis summas levibus perlabitur undas.

Thus he speaks, and he calms the swollen seas more quickly than he says,
and he scatters the collected clouds and he brings back the sun.
At the same time Cymothoe and Triton having leaned against the sharp rock
pushed the ships away and he himself lifts it up by means of the trident
and he opens up the vast sandbar, and calms the sea,
and glides over the tops of the waves with light wheels.

Ac veluti magno in populo cum saepe coorta est
seditio, saevitque animis ignobile volgus,
iamque faces et saxa volant-furor arma ministrat; 150
tum, pietate gravem ac meritis si forte virum quem
conspexere, silent, arrectisque auribus adstant;
ille regit dictis animos, et pectora mulcet,-

Just as a riot often arises in a great crowd,
and the low-born rabble rages in their minds,
and soon torches and rocks are flying - madness supplies their arms;
then, if by chance they catch sight of some man heavy with (i.e., renowned for) piety and good deeds,
they are silent, and stand with their ears pricked up;
he rules their minds with his words, and soothes their breasts, --

sic cunctus pelagi cecidit fragor, aequora postquam
prospiciens genitor caeloque invectus aperto 155
flectit equos, curruque volans dat lora secundo.
Defessi Aeneadae, quae proxima litora, cursu
contendunt petere, et Libyae vertuntur ad oras.

thus the entire crash of the sea falls, after the father (Neptune)
looking out on the seas and carried under the open sky turns his horses
and gave reins with the chariot following.
The tired sons of Aeneas hastened to seek in their flight
wherever the nearest shores are, and they returned to the shores of Libya.

Est in secessu longo locus: insula portum
efficit obiectu laterum, quibus omnis ab alto 160
frangitur inque sinus scindit sese unda reductos.
Hinc atque hinc vastae rupes geminique minantur
in caelum scopuli, quorum sub vertice late
aequora tuta silent; tum silvis scaena coruscis
desuper horrentique atrum nemus imminet umbra. 165

There is a place in a long narrows: an island
makes a port there by the thrusting out of its sides, against which every wave from the sea
is shattered and splits itself into deep folds.
From this side and that, vast cliffs and twin rocks threaten
towards the sky, under whose peak
the seas rest safely; then a scene with quivering forests
from above and a dark grove hangs over, with a bristling shadow.

Fronte sub adversa scopulis pendentibus antrum,
intus aquae dulces vivoque sedilia saxo,
nympharum domus: hic fessas non vincula navis
ulla tenent, unco non alligat ancora morsu.

Under the opposite face there is a cave with hanging cliffs,
inward there are sweet waters and benches cut from the living rock,
it is the home of the nymphs: in this place no chains hold tired ships,
the anchor does not tie them with its hooked bite.

Huc septem Aeneas collectis navibus omni 170
175
nutrimenta dedit, rapuitque in fomite flammam.

Aeneas goes to this place with seven ships having been collected out of
the entire number; The Trojans, having disembarked because of a great love of the land,
gain the desired sand (beach), and place their limbs rotting from the salt on the shore.
And first Achates strikes out the spark from the flint,
and he catches up the fire by means of the leaves, and he places around it
dry nourishment, and he snatched the flame from the shavings.

Tum Cererem corruptam undis Cerealiaque arma
expediunt fessi rerum, frugesque receptas
et torrere parant flammis et frangere saxo.

Then, tired of things, they take out the grain which is corrupted by the waves
and the arms of Ceres, and they prepare to toast the recovered grains
by means of fire and to break it on the rock.

Aeneas scopulum interea conscendit, et omnem 180
prospectum late pelago petit, Anthea si quem
iactatum vento videat Phrygiasque biremis,
aut Capyn, aut celsis in puppibus arma Caici.

Meanwhile, Aeneas climbs the rock and seeks
the entire view widely across the sea, if perhaps he can see
anyone, Antheas perhaps, hurled by the wind, and the Trojan biremes (ships),
or Capys, or the arms of Caicus on the high poop-deck.

Navem in conspectu nullam, tris litore cervos
prospicit errantis; hos tota armenta sequuntur 185
a tergo, et longum per vallis pascitur agmen.
Constitit hic, arcumque manu celerisque sagittas
corripuit, fidus quae tela gerebat Achates;

He spots no ship in his sight, he spots three stags wandering
on the shore; the whole herd follows these
from the rear, and the long line feeds through the valleys.
He stands here, and snatches the bow and the swift
arrows with his hand, the weapons which faithful Achates was carrying;

ductoresque ipsos primum, capita alta ferentis
cornibus arboreis, sternit, tum volgus, et omnem 190
miscet agens telis nemora inter frondea turbam;
nec prius absistit, quam septem ingentia victor
corpora fundat humi, et numerum cum navibus aequet.

First he lays low the leaders themselves, carrying heads high
with horns like trees, then (he slays) the rabble, and he confuses
the whole crowd within the leafy forest, driving with weapons;
nor did he, conqueror, stop until he pours seven huge bodies on the ground,
and he makes equal the number with ships.

Hinc portum petit, et socios partitur in omnes.
Vina bonus quae deinde cadis onerarat Acestes 195
litore Trinacrio dederatque abeuntibus heros,
dividit, et dictis maerentia pectora mulcet:

From here he seeks the port, and divides among all his comrades.
He then divides the wine which good Acestes, hero, had stocked in jars
on the shores of Sicily and which he had given to those departing,
and he soothes the mourning hearts with words:

'O socii-neque enim ignari sumus ante malorum-
O passi graviora, dabit deus his quoque finem.
Vos et Scyllaeam rabiem penitusque sonantis 200
accestis scopulos, vos et Cyclopea saxa
experti: revocate animos, maestumque timorem
mittite: forsan et haec olim meminisse iuvabit.

"Oh friends-- for surely we are not inexperienced of prior evils--
O you have suffered worse, and god will give an end to these things as well.
You have approached both the Sycllaen anger and the deeply resounding
rocks, and you have experienced the rocks of the Cyclops.
Recall your spirits, and dismiss gloomy fear: perhaps to even remember these things
will be pleasing.

Per varios casus, per tot discrimina rerum
tendimus in Latium; sedes ubi fata quietas 205
ostendunt; illic fas regna resurgere Troiae.
Durate, et vosmet rebus servate secundis.'

Through various misfortunes, through so many crises of things,
we make our way into Latium, where the fates show (us) restful homes:
there it (will be) proper that the kingdom of Troy [should] rise again.
Be firm, save yourselves for happy times."

Talia voce refert, curisque ingentibus aeger
spem voltu simulat, premit altum corde dolorem.
Illi se praedae accingunt, dapibusque futuris; 210
tergora deripiunt costis et viscera nudant;

He says such things with his voice, and he, sick with huge anxieties, pretends
hope with his face, he presses down a deep pain in his heart. The men gird
themselves for the prey (meat), and for the feast to come (soon) -- they rip
the hide from the ribs and they lay bare the bowels:

part of them cut (the meat) into bits and they impale it still trembling onto spikes;
the others place the bronze vats on the shore, and they tend to the fire.
Then they recall their strength by means of the food, and poured through the
grass they are filled with old Bacchus (wine) and fat game.

220
nunc Amyci casum gemit et crudelia secum
fata Lyci, fortemque Gyan, fortemque Cloanthum.

After hunger has been taken away by means of the feast and the tables removed,
they inquire about their lost companions by means of long conversation,
and wavering between hope and fear, whether they believe that they live,
or whether they have suffered the worst things (death) and do not hear when they are called.
And now especially pious Aeneas moans (to himself) the fate of sharp-spirited Orontis, the fate of Amycus, and the
bitter fates of Lycus, and brave Gyas, and brave Cloanthus.

Et iam finis erat, cum Iuppiter aethere summo
despiciens mare velivolum terrasque iacentis
litoraque et latos populos, sic vertice caeli 225
constitit, et Libyae defixit lumina regnis.

And now there was an ending, when Jupiter looking down
from the celestial heights onto the sail-flying sea and the lands
lying below and the shores and the widespread peoples, thus
stopped at the axis of the sky, and he fixes his gaze on the kingdoms of Libya.

230
quid meus Aeneas in te committere tantum,
quid Troes potuere, quibus, tot funera passis,
cunctus ob Italiam terrarum clauditur orbis?

Rather sad and having filled her shining eyes by means of tears,
Venus addresses him (Jupiter) as he is tossing cares in his chest.
"Oh you who rule the affairs of gods and men,
by means of your eternal orders and terrify them with the thunderbolt,
what could my Aeneas have committed against you (that is) so great,
what could the Trojans (scil., have committed), for whom after having suffered so many deaths,
the whole world is closed off on account of (except for) Italy?

Certe hinc Romanos olim, volventibus annis,
hinc fore ductores, revocato a sanguine Teucri, 235
qui mare, qui terras omni dicione tenerent,
pollicitus, quae te, genitor, sententia vertit?

Having promised that, as the years turn, the Romans, from the recalled blood of Teucer,
would be leaders, from this place
who would hold the sea and the land with their entire power,
what opinion turns you, sire?

Hoc equidem occasum Troiae tristisque ruinas
solabar, fatis contraria fata rependens;
nunc eadem fortuna viros tot casibus actos 240
insequitur. Quem das finem, rex magne, laborum?

I consoled myself at least for the destruction of Troy and the sad ruins,
by means of this, as I was weighing fates and contrary fates;
But now the same fortune follows the men who have been driven by so many mishaps.
What end do you give, oh great king, of their labors?

245
it mare proruptum et pelago premit arva sonanti.

Antenor was able, having slipped out from the middle of the Greeks
to penetrate the folds of Illyria and safely was able to penetrate the inmost kingdoms of the Liburnians,
and to surpass the source of the Timavis river,
whence through nine mouths a rugged sea goes forth with the great murmur of the moutain
and overwhelms the fields by the resounding sea.

250
navibus (infandum!) amissis, unius ob iram
prodimur atque Italis longe disiungimur oris.
Hic pietatis honos? Sic nos in sceptra reponis?'

However here he located the city of Patavia and the seats of the Teucrians (Trojans),
and gave a name to the race, and estabished Trojan arms;
now composed he rests with a peaceful peace:
but we, your own offspring, to whom you have granted the citadel of the sky,
our ships having been lost (unspeakable!), we are betrayed because of
the anger of one and we are separated far from the Italian shores.
Is this the reward of piety? In this way do you restore us into power?"

Olli subridens hominum sator atque deorum,
voltu, quo caelum tempestatesque serenat, 255
260

Smiling at her the sire of gods and men,
with a face, by which he calms the sky and storms,
touches the mouth of his daughter, then says such things:
"Spare ([yourself]) from fear, Venus: the fates of your people remain unchanged for you;
you shall see the city and the promised walls of Lavinia,
and you will carry to the stars of the sky your great-hearted Aeneas;
no opinion turns me (I haven't changed my mind).

265
ternaque transierint Rutulis hiberna subactis.

(For I shall speak at greater length, since this care bites back at you,
I will move the secrets of the fates [by] turning them): he shall wage a great war
in Italy, and he shall crush ferocious peoples, and he shall place walls and
law/customs for men, while the third age will have seen him ruling over Latium, and third winter
will have passed, the Rutulians having been conquered.

And Ascanius, ([now still]) a boy, to whom the surname Iulus is added - for he was
([called]) Ilus while the Ilian ( the Trojan) government stood in power -- will fulfill thirty great circles (years)
as the months roll by with his rule, and he will transfer the capital from the site of Lavinium and he
will fortify Alba Longa with much power.

(NOTE: Iulus, not Lulus)

275
Romulus excipiet gentem, et Mavortia condet
moenia, Romanosque suo de nomine dicet.

Here now there will be rule/government for three hundred years
under the people of Hector, until a priestess-queen Ilia, pregnant by Mars,
will give a twin offspring by birth. From this point Romulus, happy with the
tawny hide of the she-wolf (who was his nurse) will receive the people,
and he will establish the Walls of Mars (Mavors) and will call them Romans
from his own name.

His ego nec metas rerum nec tempora pono;
imperium sine fine dedi. Quin aspera Iuno,
quae mare nunc terrasque metu caelumque fatigat, 280
consilia in melius referet, mecumque fovebit
Romanos rerum dominos gentemque togatam:

For these I will put neither boundaries of things nor time;
I have given empire without end. Indeed the bitter Juno,
who now tires out the lands and the sky by means of her fear,
restores her plans into a better place, and she will cherish along with me
the Romans, the masters of things and the toga-clad people:

sic placitum. Veniet lustris labentibus aetas,
cum domus Assaraci Phthiam clarasque Mycenas
servitio premet, ac victis dominabitur Argis. 285
Nascetur pulchra Troianus origine Caesar,
imperium oceano, famam qui terminet astris,-
Iulius, a magno demissum nomen Iulo.

thus it is pleasing. A time will come as the seasons roll by,
when the house of Assaracus shall press into servitude Phthia
and famous Mycenae, and will rule over conquered Argus.
A Trojan Caesar will be born from a beautiful origin,
who shall bound his kingdom by the ocean and his fame by the stars,--
Julius, a name derived from great Ascanius (Iulus).

(NOTE: Propaganda alert!)

Hunc tu olim caelo, spoliis Orientis onustum,
accipies secura; vocabitur hic quoque votis. 290
Aspera tum positis mitescent saecula bellis;
cana Fides, et Vesta, Remo cum fratre Quirinus,
Iura dabunt; dirae ferro et compagibus artis
claudentur Belli portae; furor impius intus
saeva sedens super arma et centum vinctus aenis
post tergum nodis fremet horridus ore cruento."

You will receive him securely, as he is burdened with spoils
from the Orient; he will also be called by prayer.
Then the harsh centuries will grow soft with wars put aside;
white-haired fidelity, and Vesta, and Romulus with his borther Remus
will give praise. The terrible Gates of War will be closed with iron and woven chains;
and unholy Rage, sitting upon his savage weapons, chained with a hundred bronze knots
behind his back will roar bristling with his bloody mouth.

Haec ait, et Maia genitum demittit ab alto,
ut terrae, utque novae pateant Karthaginis arces -
hospitio Teucris, ne fati nescia Dido
finibus arceret: volat ille per aera magnum 300
remigio alarum, ac Libyae citus adstitit oris.

He (Jupiter) says this, and he sends the son of Maia (Mercury) from the
heights, so that the lands and the new towers of Carthage should be open
for hospitality to the Trojans, lest Dido, ignorant of her fate,
should ward them off from her boundaries: he (Mercury) flies through the great air
by the rowing of his wings, and he stood quickly at the shores of Libya.

Et iam iussa facit, ponuntque ferocia Poeni
corda volente deo; in primis regina quietum
accipit in Teucros animum mentemque benignam.

And now he is fulfilling the orders, and the Phoenicians are laying aside
their ferocious hearts, god willing; especially the queen is accepting
a benevolent mind and a restful spirit towards the Trojans.

At pius Aeneas, per noctem plurima volvens, 305
ut primum lux alma data est, exire locosque
explorare novos, quas vento accesserit oras,
qui teneant, nam inculta videt, hominesne feraene,
quaerere constituit, sociisque exacta referre.
Classem in convexo nemorum sub rupe cavata 310
arboribus clausam circum atque horrentibus umbris
occulit; ipse uno graditur comitatus Achate,
bina manu lato crispans hastilia ferro.

But pious Aeneas, turning many things [in his mind] through the night,
as soon as the nurturing light is given, he decides to go out and
explore new places, and seek out which shores he approached by means of the wind,
who holds (possesses) them, either men or beasts, for he sees them wild,
and to report back the exacted information to his comrades.
He hides the fleet in the hollow of the grove under a hollowed out rock
so that it is closed in by trees and frightening shadows all around;
he himself proceeds accompanied by Achates alone,
brandishing twin spears with wide iron in his hand.

Cui mater media sese tulit obvia silva,
virginis os habitumque gerens, et virginis arma 315
Spartanae, vel qualis equos Threissa fatigat
Harpalyce, volucremque fuga praevertitur Hebrum.

To whom his mother (Venus) carries herself plainly in the middle of the woods,
wearing the face and garb of a girl, and holding the arms
of a Spartan girl, or the sort of a Thracian girl like Harpalyce, who wears down horses
and outstrips the swift river in her flight.

Namque umeris de more habilem suspenderat arcum
venatrix, dederatque comam diffundere ventis,
nuda genu, nodoque sinus collecta fluentis. 320

For she had hung a handy bow on her shoulders according to custom
as a huntress, and had given her hair to flow in the winds,
bare at the knee, and having collected her flowing
folds ([of the garment]) with a knot.

And she first says, "Hey, young men, show if by chance
you have seen any one of my sisters wandering here
girt with a quiver and a hide of a spotted lynx,
or pressing down on the track of a foaming boar with a shout."

Thus Venus spoke; and thus the son of Venus began, in reply:
"None of your sisters have been seen or heard by me-
Oh girl, what shall I call you? For additionally your face is not
mortal, nor does your voice sound human: Oh, certainly a goddess-
perhaps the sister of Phoebus (Artemis)? Or one of the blood of the nymphs?-

Be happy, lighten our suffering, whoever you are,
and finally teach under what skies or in what shores of the world
we are being tossed. Ignorant of men and places
we wander, driven hither by means of the winds and the vast waves:
many victims will fall to you before the altars by means of our right hand."

Then Venus said: "I hardly deem myself worthy of such honor;
it is the custom for Tyrian girls to wear a quiver,
and it is the custom to bind the ankles high up with purple boots.
You see the Punic kingdom, the Tyrians and the city of Agenor;
but the boundaries are Libyan, a race which is untouchable in war.

Imperium Dido Tyria regit urbe profecta, 340
germanum fugiens. Longa est iniuria, longae
ambages; sed summa sequar fastigia rerum.
'Huic coniunx Sychaeus erat, ditissimus agri
Phoenicum, et magno miserae dilectus amore,
cui pater intactam dederat, primisque iugarat 345
ominibus. Sed regna Tyri germanus habebat
Pygmalion, scelere ante alios immanior omnes.

Dido the Tyrian rules the kingdom having departed from her city,
fleeing her brother. The injury is long, the wanderings are long;
but I will follow the highest peaks of things.
"To this one (Dido), her husband was Sychaeus, wealthiest of the Phoenecians
in fields (or gold), and beloved by the great love of the wretched woman,
to whom the father had given untouched, and he had joined with first rites.
But her brother Pygmalion held the kingdom of Tyre,
more immense before all others in crime.

Quos inter medius venit furor. Ille Sychaeum
impius ante aras, atque auri caecus amore,
clam ferro incautum superat, securus amorum 350
germanae; factumque diu celavit, et aegram,
multa malus simulans, vana spe lusit amantem.

Between whom a middle rage came. He, shameless and blinded with love of gold
and careless of the love of his sister,
overcomes Sychaeus, unsuspecting, before the altars, secretly by means of iron (the sword);
and for a long [time]he hid the deed, and pretending much, the bad man that he was,
he deceived the weary lover with empty hope.

Ipsa sed in somnis inhumati venit imago
coniugis, ora modis attollens pallida miris,
crudeles aras traiectaque pectora ferro 355
nudavit, caecumque domus scelus omne retexit.

But the image itself of the unburied spouse came in dreams (to Dido),
lifting a bloodless face in incredible manners,
and he laid bare the bloody altars and the chest having been pierced with iron,
and he uncovered the entire blind crime of the house.

Tum celerare fugam patriaque excedere suadet,
auxiliumque viae veteres tellure recludit
thesauros, ignotum argenti pondus et auri.

Then he persuades her (Dido) to hasten her flight and withdraw from the fatherland,
and he reveals the old treasures, help for the road, from the land,
an unknown weight of silver and gold.

Dido, moved by these things, prepared her flight and her comrades:
they came together, to whom there was either cruel hatred of the tyrant or sharp fear;
and they snatch the ships, which were prepared by chance, and load them with gold:
the wealth of greedy Pygmalion is carried across the sea;
the woman was the leader of the deed.

Devenere locos, ubi nunc ingentia cernis 365
moenia surgentemque novae Karthaginis arcem,
mercatique solum, facti de nomine Byrsam,
taurino quantum possent circumdare tergo.
Sed vos qui tandem, quibus aut venistis ab oris,
quove tenetis iter? 'Quaerenti talibus ille 370
suspirans, imoque trahens a pectore vocem:

They arrived at places, where now you can see the vast walls
and the rising citadel of new Carthage,
and they purchased the land, [which they called] Byrsa from the name of the deed,
as much land as they were able to surround with the hide of a bull.
But at last, who are you, from which shores have you come,
or what journey do you hold?" He (Aeneas) spoke to the one inquiring such things (Venus),
sighing and carrying his voice from the depths of his chest:

' O dea, si prima repetens ab origine pergam,
et vacet annalis nostrorum audire laborum,
ante diem clauso componet Vesper Olympo.
Nos Troia antiqua, si vestras forte per auris 375
Troiae nomen iit, diversa per aequora vectos
forte sua Libycis tempestas adpulit oris.

"Oh goddess, if I proceed repeating from the first origin,
and if there were leisure to hear the annals of out trials,
then the evening star sooner will lay down the day,
with Olympus having been covered.
If by chance the name of Troy has gone through your ears,
a storm has driven us, carried through many seas by its own chance,
from ancient Troy to the Libyan shores.

Sum pius Aeneas, raptos qui ex hoste Penates
classe veho mecum, fama super aethera notus.
Italiam quaero patriam et genus ab Iove summo. 380.

I am pious Aeneas, known above the ether in (in terms of) fame,
who carry with me the household gods rescued from the enemy by boat.
I seek Italy for a homeland; my race is from highest Jupiter.

Bis denis Phrygium conscendi navibus aequor,
matre dea monstrante viam, data fata secutus;
vix septem convolsae undis Euroque supersunt.
Ipse ignotus, egens, Libyae deserta peragro,
Europa atque Asia pulsus.' Nec plura querentem 385
passa Venus medio sic interfata dolore est:

I embarked upon the Trojan sea with twice ten (twenty) ships,
with my goddess-mother showing the way, following the given fates;
barely seven do survive, wrecked by the waves and by the wind.
I myself wander the desert of Libya, [I], unknown, indigent,
driven from both Europe and Asia." Venus thus interrupts the one complaining
in the middle of his grief, not suffering more:

Quisquis es, haud, credo, invisus caelestibus auras
vitalis carpis, Tyriam qui adveneris urbem.

"Whoever you are, I believe, certainly not envied/hated by the gods,
do you enjoy your vital breath, you who have arrived at the Tyrian city.

Perge modo, atque hinc te reginae ad limina perfer,
Namque tibi reduces socios classemque relatam 390
nuntio, et in tutum versis aquilonibus actam,
ni frustra augurium vani docuere parentes.

Proceed forthwith, and carry yourself hence to the threshold of the queen,
for I announce to you that your comrades are restored and that your fleet has been
brought back, and it has been carried back into safety with the winds having turned,
unless my parents, disappointed, have taught me augury in vain.

Aspice bis senos laetantis agmine cycnos,
aetheria quos lapsa plaga Iovis ales aperto
turbabat caelo; nunc terras ordine longo 395
aut capere, aut captas iam despectare videntur:

Look at the twice-six (twelve) swans rejoicing in their line,
which the bird of Jupiter (eagle), having fallen through region of the upper air, was agitating
in the open sky; now they seem either to seize the land
in a long line, or to look down upon the captives:

ut reduces illi ludunt stridentibus alis,
et coetu cinxere polum, cantusque dedere,
haud aliter puppesque tuae pubesque tuorum
aut portum tenet aut pleno subit ostia velo. 400
Perge modo, et, qua te ducit via, dirige gressum.'

as they, having returned, play with their wings rustling,
and they have encircled the heaven with their coming together, and they have given their song,
in the same way both your ships (sterns) and the youth of your people
either hold the port or approach the mouth of the port with their sails full.
Go on now, and, wherever the road takes you, direct your step."

Dixit, et avertens rosea cervice refulsit,
ambrosiaeque comae divinum vertice odorem
spiravere, pedes vestis defluxit ad imos,
et vera incessu patuit dea. Ille ubi matrem 405
agnovit, tali fugientem est voce secutus:
'Quid natum totiens, crudelis tu quoque, falsis
ludis imaginibus? Cur dextrae iungere dextram
non datur, ac veras audire et reddere voces?'

She spoke, and turning away she shone with her rosy neck,
and the ambrosial locks breathed a divine scent from the top of her head,
the dress flowed down to the bottom of her feet,
and she came to light by her step as a true goddess. He, when he
recognized his mother, with such a voice, he followed (addressed) the fleeing [one]:
"Why do you play your son with false images so often, you also who are cruel?
Why is it not given to join right [hand] to right [hand], and to hear and respond with true voices?"

He blames her with such [words], and aims his step (approaches) at the walls (city):
but Venus encloses the walkers surrounding them
with much covering of clouds,
lest anyone might be able to see them nor lest anyone might be able to touch them,
or to create a delay or to ask the causes of their coming.

Ipsa Paphum sublimis abit, sedesque revisit 415 She (Venus) goes up to Paphos and happi[ly] revisits her seat [of power],
laeta suas, ubi templum illi, centumque Sabaeo
ture calent arae, sertisque recentibus halant.

where there is a temple for her, and where the hundred altars grow warm with Sabaean (Persian) incense and breathe out with fresh garlands.

Corripuere viam interea, qua semita monstrat.
Iamque ascendebant collem, qui plurimus urbi
imminet, adversasque adspectat desuper arces. 420
Miratur molem Aeneas, magalia quondam,
miratur portas strepitumque et strata viarum.

They, meanwhile, picked up the path (pace), where the path showed [the way].
Now they were [beginning to] climb the hill, which most hung over the city,
and they view citadels opposite [them] from above.
Aeneas admires the mass/size, [which] once [were] huts; he admires the gates and the noise and the pavements of the roads.

Instant ardentes Tyrii pars ducere muros,
molirique arcem et manibus subvolvere saxa,
pars optare locum tecto et concludere sulco;

The passionate Tyrians press on (with their work), some building the walls,
and working on the citadel, and rolling rocks with their hands,
others choosing a place for the roof [of a temple] and enclosing it with a trench;
they choose laws, and officers and a holy senate.
Here others are digging out/dredging ports; here others placing deep foundations for theaters,
and they cut out huge columns from the crags,
[to become] suitable decorations for future stages/plays.

Qualis apes aestate nova per florea rura 430
435
fervet opus, redolentque thymo fragrantia mella.
'O fortunati, quorum iam moenia surgunt!'

Like labor bears down on bees under the sun at the new summer (the beginning of the summer)
through the flowery fields, when they bring forth the grown-up offspring of the race,
or when they store the flowing honey
and stretch the chambers with sweet nectar,
or receiving burdens of those coming, or, a line having been formed,
they ward off the drones, a lazy bunch, from the hives:
the work roils, the fragrant honey smells of thyme.
"O fortunate ones, whose walls are already rising!"

Aeneas ait, et fastigia suspicit urbis.
Infert se saeptus nebula, mirabile dictu,
per medios, miscetque viris, neque cernitur ulli. 440

So says Aeneas, and looks at the peaks of the city.
He carries himself in through the middle (of the crowd), wondrous to tell,
wrapped in a cloud, and mixes with men and is not seen by anyone.

L ucus in urbe fuit media, laetissimus umbra,
quo primum iactati undis et turbine Poeni
effodere loco signum, quod regia Iuno
monstrarat, caput acris equi; sic nam fore bello
egregiam et facilem victu per saecula gentem. 445

There was a wood in the middle of the city, very happy with respect to shade,
where at first the Phoenicians, tossed by the waves and the whirlwind,
excavated a sign for the place, which queenly Juno
had shown them, the head of a sharp/spirited horse; in this way the race
would be outstanding in war and easy (comfortable) with respect to life through the ages.

Here Sidonian Dido founded a huge temple to Juno,
rich in gifts and the power of the goddess,
whose bronze thresholds were rising in steps,
and the timber was bound with bronze, (and) the hinge was creaking with bronze doors.

Hoc primum in luco nova res oblata timorem 450
leniit, hic primum Aeneas sperare salutem
ausus, et adflictis melius confidere rebus.

A new thing, offered up the first time in this grove, soothed
his fear and here for the first time Aeneas dared to hope for
safety, and to confide better in difficult situations.

Namque sub ingenti lustrat dum singula templo,
reginam opperiens, dum, quae fortuna sit urbi,
artificumque manus inter se operumque laborem 455
miratur, videt Iliacas ex ordine pugnas,
bellaque iam fama totum volgata per orbem,
Atridas, Priamumque, et saevum ambobus Achillem.
Constitit, et lacrimans, 'Quis iam locus' inquit 'Achate,
quae regio in terris nostri non plena laboris? 460

For a while he surveys individual things at the huge temple,
waiting for the queen, while he wonders what might be the fortune
of the city at the troops of artists among themselves and the toil of these works,
he sees the Trojan battles in a row, and he sees the wars already
made vulgar (known) through the world by means of fame (rumor),
he sees the sons of Atreus and Priam, and Achilles who was savage to both.
He freezes (stands still) by, and, crying, says, "What place, Achates, what region
in the earth now is not full of our labors?

Look, Priam! Here are his rewards for praise - there are tears of things,
and mortal matters touch the mind. Lay aside your fears: this fame will bring some
safety (salvation) to you." Thus he speaks, and he feeds his mind on the empty picture,
groaning much, and moistens his face with a big stream (tears).

Namque videbat, uti bellantes Pergama circum
hac fugerent Graii, premeret Troiana iuventus,
hac Phryges, instaret curru cristatus Achilles.

For he was looking at how the battling Greeks around Troy
were fleeing on this side, how the Trojan youth were pressing,
on this side the Phrygians were pressing, and crested Achilles was pressing on with his chariot.

Nec procul hinc Rhesi niveis tentoria velis
adgnoscit lacrimans, primo quae prodita somno 470
Tydides multa vastabat caede cruentus,
ardentisque avertit equos in castra, prius quam
pabula gustassent Troiae Xanthumque bibissent.

Not far from here, crying, he recognized the tents of Rhesus
with their snowy white drapery, whose [tents] having been betrayed at the first moment of sleep,
cruel Tydides destroyed with [them] much slaughter,
and he turned the spirited horses (Rhesus' horses) towards the camps, before they ate
the food of Troy and drank from the Xanthus.

NOTE: There was an oracle who proclaimed that Troy could not be captured if Rhesus' horses ever drank of the waters of the Xanthus river or ate the grass of Trojan meadows. Odysseus and Diomedes, however, gave them a surprise attack while they were sleeping, before Rhesus' horses were able to do these things. (The story was included in Homer's Iliad, Book 10)

Parte alia fugiens amissis Troilus armis,
infelix puer atque impar congressus Achilli, 475
fertur equis, curruque haeret resupinus inani,
lora tenens tamen; huic cervixque comaeque trahuntur
per terram, et versa pulvis inscribitur hasta.

On the other part, Troilus, his arms having been lost,
unlucky boy, fleeing, and unequal in match to Achilles,
is carried by the horses, on his back he clings to the empty chariot,
at least holding the reins; his neck and hair are dragged through the ground,
and the dust is written on with the spear inverted.

Interea ad templum non aequae Palladis ibant
crinibus Iliades passis peplumque ferebant, 480
suppliciter tristes et tunsae pectora palmis;
diva solo fixos oculos aversa tenebat.
Ter circum Iliacos raptaverat Hectora muros,
exanimumque auro corpus vendebat Achilles.

Meanwhile the Trojan women with their hair disheveled were going
to the temple of Minerva, who was averse to them, and carried a robe humbly,
sad, and having beaten their chests with their hands;
the goddess having turned away was holding her eyes fixed on the ground.
Achilles had dragged Hector around the Trojan walls three times,
and he was selling the lifeless body for gold.

Then truly he gives a great groan from the depths of his chest,
when he sees the spoils, the chariots, and the body of his friend itself,
and Priam extending his unarmed hands.
He recognizes himself as well mixed among the Greek chieftains,
and the battle lines of the East and the arms of black Memnon.

Ducit Amazonidum lunatis agmina peltis 490
Penthesilea furens, mediisque in milibus ardet,
aurea subnectens exsertae cingula mammae,
bellatrix, audetque viris concurrere virgo.

Penthesilea raging, leads the battle lines of the Amazons
with their crescent shaped shields, and she shines out in the midst of thousands,
tying a golden belt under her exposed breast.

Haec dum Dardanio Aeneae miranda videntur,
dum stupet, obtutuque haeret defixus in uno, 495
regina ad templum, forma pulcherrima Dido,
incessit magna iuvenum stipante caterva.

These things, while they are seen, which ought to be seen, by Trojan Aeneas,
while he is in a stupor, and sticks fastened in one stare,
the queen Dido most beautiful with respect to her figure walked
into the temple with a large group of young men crowding her.

Qualis in Eurotae ripis aut per iuga Cynthi
exercet Diana choros, quam mille secutae
hinc atque hinc glomerantur oreades; illa pharetram 500
fert umero, gradiensque deas supereminet omnis:
(Latonae tacitum pertemptant gaudia pectus):

Like Artemis trains her choruses on the banks of the Eurotas
or through the peaks of Cynthos, whom a thousand wood-nymphs,
having followed her, cluster onto; she herself carries
a quiver on her shoulder, and stepping, she towers above all the goddesses:
(the delights tempt the silent breast of Leto):

Talis erat Dido, talem se laeta ferebat
per medios, instans operi regnisque futuris.
Tum foribus divae, media testudine templi, 505
saepta armis, solioque alte subnixa resedit.

Such was Dido, such did she carry herself happily
through the crowd, pressing on with her work and her future kingdoms.
Then she, by the gates of the goddess, wrapped in arms, and
in the middle of the temple and on the throne she sits high up, resting.

I ura dabat legesque viris, operumque laborem
partibus aequabat iustis, aut sorte trahebat:
cum subito Aeneas concursu accedere magno
Anthea Sergestumque videt fortemque Cloanthum, 510
Teucrorumque alios, ater quos aequore turbo
dispulerat penitusque alias avexerat oras.

She was giving (proclaiming) laws to men and dividing into fair parts
the work of the ([building]) projects, or she was drawing the lots:
when suddenly Aeneas sees that Antheus, Sergestus and brave Cloanthus are
approaching in a great crowd, and others of the Trojans, whom the dark whirlwind
had scattered on the water and had carried away far to other shores.

Obstipuit simul ipse simul percussus Achates
laetitiaque metuque; avidi coniungere dextras
ardebant; sed res animos incognita turbat. 515
Dissimulant, et nube cava speculantur amicti,
quae fortuna viris, classem quo litore linquant,
quid veniant; cunctis nam lecti navibus ibant,
orantes veniam, et templum clamore petebant.

He was dumbstruck himself, and at the same time Achates was dumbstruck
by happiness and fear; eager(ly) they were burning to join right hands; but the
unknown situation troubled their minds. They pretend, and wrapped in a hollow cloud
they espy what fortune (there was) for the men, on what shore they left the fleet and
why they came: for chosen from all the ships they went, praying a pardon/favor,
and they were seeking the temple in a shout.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Arma virumque cano, Troiae qui primus ab oris Italiam, fato profugus, Laviniaque venit litora, multum ille et terris iactatus et alto vi superum saevae memorem Iunonis ob iram; I sing [of] arms and the man, who first exiled by fate, came to Italy and to the Lavinian shores from the shores of Troy, thrown much on both land and sea by the force of the gods on account of the mindful anger of cruel Juno.

# data[].attributes.body
Este video provee las respuestas para muchas preguntas complejas, por ejemplo:

¿Cómo se cambian y evolucionan las lenguas? ¿Cómo se puede distinguir las lenguas? Es fascinante que la evolución y desarrollo de una miríada de las lenguas a veces son parecidos.

# data[].attributes.body
“Pompeii” de Bastille es una canción conocida; a mí me gusta mucho para sus letras que haga pensar—y también porque la historia de la ciudad en cuestión es muy trágica también. Esta versión latín ofrece un ambiente muy misterioso y auténtico.

# data[].attributes.body
Huelga decir, la lengua española tiene una historia muy rica; este video ofrece una lección breve pero sucinta sobre los efectos de influencias externas en la lengua, como los del latín, el árabe, etcétera. Se estima que en el año 2050, 10% de la población sería capaz de hablar en español.

# data[].attributes.body
Este sitio es muy útil, especialmente cuando trabajando con oraciones más largas o complejas. Sin duda, usaré cuando quiero organizar las oraciones ya mencionados en una manera eficiente y presta.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
An app for producing linguistics syntax trees from labelled bracket notation.

# data[].attributes.body
Según este artículo, los cantos de los pájaros (o más específicamente los de ‘parus major' japonés) podrían tener significados/intenciones; no solamente son canciones bonitas, pero un medio de comunicación. Ellos utilizan una variedad de sintaxis (sonidos) en sus cantos para contextos diferentes.

# data[].attributes.body
La sintaxis podría utilizarse como recurso literario, especialmente en poesía. Muchas veces, un verso de un poema podría ser más hermoso o impresionable con el uso de sintaxis distintas. Por ejemplo, el poema “Beyond Decoration” (escrito por P.J. Kavanagh), contiene un verso como: “Go out I cannot” para enfatizar la palabra más importante—cannot.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Definition of Syntax

Syntax is the arrangement of words into a sentence that make sense in a given language. Syntax also refers to the rules and principles that govern sentence structure in a language, i.e., how words and phrases may be joined. Syntax therefore is not a strictly literary device, but instead is part of every utterance and written line, and even the majority of thoughts. Though linguists have looked for syntactical rules that are universal in every language, it is now clear that there is no "natural way" to express a thought. Syntax varies widely in different languages.

The word syntax comes from the Ancient Greek word syntaxis, which means to arrange or put in order.

Difference Between Syntax and Diction

Syntax and diction are both equally integral parts of the formation of meaning into sentences. However, diction refers to the meanings of the words used while syntax refers to the arrangement of words. An author must make choices of both diction and syntax to properly convey a certain voice, and the two concepts together create a unique style for the author. One tip for remembering the difference is that "dictionary" begins with "diction," both associated with the meanings of words.

Common Examples of Syntax

As stated above in the definition of syntax, every proper grammatical sentence or utterance is an example of syntax. Here are some examples of how syntax governs English.

Agreement: She is a person. versus She am a person.

Case: He took me to the restaurant. versus He took I to the restaurant.

Reflexive pronouns: I bought myself a new shirt. versus I bought my a new shirt.

Word order: We ate fish for dinner. versus For dinner ate we fish.

Note again that these are all very specific to English. Other languages may have similar syntactical phenomena, but different applications and possibilities. For example, in German there must be agreement between the gender of the word "the" with the noun-either der, die, or das. German also allows for many different word order possibilities than English. The example of "For dinner ate we fish" would actually be an acceptable word order in German.

Significance of Syntax in Literature

Syntax is clearly quite necessary in literature, and yet writers often take more liberties with syntax than other language users. Poets are especially known for playing with syntax, rearranging words into unusual orders. Syntax has also changed over time, and what was once common is now obscure, such as the form "wert thou" instead of "were you." Literature has thus helped linguists study syntax across cultures and time periods, leading to greater understanding of how people think.

Examples of Syntax in Literature

Example #1

Love will not be constrain'd by mastery.
When mast'ry comes, the god of love anon
Beateth his wings, and, farewell, he is gone.
Love is a thing as any spirit free.

( The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer)

This syntax example comes from a translation of Geoffrey Chaucer's Middle English masterpiece The Canterbury Tales. Indeed, even though it is modernized it still carries hints of the Middle English syntax. For example, we can see the agreement of the subject "the god of love" and the verb "beateth." The final line has an unusual arrangement of words: "Love is a thing as any spirit free." However, Chaucer has still chosen an arrangement that makes sense to an English-speaking reader. He is saying that love is like a free spirit, but in a more poetic way.

Example #2

ARIEL: Full fathom five thy father lies.
Of his bones are coral made.
Those are pearls that were his eyes.
Nothing of him that doth fade,
But doth suffer a sea-change
Into something rich and strange.
Sea-nymphs hourly ring his knell

( The Tempest by William Shakespeare)

This example of syntax comes from Ariel's song in Shakespeare's The Tempest. The first line "full fathom five thy father lies" is a unique inverse of what a person might say in normal speech-"Your father is buried at sea five fathoms down." The way the Shakespeare wrote it, however, creates both alliteration of the "f" sound as well as assonance between "five" and "lies." This arrangement also puts the stress on almost every syllable, making it sound very rhythmic and strong. The rest of the excerpt contains interesting syntactical choices, such as the inverse arrangement in "Of his bones are coral made." Shakespeare's syntax is a key part of what makes his works so poetic and so memorable.

Example #3

The woman brought two glasses of beer and two felt pads. She put the felt pads and the beer glass on the table and looked at the man and the girl. The girl was looking off at the line of hills. They were white in the sun and the country was brown and dry.
'They look like white elephants,' she said.
'I've never seen one,' the man drank his beer.
'No, you wouldn't have.'
'I might have,' the man said. 'Just because you say I wouldn't have doesn't prove anything.'

("Hills Like White Elephants" by Ernest Hemingway)

Ernest Hemingway was famous for his short, declarative sentences. He rarely even used adjectives and almost never used adverbs. In this famous story, "Hills Like White Elephants," an unnamed man and girl sit talking. The entire story seems very straightforward, and yet there is a very serious subtext. Hemingway's choice to use the most basic construction of sentences belies the seriousness of the subject about which the man and girl are speaking.

Example #4

Now there is one thing I can tell you: you will enjoy certain pleasures you would not fathom now. When you still had your mother you often thought of the days when you would have her no longer. Now you will often think of days past when you had her. When you are used to this horrible thing that they will forever be cast into the past, then you will gently feel her revive, returning to take her place, her entire place, beside you. At the present time, this is not yet possible. Let yourself be inert, wait till the incomprehensible power ... that has broken you restores you a little, I say a little, for henceforth you will always keep something broken about you. Tell yourself this, too, for it is a kind of pleasure to know that you will never love less, that you will never be consoled, that you will constantly remember more and more.

(1907 letter from Marcel Proust to his friend Georges de Lauris)

Compare the syntax of this letter with Hemingway's syntax in Example #3. While Hemingway was known for short and simple sentences, Marcel Proust's works were famously obtuse and ornate. This letter that Proust wrote to a friend after the death of the friend's mother is indicative of his syntactical style. He writes of more abstract concepts in longer sentences that contain several clauses. However, it is just as easy to understand his meaning as in the Hemingway example.

Example #5

I CELEBRATE myself, and sing myself,
And what I assume you shall assume,
For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you.

I loafe and invite my soul,
I lean and loafe at my ease observing a spear of summer grass.

("Song of Myself" by Walt Whitman)

As like many poets, Walt Whitman bends the rules of straightforward syntax to create more interesting lines. For example, the third line in this poem uses an interesting word order: "For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you." Of course, in this example, he means, "belongs to you as well," but has transformed the usage just enough to make this line stand out to the reader. Throughout his long poem "Song of Myself," Whitman continues to play with syntax so that his lines require more thought and contain more beauty.

Test Your Knowledge of Syntax

1. Choose the correct syntax definition from the following statements:
A. The study of word order.
B. A universal language that all people understand.
C. Rules that govern sentence structure in a given language.

2. Which syntactical phenomenon explains why the following sentence in English is incorrect?

She like cookies and ice cream.

3. Consider the following line:

'I feel fine,' she said. 'There's nothing wrong with me. I feel fine.'

Based on the previous examples, would you guess this is syntax from Shakespeare, Hemingway, or Proust?
A. Shakespeare
B. Hemingway
C. Proust

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Syntax Examples and Definition - Literary Devices

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Syntax is the arrangement of words into a sentence that make sense in a given language. Syntax also refers to the rules and principles that govern sentence structure in a language, i.e., how words and phrases may be joined.

# data[].attributes.body
Frecuentemente los escritores de novelas, películas, obras, etc. utilizan varias maneras de hablar para desarrollar y avivar sus personajes—peculiaridades que los hacen únicos. Por ejemplo, algunos personajes podrían tener acentos extraños. Yoda de Star Wars es otro caso típico; su sintaxis (‘OSV’) es raro y un poco chistoso, pero adorable también, p. ej. “Much to learn, you still have.”

# data[].attributes.headline
Spanish Nouns Whose Meanings Change with Gender

# data[].attributes.subject
Spanish Nouns Whose Meanings Change with Gender

# data[].attributes.body
Así como aprendimos en clase, el “género” es más complicado de lo que pensamos. Por ejemplo, muchos sustantivos podrían tener significados que cambian con el género (“el batería” traduce a ‘male drummer,’ mientras que “la batería” significa ‘battery,’ o ‘female drummer’; “el mañana” = ‘future,’ “la mañana” = ‘morning’).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Nearly all nouns in Spanish are always masculine or always feminine. But there are a few nouns that can be of either gender.

In most cases, those are the nouns describing what people do for a living, and the gender varies with the person the word stands for. Thus, for example, el dentista refers to a male dentist, while la dentista refers to a female dentist. Un artista is a male artist, while una artista is a female artist.

Most of the occupational words that follow this pattern end in -ista. One common exception is atleta: un atleta is a male athlete, while una atleta is a female athlete.

When Gender Affects Meaning

But there are a few nouns where the matter of gender is more complicated. Those are the nouns whose meanings vary depending on the gender of articles or adjectives used with them. Here is a list of the most common such words; Only the basic or most usual meanings are included here.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
37 Spanish Nouns Whose Meanings Change With Gender

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Nearly all nouns in Spanish are always masculine or always feminine. But there are a few nouns that can be of either gender. In most cases, those are the nouns describing what people do for a living, and the gender varies with the person the word stands for.

# data[].attributes.body
Los seres humanos tienen la capacidad única/innata para aprender lenguas, lo que (probablemente) no ocurre con los animales. Aquí tengo un artículo interesante sobre los estilos de comunicación en animales.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
There are about five thousand mutually unintelligible forms of language spoken on the Earth today. Although these languages differ strikingly in their phonological, morphological and syntactic structure, each and every language serves to express a virtually unlimited variety of old and new experience. Each and every language can express any thought the human mind can devise. In this way no human group possesses a primitive or incomplete language. And each living language is constantly changing as speakers easily adapt it to new circumstances (cf. Navajo words for automobile parts). Human creativity continually shapes language, and structural differences between languages do not seem to limit the thought patterns of native speakers in any fundamental or permanent way.

One way to better understand the apparently unique creative potential of human language is to contrast it with systems of communication found elsewhere in nature. The differences between animal and human communication, as we shall see, are profound, but all the differences seem to derive from a single basic fact: Humans possess a natural, inborn facility to be creative with symbols; as far as we know, animals do not. (I say this not because I want to disparage animals or condone their mistreatment. I do not. I like animals--especially cats.) I only want to say that if animals do actually think creatively, or if they have the potential to acquire human-style creative languages, this capacity is not evident in their naturally-occurring systems of communication. And attempts to teach animals to communicate creativity with human-made symbols have so far shown little real success; occasional claims to the contrary have not been substantiated.

Let's first look at three specific systems of animal communication to examine more closely the implications of these difference between animals and humans. Let's talk about birds, bees, and apes.

Birds have two types of sound signals-- calls and songs.

Bird calls consist of one or more short notes and seem to be instinctive responses to danger, nesting, flocking and a few other basic situations. The English sparrow has three flight calls-- one used just before takeoff, another during flight, and one just before landing at a nesting site. Sparrows have two types of danger calls, one to announce that a predator is nearby--like an owl in a tree-- and the other to announce that a predator is soaring overhead. These calls seem intended to coordinate group activity in specific situations. The meanings of these signs constitute a small, finite set which can't be increased. And bird calls cannot be varied to produce variations of meaning.

Bird songs are used primarily by males to attract mates or establish territory. Bird songs are limited to these and only these functions. Although bird songs are longer than bird calls, their internal elements aren't separable into meaningful units and cannot be rearranged to produce new songs.

Interestingly, although bird songs are inborn, and young birds naturally begin producing them at a certain age even if raised away from their species, the fledgling bird must experience adult songs to reproduce the song perfectly. If the fledgling is deprived of this input it will grow up to produce the song naturally anyway, but with marked imperfections. [This is radically different from how human children acquire and use words. Children will not naturally develop the word "apple" unless they hear it first and then repeat it; they will not, without ever hearing it, naturally develop a degraded version of the word "apple" or of any other word.) The specific words of human languages are acquired through exposure and are definitely not inborn.]

Let's turn to what is in some ways a more complex system of communication. The honeybee system of communication consist of dances performed on the wall of the hive. In the 1960's Karl von Frisch discovered that the Italian honeybee performs three types of dances on the wall of the hive to communicate to other bees the source of nectar.

1) The round dance is performed to indicate that the source of nectar is within 20 feet of the hive; the richness of the source is indicated by intensity of movement and by the number of repetition; direction from the hive is not indicated.

2) The sickle dance is performed to indicate that the source of nectar is within 20-60 feet from the hive; again, the richness of the source is indicated by intensity of movement; the angle with respect to gravity denotes the direction in relation to the sun.

3) The tail-wagging dance is performed to indicate that the source of nectar is beyond 60 feet from the hive (80 feet in the Austrian honeybee). It imparts all the information of the sickle dance plus indicates the precise distance by the number of repetitions per minute--the slower the repetition the farther the distance.

The bees system of communication is capable of yielding an infinite number of different messages, like human language. But unlike human language, bee communication is confined to a single subject: the location of nectar with respect to the hive. Bees can only report the location of nectar recently detected; they cannot reminisce about a wonderful source of nectar found last week or convey parental worries about the work habits of younger generations of bees; they cannot predict nectar sources. Nor can bees vary their message to convey additional information which is crucial for finding nectar, such as hardships discovered en route to a source of nectar. In an experiment, one bee was tricked by being made to walk in a tube 25 feet to a particularly rich source of nectar; when she returned to the hive, this bee performed the tail-wagging dance, expressing that the honey was hundreds of feet from the hive--which would have been correct if the bee had spent the same amount of time flying to the source instead of walking there.

Novice bees returning from their first nectar foray instinctively know how to perform the dance--just like a newborn baby instinctively knows how to cry and later instinctively develops the smile reflex. The bees' dance is basically an instinct-driven response to an external stimuli-- like our laughter, sneezes, or tears but unlike our words.

What about ape communication? Many people think that primates are at a level of development only a few steps below that of humans. In some parts of Indonesia people believe that apes don't speak because they know that if they did humans would put them to work. As it turns out, ape communication is no closer to human language than the systems of bees and birds--it is a strictly limited, non-creative system.

First of all, the social context of primate communication in the wild is completely different than for humans.

a) Among apes communication generally takes place within a single social group composed of members of both sexes and of disparate ages, who have spent most or all of their lives together. Attempts at communication between complete strangers is very rare.

b) Primates, as a rule, have very good eyesight and much of their communication is accomplished in gestures or body language. To show dominance, a primate has a relaxed posture and walks with a sort of swagger. The timid primate, by contrast, is tense and walks with its back arched as if to spring away at any moment.

c) The meaning of gestures differs from species to species, even slightly from group to group among the same species. Monkeys use a grimace to signal aggression and hostility, while chimpanzees bare their teeth as a form of greeting or reassurance. One species of primates raised within the community of another species will come to comprehend the other primate's signals but will only produce the signals of its own species. This seems to indicate that primate communication systems, like those of bees and birds, are largely instinctive rather than learned.

Let's generalize the similarities and differences between human and animal communication?

Similarity. All systems of communication contain signs, units of form with specific meaning (words). Human languages contain sound symbols called words; animal systems use more varied formal media, but each form is a sign conveying definite meaning.

a) Foxes have a system of 20 vocalizations.

b) Electric eels have a system of electric pulse signals

c) Spiders have an elaborate system of courtship gestures.

d) Scents and smells serve as signals for many other species.

Differences. For animals, the form of the signal may be visual, auditory, olfactory, but each animal system differs entirely from all human languages in six key ways.

1) The signs of animal systems are inborn. Birds, apes and bees naturally and instinctively develop their species' signals, even if raised in captivity and away from adults of their own species. Humans must acquire language through exposure to a speech community (cf. example of children picking up obscenities vs. a child getting a new tooth). A Korean child adopted and raised in America won't spontaneously develop Korean words or sentences in an all-English speaking environment--or naturally develop a degraded form of Korean. The words of human languages are definitely not inborn. Rather, it seems that it is the capacity to acquire creative language which is innate to humans. (Linguist Noam Chomsky calls this still mysterious capacity the LAD, or language acquisition device.) The actual form of any particular language is definitely not inborn and must be acquired through prolonged exposure. No linguist disputes the fact that a child of any ethnic origin can learn any language flawlessly if raised in a community where that language is spoken. In acquiring a human language, exposure to a speech community is all important; racial or ethnic origin in themselves are completely unimportant.

2) Animal systems are set responses to stimuli. Animal communication is here and now--used to express something more or less immediately present in space and time. In other words, the signs of animal communication are used as indexes. As far as we know, animals can't communicate about yesterday, about what might be or what wasn't. In this way animal communication systems are not unlike the repertoire of sounds of a 12 month old infant, who has a way of conveying interest in something immediately present, or conveying emotional responses such as discontent, loneliness, and a few other basic states of being.

Human language is not purely a reflex triggered automatically by external stimuli or internal emotional states. Human language can be used as an index, just like animal communication, but it may also exhibit what has been termed displacement. Humans can not only talk about things that are absent but also about things that have never been. Humans can invent myths and tell lies. Human language can be used arbitrarily, with the stimulus deep within the speaker's psyche and the topic not present or even non-existent. Animal languages can only be used as a means of pointing to something directly present in time and space.

3) In animal systems, each signal has one and only one function. More than one sign cannot share the same meaning. For example, gorillas in the wild have three types of signals which express danger, presence of food, and desire for sex. The gibbon system of communication consists of three signals: a signal for danger on the ground, another for danger in a tree, and another for danger in the air; these three do not overlap in meaning and each meaning can only be expressed by that one sign.

In contrast the signs in human language usually have more than one meaning; and each meaning can be expressed by more than one sign (example with the word eye).

4) Animal signals are not naturally used in novel ways. Animal systems are essentially non-creative. They cannot be used metaphorically or figuratively. As far as we know, animals can't lie or invent myths.

Human language is creative and can be used in novel ways. Two-year old children can produce novel utterances they have never heard before (* sheeps, * Daddy gived the book). By three, children regularly produce sentences they have never heard before and regularly use words in new, creative ways. Messages can be sent that have never been heard before by the sender or by anyone else. Human languages are infinitely creative in that a potentially limitless number of messages can be sent.

Unlike animals, humans can lie, they can use language to distort or extend the world around them. Animal communication is based on a limited inventory of signs. If you learn the set of signals and their meaning then you know the system completely; there is no creativity for extending it further. This is not the case with human language. If you were to learn the entire set of words in any human language, you would still not know the language.

5) Because they are non-creative, animal systems are closed inventories of signs used to express a few specific messages only. Honeybees, for instance, can communicate only about the location of a source of nectar. As far as we know, bees do not communicate about the weather or the beauty of nature, or gossip about other bees in the hive.

Human language is unlimited in its expressive capacity. Besides containing word symbols, human languages are based a system of patterns, or rules, called grammar.

Grammar can be defined as patterns with function but no specific meaning: phonology (new sound combinations), morphology (new words), syntax (new sentences). It is the grammar that allows language signs to be used with virtually endless creatively.

Animal systems is limited to a strictly defined, finite range of possible messages--there is never anything new because there is no abstract level similar to human grammar.

6) Because they are non-creative, animal systems seem not to change from generation to generation. Actually, they change extremely slowly, over periods of many thousands of years, but as a result of genetic drift rather than conscious innovation. (Compare the dialects of the American redwing blackbird, and the dialects of the European honeybee).

Because it is a vehicle for creativity, human language is very changeable. Human language often changes quickly from generation to generation. If you read Shakespeare, who wrote in the 16th century, you will note that the use and meaning of many words has changed. If you were to read Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, written a few centuries earlier, you would need to consult a dictionary of Middle English to get through the text. And if you tried to read Beowulf in the original, you would understand almost nothing; even a dictionary wouldn't be enough to get you through the text. The English spoken 1000 years ago would seem a completely foreign language, at least as unintelligible to you as German or Icelandic. And roughly 7000 years ago, the ancestors of such different languages as English, Italian, and Russian were simply dialects of the one and the same language. And 40,000 years ago it is possible that the ancestral forms of such disparate languages as Basque, Navajo, and Chinese may have been dialects of the same language.

Animal languages also change, but they change with the slowness of genetic drift. The minute differences between the dialects of the European honeybee language, by contrast took perhaps 100,000 years to develop. Human language changes more than that even during the lifetime of each individual speaker (cf.: computer terminology; such terms as "to impact," "to pig out"; also the changing pronunciation of wh). Human language is constantly in flux; animal systems are extremely stable.

What conclusions can we draw about naturally occurring animal communication? We can say that the signs of animal communication are more like inborn and involuntary human reactions such as laughter, crying, and sneezing than they are like human language. As far as we know humans have always had laughter and tears as natural inborn responses--children develop them naturally and they don't change from generation to generation--although, even here, humans can use these responses deliberately and creatively, or suppress their naturally-felt urges to express them.

TEACHING ANIMALS CREATIVE LANGUAGE. Animals clearly do not have creative communication which could be called true language. But can animals be taught to use creative human-style languages? This question is still debated by linguists and natural scientists--but the answer is probably no. Let's look at some of the evidence for and against the presence of latent creative linguistic ability in animals.

Some birds have an almost uncanny capacity for mimicry. Mockingbirds imitate the songs of other birds. Parrots and mynah birds can render perfect imitations of the human voice. This shows that the difference between human and animal languages is not due merely to the specific structure of the human speech organs which animals lack. Mynah bird can repeat " dad" and " bad" but cannot produce a novel utterance " dab" by creatively rearranging the elements in the former two words. In order to produce " dab" the parrot would have to hear it and respond to it as a stimulus. A two-year old child, by contrast, can invent new utterances based on the elements of the ones he has already heard. A parrot, on the other hand, can repeat " cat" and " cats", " dog" and " dogs", but if it hears the word "parrot" it will not be able to produce the form " parrots" by analogy. (There is a report of an African gray parrot in Chicago who can form plurals creatively, and says " Hello" and " Good-bye" at the appropriate time. This seems to be a highly unusual instance if it is true.)

Let's compare how children naturally form plurals of nouns creatively. One child psychologist performed experiment with three-year old children: showed a picture and called it a wug, then showed several of them. The children all produced the plural " wugs".

This experiment seems to prove that the difference between human and animal languages is in the brain rather than due to the specific structure of the speech organs. If bird calls were put to use by humans they could be used creatively and would cease being set responses to certain stimuli only. On the contrary, if human signs are used by parrots, they seem to be used as single isolated responses to things present at the moment. In other words, they are indexes (indices) used telegraphically.

What about apes? Can humans teach apes to use language creatively? Unlike certain birds, apes clearly lack the vocal cord apparatus necessary to imitate the actual sounds of human speech. This is irrelevant, though, since the true language organ is the brain. Is there a latent language capacity in the brains of our closest evolutionary cousins? Once again, scientists disagree, although experimentation so far suggests that apes have only very minor amounts of ability to be creative with human-taught symbols.

a) In an experiment, two linguists from Berkeley, Beatrice and Allen Gartner tried to teach a female chimp Washou to communicate using colored blocks. By the age of 6 Washou had learned 100 signs but couldn't put them together in novel ways or use them in the absence of the given stimulus. In other words, each symbol was used as an index.

b) Certain other experiments however, seem to indicate, that apes, given extensive teaching and training by skilled scientists, evince a limited capacity to be creative with symbols. (One ape supposedly signed that a bagel was a "rock bracelet".) However, apes seem incapable of acquiring a true grammar--a set of functional patterns that can express unlimited meaning.

Human children, by contrast, learn language without being deliberately taught by anyone at all. Even severely retarded children acquire language spontaneously from adults without any special teaching. Thus we must conclude that animals--even the most clever apes, and, yes, even cats, lack the cognitive mental apparatus to be infinitely creative with communicative symbols. Humans--all humans--are distinguished from all other species by an innate capacity acquire grammar and create language.

And yet, linguists and psychologists still do not understand precisely what this human language learning apparatus is. The question remains a subject of intense scientific scrutiny and debate. One aspect of that debate is--if humans evolved from apes--then how could creative human language have evolved from stimulus and response systems like those found in modern primates. Tomorrow we will discus theories on the origin of human language.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Linguistics 201: Animal Systems of Communication

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
There are about five thousand mutually unintelligible forms of language spoken on the Earth today. Although these languages differ strikingly in their phonological, morphological and syntactic structure, each and every language serves to express a virtually unlimited variety of old and new experience. Each and every language can express any thought the human mind can devise.

# data[].attributes.body
Como el experimento famoso “Wug,” esta tira cómica demuestra que las criaturas (o los seres humanos en general) no solamente están memorizando los varias palabras durante su aprendizaje de una lengua, pero están aprendiendo la gramática: los procesos de conjugación.

# data[].attributes.body
Aun ahora, verbos irregulares me desconciertan, como venir o elegir o demostrar. Esta es una lista de algunos verbos irregulares y sus conjugaciones; irónicamente, alega que los verbos más usados son irregulares, como “ser,” “haber,” “estar,” “tener,” “hacer,” “poder,” “ir,” etcétera.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Most Common Irregular Spanish Verbs - Linguasorb

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Clear and concise verb tables for the 100 most commonly used irregular Spanish verbs, including the English for every conjugation.

# data[].attributes.body
Estoy estudiando el desarrollo infantil este semestre, entonces me interesa mucho la idea de “Phonemic Awareness,” y su importancia pura en el progreso de la habilidad lectora. “Phonemic Awareness” es básicamente la habilidad de oír y manipular unas palabras, y también el entendimiento de la unión de sílabas, etc.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Concepts and Research

Phonemic Awareness (PA) is:

1. the ability to hear and manipulate the sounds in spoken words and the understanding that spoken words and syllables are made up of sequences of speech sounds (Yopp, 1992; see References).

2. essential to learning to read in an alphabetic writing system, because letters represent sounds or phonemes. Without phonemic awareness, phonics makes little sense.

3. fundamental to mapping speech to print. If a child cannot hear that "man" and "moon" begin with the same sound or cannot blend the sounds /rrrrrruuuuuunnnnn/ into the word "run", he or she may have great difficulty connecting sounds with their written symbols or blending sounds to make a word.

4. essential to learning to read in an alphabetic writing system.

5. a strong predictor of children who experience early reading success.

An important distinction:

Phonemic awareness is NOT phonics.

Phonemic awareness is AUDITORY and does not involve words in print.

Phonemic Awareness is important ...

It requires readers to notice how letters represent sounds. It primes readers for print.

It gives readers a way to approach sounding out and reading new words.

It helps readers understand the alphabetic principle (that the letters in words are systematically represented by sounds).

...but difficult:

Although there are 26 letters in the English language, there are approximately 40 phonemes, or sound units, in the English language. (NOTE: the number of phonemes varies across sources.)

Sounds are represented in 250 different spellings (e.g., /f/ as in ph, f, gh, ff).

The sound units (phonemes) are not inherently obvious and must be taught. The sounds that make up words are "coarticulated;" that is, they are not distinctly separate from each other.

Go to top of page
Definitions of key PA terminology:

Phoneme: A phoneme is a speech sound. It is the smallest unit of language and has no inherent meaning.

Phonemic Awareness: The ability to hear and manipulate the sounds in spoken words, and the understanding that spoken words and syllables are made up of sequences of speech sounds (Yopp, 1992; see References). Phonemic awareness involves hearing language at the phoneme level.

Phonics: use of the code (sound-symbol relationships to recognize words.

Phonological Awareness: The ability to hear and manipulate the sound structure of language. This is an encompassing term that involves working with the sounds of language at the word, syllable, and phoneme level.

Continuous Sound: A sound that can be prolonged (stretched out) without distortion (e.g., r, s, a, m).

Onset-Rime: The onset is the part of the word before the vowel; not all words have onsets. The rime is the part of the word including the vowel and what follows it.

Segmentation: The separation of words into phonemes.

Go to top of page
Examples of Phonemes

The word "sun" has three phonemes: /s/ /u/ /n/. The table below shows different linguistic units from largest (sentence) to smallest (phoneme).

The word "shut" also has three phonemes: /sh/ /u/ /t/.

Examples of Phonemic Awareness Skills

Blending: What word am I trying to say? Mmmmm...oooooo...p.

Segmentation (first sound isolation): What is the first sound in mop? /m/

Segmentation (last sound isolation): What is the last sound in mop? /p/

Segmentation (complete): What are all the sounds you hear in mop? /m/ /o/ /p/

What Teachers Should Know

What Teachers Should Be Able to Do

Definition of phonemic awareness (PA).

The relation of phonemic awareness to early reading skills.

The developmental continuum of phonemic awareness skills.

Which phonemic awareness skills are more important and when they should be taught.

Features of phonemes and tasks that influence task difficulty.

Terminology (phoneme, PA, continuous sound, onset-rime, segmentation).

Assess PA and diagnose difficulties.

Produce speech sounds accurately.

Use a developmental continuum to select/design PA instruction.

Select examples according to complexity of skills, phonemes, word types, and learner experience.

Model and deliver PA lessons.

Link PA to reading and spelling.

Evaluate the design of instructional materials.

(modified from Moats, 1999; see References)

What Does the Lack of Phonemic Awareness Look Like?

Children lacking phonemic awareness skills cannot:

group words with similar and dissimilar sounds (mat, mug, sun)

blend and split syllables (f oot)

blend sounds into words (m_a_n)

segment a word as a sequence of sounds (e.g., fish is made up of three phonemes, /f/ , /i/, /sh/)

detect and manipulate sounds within words (change r in run to s).

(Kame'enui, et. al., 1997; see References)
Go to top of page
Phonemic Awareness Research Says:

"The best predictor of reading difficulty in kindergarten or first grade is the inability to segment words and syllables into constituent sound units (phonemic awareness)" (Lyon, 1995; see References).

The ability to hear and manipulate phonemes plays a causal role in the acquisition of beginning reading skills (Smith, Simmons, & Kame'enui, 1998; see References).

There is considerable evidence that the primary difference between good and poor readers lies in the good reader's phonological processing ability.

The effects of training phonological awareness and learning to read are mutually supportive. "Reading and phonemic awareness are mutually reinforcing: Phonemic awareness is necessary for reading, and reading, in turn, improves phonemic awareness still further." (Shaywitz, 2003, see References)

Phonological awareness is teachable and promoted by attention to instructional variables (Smith, Simmons, & Kame'enui, 1998; see References).
Go to top of page

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.authors[].name
University of Oregon Center on Teaching and Learning

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Phonemic Awareness: Concepts and Research

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Concepts and Research the ability to hear and manipulate the sounds in spoken words and the understanding that spoken words and syllables are made up of sequences of speech sounds (Yopp, 1992; see References). essential to learning to read in an alphabetic writing system, because letters represent sounds or phonemes.

# data[].attributes.body
Existen varios dialectos en Corea del Sur (se llama “saturi”); son dispersos por todo el país. Qué interesante, el “saturi” de Busan es famoso por sus expresiones exclusivas (que a veces sonaron como frases extranjeras) y entonaciones/acentos únicos. Soy de Bucheon (una ciudad cerca de Seoul), entonces algunas veces no podría comprender los marcados acentos de mis amigos de Busan.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.authors[].name
Dynamic Busan (부산/부산시/부산광역시/Busan City Official)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Busan Dialect One-point Lesson (Busan satoori, Busan accent)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
한국어 ver: https://youtu.be/5dqur02voXY *Next Ep. : https://youtu.be/m5IyWUwK__w The Busan dialect is gaining more and more popularity these days! Just trust us and follow our lead, and you'll be able to speak the Busan dialect very nicely, just like a native Busan people! Busan. Busan City. Busan Metropolitan City. Busan City Official.

# data[].attributes.headline
Original Pronunciation: "Hamlet's To be, or not to be..."

# data[].attributes.subject
Original Pronunciation: "Hamlet's To be, or not to be..."

# data[].attributes.body
Me gusta Shakespeare, especialmente su tragedia más conocida, Hamlet; he leído esta obra muchas veces para mis clases de literatura, pero ningún profesor léela en un “acento shakesperiano.” Sin asombro, esta versión se siente más natural. Se dice que algunos seguidores están desarrollando un proyecto a promover este acento original en teatros.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Original Pronunciation - Hamlet | To Be, or not to be... | Ben Crystal

# data[].attributes.body
Lo crea o no, la mayoría de los refugiados norcoreanos sufre discriminación en Corea del Sur, gracias a su acento y vocabulario extraño. Probablemente tienen dificultades para encontrar trabajo, también. Los que opinan que la unificación entre los dos países será posible—pero solamente si estos refugiados son educados—han creado un traductor único para ayudarlos.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
There are 27,000 North Korean defectors who escaped life threatening dangers. They came to the South with big hopes but were discouraged due to language barriers. They were discriminated against and ignored mostly because of their unfamiliar accents and vocabulary. As a result, young North Korean defectors had a hard time adjusting to new schools.

# data[].attributes.headline
"Your dog understands your words, sort of"

# data[].attributes.subject
"Your dog understands your words, sort of"

# data[].attributes.body
Los perros saben más de lo que piensas que saben. Como los humanos, perros utilizan el lado izquierdo de sus cerebros para entender palabras -- pero eso no es todo. Además, varios experimentos sugieren que usen la parte derecha del cerebro para descifrar las entonaciones, sin palabras.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
He might be catching on to more than you think -- and your intonation when saying certain words is just as important to him as the words themselves, according to a small study published in the journal Science on Tuesday.

Dogs use the left hemisphere of the brain to process words, similar to humans, said Attila Andics, a research fellow at Eötvös Loránd University in Hungary and lead author of the study.

Meanwhile, the study also suggests that dogs use a right hemisphere brain region to process intonation independently of words, which means they may separate what you say from how you say it.

Man's best friend's brain

"It was surprising that dogs, like people, have a clear left hemisphere dominance for processing meaningful words and that they combine word meaning and intonation to arrive at a unified representation of meaning," Andics said.

"What makes dogs special is that they pay attention to human social signals, including speech," he added. "This study is the first step to understanding how dogs interpret human speech, and these results can also help to make communication and cooperation between dogs and humans even more efficient."

The study involved 13 dogs -- golden retrievers, border collies, a German shepherd and a Chinese crested -- who were trained to lie down and remain still for more than seven minutes while in a brain-scanning MRI machine.

The researchers used the machine to record and measure neural activity in the dogs' brains while they listened to a woman trainer, whom they were familiar with, recite various words in various intonations.

For instance, positive or meaningful words such as "well done," "good boy" and "clever" were said in both a praising intonation and a neutral intonation. Neutral or meaningless words, such as "even if," "although" and "however," also were said in both intonations.

The brain scans revealed that parts of the left hemisphere reacted the most to the meaningful words. In general, the brain's left hemisphere is linked to language and speech processing in most humans.

Meanwhile, parts of the right hemisphere reacted to intonation, suggesting that the dogs processed the meaning of words separately from the tone in which they were spoken, according to the brain scans.

Only when a praise word was spoken to the dogs in a praising tone of voice did the brain's reward center light up like a Christmas tree in the brain scans. The reward center is the part of the brain that responds to pleasurable stimuli, like food treats or being petted.

"Our finding supports those who think that some nice words can also work as a reward for dogs," Andics said.

I say 'Woof,' you say ...

In 2014, the same research team conducted a similar MRI study, published in the journal Current Biology, in which brain scans were taken of both 11 dogs and 22 humans while they listened to dog sounds, human sounds and random non-vocal sounds.

In that study, similar patterns were found in dog and human brains, but a left dorsal auditory region of the dog brains responded stronger than the human brains to the dog sounds.

Some scientists reference the old and new research as evidence that dogs have language-processing neural capacities that were previously thought to be uniquely human. Other scientists, however, disagree.

"Unless there is a secret dog lexicon, this all points to an attention-amplifying effect of left hemisphere bias of auditory processing," said Gregory Berns, distinguished professor of neuroeconomics and director of the Center for Neuropolicy at Emory University, who was not involved in the study.

In other words, just because the left hemisphere of both dog and human brains respond to words similarly doesn't necessarily mean that dogs comprehend words just like we do.

To explain the new study's results, maybe "the praise words in the current study are simply alerting and attracting the dog's attention, potentially amplifying the left hemisphere bias that is there for all of the words," said Berns, who has used MRI machines to scan dog brains in his own work.

"If the dog wasn't on task to stay in the MRI, she would probably cock her head to one side," he added. "I'm convinced dogs understand some things, but their semantic space is not constructed like ours."

Wagging, no matter what

Other scientists agree that the new study findings don't necessarily show that dogs think just like we do.

"The study doesn't claim that dogs understand words in the sense that we understand each other's words. It shows that dogs' brains process the sounds of a person's voice in two ways," said Clive Wynne, psychology professor and director of the Canine Science Collaboratory at Arizona State University, who was not involved in the new study.

"It reminds me how, as a kid, for fun, we would insult our family dog, Benji, in a happy tone of voice. And he would wag his tail enthusiastically. We used to think that was very cute, and it seems to show that the content of the word is not important -- only the tone of voice with which it is said," Wynne said. "This study shows that my childish self was wrong: The dog's brain really can discriminate meaningful from meaningless words."

Scientists are still scratching their heads about whether other non-human animals can process words and intonation in the same way dogs do, Andics said. "We don't know. It has never been tested."

However, the researchers posit in the new study that what makes language uniquely human may not be the brain's capacity to process words and meaning. Rather, it might be the human invention of words and our ability to give words meaning.

The study "provides interesting new evidence that dogs are tracking several of the same linguistic features that humans do, and that dogs seem to understand the intent behind some of our utterances," said Laurie Santos, psychology professor at Yale University, who has studied the cognitive capacities of animals but was not involved in the new research.

"I think it shows the way that domestication has shaped dogs to pay attention to yet another important human social cue," she said.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Your dog understands your words, sort of

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
He might be catching on to more than you think -- and your intonation when saying certain words is just as important to him as the words themselves, according to a small study published in the journal Science on Tuesday.

# data[].attributes.headline
"Why I keep speaking up, even when people mock my accent"

# data[].attributes.subject
"Why I keep speaking up, even when people mock my accent"

# data[].attributes.body
Muchas veces, se dice que algo -- o alguien -- no es normal cuando es diferente a lo que "debe" ser. (En este caso en concreto, los acentos, o la gente con acentos fuertes.) Expectativas de que es lo normal podrían producir discriminación y favoritismo; por tanto, debemos cuestionar lo que se considera normal en la cultura dominante.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Safwat Saleem: Why I keep speaking up, even when people mock my accent

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Artist Safwat Saleem grew up with a stutter -- but as an independent animator, he decided to do his own voiceovers to give life to his characters. When YouTube commenters started mocking his Pakistani accent, it crushed him, and his voice began to leave his work.

# data[].attributes.body
Naturalmente, un cerebro multilingüe es más dinámico en comparación con lo de un monolingüe: un estudiante bilingüe tiene que aprender doble de los materiales provistos; así, muchísimo esfuerzo es necesario para captar conceptos. Su cerebro está funcionando más frecuentemente - y potencialmente podría parecer que su aprendizaje es lento - pero en mi opinión, las ventajas son más numerosas que las desventajas.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The benefits of a bilingual brain - Mia Nacamulli

# data[].attributes.body
Prescriptiva

"Hasta el siglo XIX, la lingüística era una disciplina fundamentalmente prescriptiva, es decir, las gramáticas tradicionales, desde los tiempos de la antigüedad india y griega, primordialmente se han preocupado de describir y codificar la “manera correcta” de hablar una lengua."

Reglas prescriptivas

“Las reglas prescriptivas, que a menudo encontramos en las gramáticas tradicionales y en los manuales de enseñanza de segundas lenguas, nos sirven para ayudar a los estudiantes a aprender a pronunciar palabras, cuándo usar el subjuntivo o el pretérito en español, por ejemplo, y a organizar de manera correcta las oraciones de la lengua que estudiamos.”

Reglas descriptivas

“Los lingüistas modernos, en cambio, intentan describir más que prescribir las formas lingüísticas y sus usos. A la hora de proponer reglas descriptivas adecuadas, el gramático debe intensificar qué construcciones se usan en realidad, no qué construcciones deberían usarse.”

Ferdinand de Saussure

“A principios del siglo XX muchos lingüistas trasladaron su atención, siguiendo el ejemplo del gramático suizo Ferdinand de Saussure, de los históricos (o “diacrónicos”) al estudio sincrónico de la lengua, es decir, a la descripción de una lengua en un momento determinado en el tiempo. Este énfasis en los estudios sincrónicosfomentó la investigación de lenguas que no poseían sistemas de escritura, mucho más difíciles de estudiar desde un punto de vista diacrónico puesto que no existían textos que evidenciaran su pasado. La principal contribución de este modelo de investigación fue señalar que toda lengua constituye un sistema, un conjunto de signos relacionados entre sí en el que cada unidad no existe de manera independiente sino que encuentra su identidad y su validez dentro del sistema por relación y oposición a los demás elementos del mismo.”

Conductismo

“…la lingüística, especialmente la norteamericana, estaba dominada por el conductismo, que asumía que el comportamiento humano, en cualquiera de sus manifestaciones, relaciones o no con el lenguaje, no podía ser descrito apropiadamente proponiendo la existencia de estados o entidades mentales determinados que explicaran dicho comportamiento: el lenguaje humano no puede ser descrito mediante la creación de modelos que modelos que caractericen estados mentales, sino que debe ser descrito simplemente como un conjunto de repuestas a un conjunto concreto de estímulos.”

Noam Chomsky

“…describió una serie de resultados matemáticos sobre el estudio de los lenguajes naturales que establecieron las bases de lo que conocemos como “la teoría formal del lenguaje.” Por otro lado, este lingüista propuso un nuevo mecanismo formal para la descripción grammatical y analizó un conjunto de estructuras del inglés bajo este nuevo formalismo. Por último, Chomsky publicó una crítica del modelo conductista en el estudio del lenguaje, basándose en la idea de que la lengua no puede ser un mero conjunto de respuestas a un conjunto determinado de estímulos ya que una de las características de nuestro conocimiento de la lengua es que podemos entender y producir oraciones que jamás hemos oído con anterioridad.”

“Chomsky identifica nuestro conocimiento de lenguaje o competencia con la posesión de una representación mental de una gramática. Esta gramática constituye la competencia de hablante nativo de dicha lengua. En otras palabras, la gramática es el conocimiento lingüístico de un hablante tal como está representando en su cerebro."

Léxico: vocabulario mental

Fonética y fonología: los sonidos y la organización de éstos en forma sistemática

Morfología: la estructura y las reglas de formación de las palabras

Sintaxis: la estructura de las oraciones y las restricciones sobre la correcta formación de las mismas

Semántica: las reglas que rigen y explican el significado de palabras y oraciones

*“Chomsky propone que la mente humana es modular, es decir, que posee 'órganos mentales' designados para realizar determinadas tareas en modos específicos. Existe un módulo específico en nuestro cerebro, un 'órgano mental lingüístico' designado para realizar tareas lingüísticas.”

*Ferdinand de Saussure — “definió las lenguas humanas como sistema de signos. El signo lingüístico tiene dos componentes: significantey significado.”

El significante: una secuencia de sonidos.
El significado: el concepto.

También estableció una distinción entre lenguay habla.

Lengua: el sistema de signos que se utiliza en una comunidad de hablantes.
Habla: el uso concreto de la lengua.
Lenguaje: la capacidad que tenemos los seres humanos de aprender y utilizar una o más lenguas.

Las características específicas del lenguaje humano:

1. Arbitrariedad

2. Desplazamiento

3. Articulación dual

4. Productividad

5. Prevaricación

6. Reflexividad

7. Unidades discretas

8. Creatividad

Hipótesis innatista

“Nuestro cerebro está ‘preprogramado’ para adquirir una lengua. La hipótesis más razonable que podemos postular para explicar la uniformidad y la velocidad con la que adquirimos nuestra lengua es proponer que el desarrollo de la adquisición de una lengua está determinado por una facultad lingüística innata en nuestro cerebro, al igual que hay aspectos del comportamiento animal que son innatos, tales como la capacidad que tienen las arañas de tejer sus telas o ciertos patrones en la migración de las aves.”

Gramática universal

“…la hipótesis innatista asume están presentes desde el nacimiento lo denominamos gramática universal. Entendemos como tal el estadio inicial de conocimiento de la estructura y funcionamiento del lenguaje que tiene el hablante desde el momento de su nacimiento, antes de ser expuesto a datos concretos de su idioma.”

Neurolingüística

el estudio de las estructuras cerebrales que una persona debe poseer para procesar y comprender una lengua.