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Rosie Carter: Tackling Gender Inequality

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Rosie's talk is about why we need to discuss the presence of gender inequality in our world, and how as young people we can make a difference.

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Women have been changing the world for centuries, but many times they've had to overcome bias and hardship to do so. There is much to be learned from the stories of amazing women who were able to break down barriers and make a difference.

Books about awesome women are not just for girls! We all gain things from learning more about other people's experience. Every child benefits from having a diverse bookshelf.

Here are some excellent books about amazing women that I think your family will love. Many of these women's stories were brand new to me! In addition to this list, I recommend checking out Children's Books About Women in Science. There are also some excellent biographies about world-changing women in our list of 20 Children's Books About the Civil Rights Movement.

This is such an awesome book. It tells the story of Ginsberg's career and the obstacles she overcame, while at the same time explaining how equality benefits all of us, not just those seeking to be treated fairly.

My two boys really enjoyed listening to this story, and it led to some great discussion. I recommend sharing this book with kids ages 4 and up.

" What would you do if someone told you you can't be what you want to be because you're a girl?" Elizabeth Cady Stanton was not content being treated as "less than" to men, and that drove her to become a leader in the fight for women's suffrage.

Kids will love the straightforward storytelling and bright illustrations in this book. I recommend it for children ages 5 and up.

Every child has a right to an education; Malala went so far as to risk her life for one. This book brought tears to my eyes, but it's such an important story that all of our children should know.

There are many great books about Malala, but this one is my favorite. It's perfect for reading with kids ages 5 and up.

Chelsea Clinton takes a closer look at 13 women who persisted; women who wouldn't back down in the face of adversity. Harriet Tubman, Helen Keller, and Ruby Bridges are among the women previewed. These powerful profiles show young readers how all different kinds of people can overcome hardship and bias and change the world for the better.

This book is an excellent choice for children ages 4 and up.

As a young girl growing up in the Bronx, Sonia Sotomayor did not have a lot of money. But she did have a strong work ethic and a mother who believed in her. This helped her become the first Latino appointed to the Supreme Court.

This excellent book is in both English and Spanish, and I recommend sharing it with children ages 4 and up.

Before finding this book in our local library, I had never heard of Effa Manley. I am so glad her story is being told! Effa always loved baseball, and that love led her to eventually become the owner of the Newark Eagles, and the only woman in the Baseball Hall of Fame.

This gorgeous book is an especially great read for little ones who love sports!

I always knew that Josephine Baker was well-known as a performer, but until I read this book, I didn't know that she was also a civil rights activist. This book follows her life through struggles and triumphs, and shows how she overcame hardship to become a successful musician. This compelling story of Baker's life drew us all in, and my boys enjoyed it as much as I did.

I recommend readying this book with children ages 7 and up.

All her life, Hillary Clinton was warned against being too loud, too smart, too strong. She was told women shouldn't be lawyers. But Hillary ignored these warnings and followed her dreams, paving the way for future generations of women.

This book encourages growing leaders to unapologetically be themselves. It's perfect for reading with children ages 4 and up. You can also find this book on our list of Books About Women in Government.

When Elizabeth Blackwell was a little girl, there were few career options available for women, and becoming a doctor was definitely not on the list. However, Elizabeth ignored the common belief that girls weren't smart enough, and she followed her dreams.

This bright and colorful read speaks to kids in a way that they will easily understand, but adults will enjoy it, too! I recommend reading it with children ages 5 and up.

Clara Lemlich had a hard time when she came to the United States from the Ukraine. She didn't speak English, and had to take a job in a garment factory to help support her family. However, Clara was determined and believed in doing what was right. She went to night school to learn English, and when her co-workers were being mistreated, she stood up and arranged a protest.

Clara's story is a powerful, fascinating, must-read. I recommend reading this book with kids ages 4 and up.

Florence Mills had a gift for song from a young age, and that gift took her far - all the way to Broadway. However, she still dealt with injustice and prejudice, and that led to a devotion to civil rights and helping other black artists.

I didn't know Florence's story before I read this book, but I'm so glad I found it. This book is perfect for reading with kids ages 3 and up.

When the roads of Gambia were overtaken with the litter of plastic grocery bags, Isatou Ceesay had an idea for recycling them. Her idea cleaned up the area and created a new industry for her community.

This is an inspiring story of how one woman can make a difference. I recommend reading this book with children ages 5 and up.

For many years, only boys in Cuba were allowed to learn the drums. But Millo Castro Zaldariagga, the drum dream girl, changed all of that. She had to hide her gift and practice in secret, but with hard work she was able to break down barriers and achieve her dream.

This powerful story of perseverance is perfect for reading with kids ages 4 and up.

This is a beautiful biography of the young girl who is credited with saving France and helping them win the Hundred Years War. The book includes lots of recommendations for further study, maps, and a pronunciation guide. Children will be drawn in by the gorgeous illustrations and the powerful story.

This is an in-depth look at Joan of Arc's life, journey, and tragic martyrdom, and is best for children in second grade or older.

Jane Addams is one of my personal heroes, and I love this thoughtful story about her life. This book chronicles Addams' life, and what led her to buy a house in the poorest area of Chicago to open Hull House, a refuge for those in need. This picture book is a compelling biography of the first American woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize.

I recommend sharing this inspiring story with children ages 6 and up.

Did you know that segregated schools have a history in the United States that goes beyond the South? In the 1940s, Sylvia Mendez was turned away from her neighborhood school because her family was Mexican, even though Sylvia spoke English and was an American citizen.

This book follows the story of how the Mendez family fought back against this discrimination, ultimately winning their case against the state of California and desegregating California schools seven years before Brown v. Board of Education.

This compelling biography is great for children ages 6 and up.

Dolores Huerta was a teacher who was worried about her students. They are too hungry to pay attention in class. They are sick and they don't have shoes. When Dolores discovers that the reason for these problems is the low pay their parents receive as migrant workers, she works and organizes to stand up for their rights. Dolores knew the struggle of poverty and discrimination, and her own experiences helped her stand up for others.

This excellent biography is great for kids ages 6 and up.

Dolley Madison's life was typical for a First Lady of her time: throwing parties, decorating, and being a good hostess topped her list of duties. But when war came, Dolley took it upon herself to protect an important part of America's history: a portrait of George Washington.

This interesting story of one of our early First Ladies is an excellent choice for kids ages 4 and up.

Georgia O'Keeffe saw things differently than most people, and her unique vision led her to become one of America's greatest artists. This book follows her from childhood in Wisconsin, to art school in New York City, to her life in the wilds of New Mexico, where she drew much of her inspiration. This story is somewhat sparse, but it allows OKeeffe's artwork do much of the storytelling.

I recommend reading this book with children ages 5 and up.

As a young girl, Bessie Coleman couldn't go to school, but she sought out learning wherever she could. She faced obstacle after obstacle, but never gave up, and eventually she became the first African-American to obtain a pilot's license.

This story is guaranteed to inspire! I recommend reading it with kids ages 7 and up.

When Wilma Rudolph was a young child, she had polio. She was told she would never walk on her own, but she was determined to regain her mobility. She not only walked again, she ran...all the way to three Olympic gold medals. Her story is a powerful tale of recovery and strength.

This amazing and inspiring biography is excellent for reading with kids ages 4 and up.

I hadn't heard of Molly Williams before I read this book, but now I want to know more about this amazing woman! Molly was a cook in a firehouse, but when the firefighters are down with influenza, it's up to her to save the day and put out a fire. She is considered by many to be America's first female firefighter.

This inspiring story is great for kids ages 6 and up.

I can't say enough about Meltzer's Ordinary People Change the World series, and this lives up to the high standards set by these books. This world-changing woman helped lead Lewis and Clark across the United States, and her efforts helped form the nation we live in today. Meltzer does a great job of highlighting the importance of Sacagawea's role and the hard work it took for her to complete the journey.

I recommend reading this book with kids ages 4 and up.

Sojourner Truth was born a slave, and for many people that meant that she had no worth outside of the work she could do. However, she didn't let this stop her from becoming one of the most prominent voices in the abolitionist movement.

This books weaves the facts of Sojourner's life into a compelling story that young children will understand and embrace. I recommend it for kids ages 6 and up. You can also find this book on our list of Books About Black Women.

You can't go wrong with David A. Adler's biographies, and I especially love this one. Amelia Earhart ignored the things she was told girls were "supposed" to do, and instead forged her own path. Though the end to her story is tragic, there is still much inspiration to be found in her life and achievements.

I recommend sharing this book with children ages 4 and up.

With lovely illustrations from Tomie dePaola, this beautiful book in itself a work of art. It also does a fantastic job of introducing children to this influential artist. Readers will learn more about Kahlo's life, and what makes her work unique. This book is packed full of facts about Kahlo, what she liked, and why she painted the way that she did.

This lovely book is perfect for sharing with kids ages 5 and up.

Maria Tallchief was a talented dancer and pianist, but as a member of the Osage Tribe, she was not allowed to dance because she was a woman. For many years, her parents allowed her to pursue her love of dance, but at the age of 12 she was forced to make a difficult choice about her future. That choice led her to a history-making career as a ballerina.

This is an excellent book to share with children ages 5 and up.

Melba Dixon loved jazz music, and as a child taught herself to play the trombone. This eventually led to a prolific career in music, but she faced many obstacles along the way due to both her race and gender. She eventually joined a band and toured the United States, playing jazz music for a variety of audiences.

We loved learning more about this great musician, and finding some of her music after we read the book! I recommend reading this book with kids ages 6 and up.

How did a quiet, lonely girl become known as one of the most intelligent and confident women of all time? This book tells the story of Eleanor Roosevelt, and how she discovered the inner strength for which she became so well known. The book starts with Eleanor's often lonely childhood, and chronicles how she bloomed into a confident and strong leader.

I've read several juvenile biographies of Eleanor, and this one is by far my favorite. I recommend reading it with kids ages 5 and up.

I couldn't pick just one book from this awesome series, so I had to include them all. These in-depth looks at some of our most important history makers includes tons of detail and compelling facts. You won't want to miss these profiles of amazing women, which includes:

This series is perfect for kids ages 6 and up.

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30 Picture Books About World-Changing Women | Feminist Books for Kids

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Women have been changing the world for centuries, but many times they've had to overcome bias and hardship to do so. There is much to be learned from the stories of amazing women who were able to break down barriers and make a difference. Books about awesome women are not just for girls!

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First African American Women Supreme Court Justice

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First African American Women Supreme Court Justice

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TED Talk: Why Gender Equality is Good for Everyone

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TED Talk: Why Gender Equality is Good for Everyone

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Michael Kimmel: Why gender equality is good for everyone - men included

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Yes, we all know it's the right thing to do. But Michael Kimmel makes the surprising, funny, practical case for treating men and women equally in the workplace and at home. It's not a zero-sum game, but a win-win that will result in more opportunity and more happiness for everybody.

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Even though it's the 21 st century, gender inequality is still a prominent issue in the United States and around the world. In order for this issue to improve, both men and women need to be on the same page. The youth is the hope for our future. Teaching students about gender equality and its impacts at a young age will make all the difference in creating equal opportunities for everyone despite their gender.
Resources
Gender inequality is not a new issue, and in order to make it a thing of the past, we all need to be educated on it and understand why it is so wrong. Teaching students about the matter is the first step, and there are many resources available online to aid you in this process!
Lesson Plans

1. : Find videos related to gender inequality at Academy 4SC, like Academy 4SC The Equal Rights Amendment: An Ongoing Struggle, Thomson's "A Defense of Abortion" : What's Meant by "Right to Life?", and Dowry: The Price of Being a Woman, among others. Teachers have access to resources like worksheets, activity ideas, discussion questions, and more included in each topic's lesson plan. Explore Academy 4SC's full library of applicable content under the tag Gender Inequality.

2. Leaders 4SC Forces: Leaders 4SC provides a variety of Task Forces that provoke students to think critically about key issues as they roleplay as decision-makers and brainstorm well-detailed solutions. Each Task Force comes with step-by-step instructions, Google slide templates to be used with virtual breakout rooms, and topic-specific question to get students started. The activities can be completed either individually or as part of a group. A fun Task Force is Gendered Division of Labor App.

3. Exposing Gender Stereotypes - Lesson : This lesson plan provided by Media Smarts is a bit different than the two others listed above but is still an important concept for students to learn about regarding gender. The lesson revolves around the male and female stereotypes in society and the media. For example, a male is stereotypically tough while a female is stereotypically dainty and submissive. Recognizing that these stereotypes are stereotypes rather than facts is an extremely important part of one finding their identity outside of what society tells them they should be.

4. : Gender Equality: Lesson Plans and Tool Kits [email protected] provides many lesson plans for teachers to use in their classes about gender equality. The lessons vary from teaching students about male priviledge, gender role stereotypes, gender representations in the media, sexual assault, and gender-based violence prevention education. (Some of the lesson plans are a bit older and the links provided are not working, but there is plenty of good current content provided.)

Articles

1. How to Teach Students About Gender Equality : published an article about how to teach students about gender equality. The author, Saga Briggs, offers ten tips for teachers, some of which include correcting the ways teachers treat boys and girls differently in the classroom. This article, in my opinion, is very beneficial for teachers to read because instead of setting a whole day aside to teach about gender equality, teachers can practice these tips gradually all year long for the best result.

2. Gender equality is not a 'women's issue' - it's good for men too : This article, published by The Guardian , discusses how even though there are many men who believe in feminism, more need to become involved in order to make change. Topics, including Britsh men's opinion on their involvement in women's equality, fathers' opinions on child care, and flexibility for men at work are discussed. Between its startling statistics and research, students, especially male students, will be able to take a lot away from this article.

Informational Sites Conclusion
These resources above will be extremely helpful in the process of teaching students about gender equality. However, another way-a more important way-to teach students about this concept is by setting a good example for them. In class, treating students equally regardless of gender and not using popular stereotypes is very important for letting them know that both females and males are one and the same. To learn more about gender differences in the classroom, click this .
Additional Resources

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Teaching About Gender Inequality - Educators 4 Social Change

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IntroductionEven though it's the 21st century, gender inequality is still a prominent issue in the United States and around the world. In order for this issue to improve, both men and women need to be on the same page. The youth is the hope for our future. Teaching students about...

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A look back at history shows that women have made great strides in the fight for equality, including women's suffrage and inroads in equal opportunity in the workplace and education.

Despite the tremendous progress made in the struggle for gender equality, women still face violence, discrimination, and institutional barriers to equal participation in society.

Through litigation, advocacy, and public education, the ACLU Women's Rights Project pushes for change and systemic reform in institutions that perpetuate discrimination against women, focusing its work in the areas of employment, violence against women, and education.

In the employment realm, laws and workplace policies that exclude women from certain job sectors and allow them to be forced out of the workplace when they become pregnant or return to work after having a baby cause persistent disparities in women's income, wealth, and economic security.

Survivors of gender-based violence face discrimination when police, schools, landlords, and other institutions fail to adequately address and prevent violence and also when laws and policies penalize them, impeding the ability of women and girls to live safely and with dignity.

In the education sector, many public schools have introduced programs based on unfounded stereotypes about the learning abilities and preferences of boys and girls, limiting equal educational opportunities for all.

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Women's Rights | American Civil Liberties Union

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Today, gender bias continues to create huge barriers for many women. Ongoing struggles include ensuring equal economic opportunities, educational equity, and an end to gender-based violence.

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Girl Scouts Association Leadership Development

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Girl Scouts Association Leadership Development

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Leadership development in the Girl Guide and Girl Scout Movement

The Girl Guide and Girl Scout Movement has been empowering girls and women as leaders for over 100 years. From the moment a child promises to "do their best", they step into a values based leadership development journey. This nurtures and celebrates who they are and what they can bring to the world around them.

As they grow, Girl Guides and Girl Scouts use this experience to take the lead in their own lives. As adult volunteers, they become inspiring role models for young people and visionary leaders of the Movement.

Girl Guides and Girl Scouts develop their leadership in the Movement, but they practise it in all aspects of their lives. They reach goals, inspire others, care for the world around them, overcome gender barriers and make positive changes in their lives and communities.
Ready to support girls and young women on their leadership journey? Join the WAGGGS volunteer resource pool.

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The Girl Guide and Girl Scout Movement has been empowering girls and women as leaders for over 100 years. From the moment a child promises to "do their best", they step into a values based leadership development journey. This nurtures and celebrates who they are and what they can bring to the world around them.

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Lesson Plans and Tool Kits | Safe @ School

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Elementary Teachers' Federation of Ontario - 2008 This resource provides information and practical tools for the exploration and discussion of social justice and gender-related issues. The book features lesson plans for students in Kindergarten to Grade 8, as well as a variety of creative activities. To order the full resource, call ETFO: 416-962-3836.

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A project is underway in Tanzania to improve the education of girls at 60 schools in the country. The project will continue until 2012 and aims to help girls attend school – and stay at school long enough to finish their education.

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SDG Resources for Educators - Gender Equality

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Gender Equality is a principle that states that all men and women need to be treated equally and to have the same rights despite their biological differences. These should not prevent them from having the same opportunities to succeed in school and in life.

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The following website by the National Women’s History Museum includes lesson plans, biographies, posters, primary sources, and more.

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Explore all of the resources the National Women’s History Museum has created. There are lesson plans, biographies, posters, primary sources, and more. You can search by topic, theme, or resource type.

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I am beautiful, powerful, and talented.

I am perfect just the way I am.

I am capable of so much.

I have the power to change my life.

I do not let my fears hold me back.

I am an amazing person.

Today is my day.

Today I choose to be confident.

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Susanné Bergsten Park Senior Coordinator, Women’s Rights Division

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Despite great strides made by the international women’s rights movement over many years, women and girls around the world are still married as children or trafficked into forced labor and sex slavery. They are refused access to education and political participation, and some are trapped in conflicts…

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Michelle Obama's Message to Young Girls | OWN Spotlight | Oprah Winfrey Network

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Teacher Training Programs to Promote Equality

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Teacher Training Programs to Promote Equality

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Department of Developmental and Education Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

Department of Teacher Education, Centre for Teacher Education, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

Despite formally equal educational opportunities for women and men, educational and occupational careers are still characterized by gender disparities rather than gender equality. Men are overrepresented in STEM fields and higher positions, while women are frequently working in low-status jobs in the health and social sector. These differences already emerge during school time, when girls report lower academic self-concepts in STEM subjects than boys even after achievement is controlled for while the same is true for boys' self-concepts in reading and languages. Gender stereotypes that are conveyed by socializing agents are assumed to play an important role in maintaining gender differences in education. Teachers are important starting points for promoting gender equality in education as their attitudes and instructional practices are known to influence students' motivation and performance substantially. To promote girls and boys equally in coeducational settings, teachers have to reflect on their own gender stereotypes. Moreover, they require knowledge about gender differences in education and about teaching methods to foster the motivation of all students regardless of their gender. However, gender stereotypes are rarely dealt with in general teacher education and training programs that build teachers' competences for reflective coeducation are sparse. Against this backdrop, we present the teacher training program REFLECT that was developed to foster secondary school teachers' competences for supporting students in developing their individual potentials without being restricted by gender stereotypes. REFLECT is theoretically based on the systemic actiotope model and aims to expand teachers' objective action repertoire (knowledge, teaching methods) as well as their subjective action space (self-efficacy beliefs, implicit theories). The results of a pilot study show the effectiveness of REFLECT. Teachers' objective action repertoire and subjective action space for promoting boys and girls equally increased, as did students' knowledge of gender differences and perception of diversity fairness in the classroom. Implementing the contents of REFLECT in general teacher education could contribute to sustainably achieving gender equality in education.

Introduction

Despite formally equal educational opportunities for women and men, there are still massive gender differences in students' academic motivation and achievement that flow into gender-typed educational and occupational aspirations ( Kollmayer et al., 2018a). Women are still underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) while men are underrepresented in health and other socially oriented sectors ( Boniol et al., 2019; European Commission, 2019). This underrepresentation starts at school where girls report lower academic self-concepts in STEM subjects than boys even after achievement is controlled for while the same is true for boys' self-concepts in reading and languages ( Wigfield et al., 2002; Meece et al., 2006). In general, gender differences in motivation and achievement tend to be small in early childhood and the first school years but become increasingly apparent in adolescence ( Evans et al., 2002; Hyde, 2005). Moreover, gender differences vary depending on the context of their investigation ( Hyde, 2005) which indicates that socialization practices can minimize or exaggerate genuine gender differences.

Expectancy-value theory is one of the most influential theories for explaining human motivation and achievement. The theory postulates that an individual's achievement and achievement-related choices can be explained by their expectations about how well they will do on a certain activity and the extent to which they value the activity ( Wigfield and Eccles, 2000). Drawing on this, gender differences in expectations for success and values of certain tasks and domains were found to be related to gender stereotypes conveyed by parents and teachers ( Jussim et al., 1996; Wang and Degol, 2013). Gender stereotypes are culturally shared assumptions about the typical characteristics of women and men or girls and boys ( Ashmore and Boca, 1979; Kite et al., 2008). Men and women are assumed to differ in terms of achievement-oriented traits labeled as agency, competence, instrumentality, and in terms of social- and service-oriented traits labeled as communion, warmth, or expressivity. These assumptions correspond to traditional gender roles that expect men to be strong, aggressive and assertive, and women to be nurturing, polite, and beautiful. Regarding educational domains, STEM subjects are gender-typed as masculine while languages are gender-typed as feminine ( Ceci and Williams, 2007, 2010; Steffens and Jelenec, 2011).

Teachers are an important starting point for promoting gender equity at school as their gender stereotyped beliefs and educational practices were found to influence gender differences in students substantially ( Gunderson et al., 2012; Heyder et al., 2020). Tiedemann (2000) found elementary teachers to think that average achieving girls were less talented than equally achieving boys. Moreover, teachers were found to attribute girls' unexpected failure more to low ability and less to lack of effort than boys' unexpected failure ( Fennema et al., 1990). Regarding classroom interactions, boys were found to receive more praise and critical feedback from teachers and to be given more time to talk in classrooms than girls ( Sadker et al., 1991). Therefore, it is not surprising that teachers' gender stereotypes relate to their students' academic self-concepts. For example, boys have lower academic self-concepts and performance in reading if their teachers have gender stereotypical expectations regarding reading skills ( Retelsdorf et al., 2015; Wolter et al., 2015; Muntoni and Retelsdorf, 2018). Similar relationships have been found between teachers' gender stereotypes and girls' academic self-concept and performance in mathematics ( Tiedemann, 2000; Steinmayr et al., 2019). In addition, teachers' gender stereotypes seem to impact their students' educational careers through transitional recommendations. Teachers with more pronounced gender stereotypes tend to recommend boys to mathematics and science-oriented secondary schools and girls to language-oriented schools ( Nürnberger et al., 2016) which sets the course for gender-stereotyped career choices.

In summary, teachers seem to lack effective strategies to counteract the often-unwanted maintenance of gender stereotypes in their teaching as this topic is rarely dealt with in regular teacher training ( Gray and Leith, 2004). Most interventions to reduce gender stereotypes in schools directly target students ( Lamb et al., 2009; Brinkman et al., 2011) and focus exclusively on the promotion of girls in STEM subjects ( Good et al., 2003; Zhao et al., 2018). However, training programs for teachers who work with hundreds of pupils in their professional lives and can thus act as multipliers are significantly more sustainable. Interestingly, Lüftenegger et al. (2012) found gender differences in motivation to decrease when teachers fostered aspects of individualization and autonomy in their classrooms. Teachers who choose to promote autonomy and individualization in their teaching seem to be less guided by unconscious gender stereotypes, but more mindful to their students' individual talents and needs. Concerning concrete classroom activities, promoting autonomy and individualization means to give each student the opportunity to choose tasks or learning settings that fit their interests and abilities. This fosters a positive motivational climate in which diversity is a normal phenomenon that a teacher is aware of, cares about and knows strategies for dealing with. In general, motivational support is seen as a central means of reducing gender differences at school ( Lubinski et al., 2000; Ziegler et al., 2006).

Pedagogical Framework and Principles of REFLECT

The training program REFLECT aims at promoting secondary school teachers' competences for reflective coeducation ( Faulstich-Wieland, 1994) by teaching them to design tuition in a way that enables girls and boys to develop their interests and competences together without being restricted by gender stereotypes ( Finsterwald et al., 2014). The basic idea of reflective coeducation is that mixed-sex schooling can only be successful if teachers permanently reflect on their own gender stereotypes, examine whether their attitudes, and teaching practices stabilize existing gender relations and further develop their teaching competences ( Horstkemper and Faulstich-Wieland, 1996). Thus, the training program REFLECT focuses on how teachers can succeed in promoting individual motivation and achievement in all students without being restricted by gender stereotypes.

REFLECT is theoretically based on the actiotope model that explains human actions based on system theory ( Ziegler et al., 2006, 2011) see Figure 1. An individual's actiotope consists of four interacting components: environment, goals, action repertoire, and subjective action space. The environment represents the material and symbolic framework for an individual's goal-oriented actions. The action repertoire includes all actions an individual is theoretically capable of performing, and the action repertoire actually used by an individual is designated as his/her current action repertoire. A person's subjective action space contains all behavior he/she perceives as feasible for himself/herself. Thus, according to the actiotope model, the process of transforming the current situation into a desired future state is regulated by the individual's action repertoire, subjective action space and the behavior options given in a specific environment. A teacher's environment is constituted by the students, the school's equipment, the colleagues and the headmaster. A teacher's current action repertoire includes his or her professional knowledge and set of actually applied teaching methods. Teachers' assumptions about the variability of gender differences as well as their self-efficacy beliefs to make a difference through teaching constitute their subjective action space.

Figure 1. The actiotope model.

In the training program REFLECT, four didactic principles were systematically applied: (1) Promoting the acquisition of various types of knowledge, namely declarative, procedural, contextual, and metacognitive knowledge ( De Jong and Ferguson-Hessler, 1996). Teachers are guided to reflect on their own implicit assumptions and to come up with concrete applications of the training contents in their daily work life. (2) Designing the training modules according to principles of instructional psychology that have been shown to be effective in teacher trainings ( Schober et al., 2007; Finsterwald et al., 2013; Lüftenegger et al., 2016). Every module contains teaching steps to attract attention, inform the participants about the learning goals, activate prior knowledge, illustrate the significance of the learning contents, offer guidance while learning, and secure retention and transfer ( Klauer, 1985). (3) Ensuring transfer following the anchored instruction approach ( Bransford et al., 1990). Teachers work with authentic learning situations and are encouraged to test the training contents in their lessons. In each module, time is reserved for the teachers to exchange their experiences and discuss difficulties. Moreover, the second phase of the training is dedicated to transferring the training contents into teachers' classrooms. (4) Imparting the learning contents explicitly and implicitly. During the training, the teachers explicitly learn how to foster individualization and autonomy in their classrooms while the trainers themselves apply these teaching methods for implicit mediation.

Learning Environment, Objectives and Pedagogical Format

REFLECT focuses on teachers' actiotope for promoting gender equality in their classrooms by realizing the principles of reflective coeducation. Therefore, teachers learn about scientific findings on the emergence and maintenance of gender differences in academic motivation, achievement and aspirations, and about possibilities to reduce these gender differences through appropriate teaching methods in order to expand their current action repertoires. As teachers will only apply the acquired knowledge if they are convinced that they can implement it, their subjective action space is enlarged in the training through practical exercises and the supervised implementation of a classroom project. Teachers' environment flows into REFLECT as the teachers test all training contents in the classroom and discuss their experiences in the training. Moreover, the training addresses the role of language, textbooks, colleagues, and students' parents as relevant aspects of their environment. Although REFLECT is a teacher training program, it also aims at students. The intended changes in teachers' actiotopes are assumed to lead to changes in their teaching which in turn should lead to changes in their students. Therefore, REFLECT has three interrelated training goals: (1) Expanding secondary school teachers' current action repertoire by providing them with the knowledge necessary to change their teaching according to the principles of reflective coeducation; (2) Expanding teachers' subjective action space by enhancing their self-efficacy beliefs regarding reflective coeducation; (3) Increasing students' knowledge about the emergence of gender differences and improving their perception of diversity fairness in class.

The training program is conducted within the framework of a two-semester course. It is divided into two consecutive phases, an intensive phase followed by a supervision phase. For the participating teachers REFLECT embraces a work effort of 100 h per phase. In the intensive phase, teachers attend four modules of 2 days (à 7 h) in a university setting (56 h). In the remaining 44 h of this phase, participants work with the training contents in preparation and follow-up processing between the modules. In the second semester during the supervision phase, teachers integrate the contents of the training into their teaching with the support of the trainers that is fading in accordance with the cognitive apprenticeship method ( Collins et al., 1989). Training contents in the intensive phase cover an introduction to the topic of reflective coeducation (Module 1), psychological findings regarding gender differences in education (Module 2), and concrete teaching methods to reduce gender differences in the classroom (Modules 3 and 4). In the first module, the participating teachers get to know different psychological approaches to the topic of promoting gender equity in schools including the comparison of single-sex education and reflective coeducation. In addition, they are guided in reflecting on their own gender stereotypes, which is an important prerequisite for reflective coeducation. The second module deals with the development of gender differences emphasizing the nature versus nurture debate ( Eagly and Wood, 2013). The main focus of the module is on the contribution of gender stereotyped socialization practices to gender development and differentiation ( Bussey and Bandura, 1999). Among others, the module emphasizes the influence of parents, teachers, media, and language use ( Kollmayer et al., 2018b). Based on this, teachers are guided to reflect on their impact on the emergence of gender differences among their students. In the third module, teachers learn to identify aspects of their teaching that can lead to the development of gender-typed academic motivation, achievement and aspirations in their students, and about ways of promoting gender equity in the classroom, for example by selecting adequate teaching materials or assigning tasks differently. The module especially focuses on how to create a climate of motivational equity, in which students are motivated to learn primarily for intrinsic reasons ( Covington, 1998). Building on that, teachers are guided in designing lessons that foster individualization and autonomy and thus reduce the impact of gender stereotypes on motivation and achievement ( Lüftenegger et al., 2012). Figure 2 highlights how the different elements of the training (theoretical input, practical exercises, and research experiments) interact to support the teachers in reaching the learning goals of the third module as an example for the general structure of the training. In the fourth module, REFLECT deals with the importance of attributions, i.e., assigning causes to success and failure for academic motivation and achievement ( Weiner, 1985). Teachers learn about typical gender differences in attributions for academic success and failure and about related feedback behavior of teachers ( Fennema et al., 1990; Sadker et al., 1991). They practice how to give students attributional feedback that strengthens their individual motivation regardless of their gender. In addition, options for implementing reflective coeducation at the school level are discussed, e.g., representing this principle in conversation with headmasters, colleagues, and parents.

Figure 2. Training goals and contents of Module 3.

The intensive phase of REFLECT is followed by a supervision phase to ensure that the teachers integrate the training contents into their daily work routines. In this phase, the teachers are supervised in developing and conducting individual class projects dealing with the topic of "Gender and Occupation," as gender differences in secondary school students often flow into gender-typed career choices ( OECD, 2012). Teachers are encouraged to design their class projects to suit the subjects they usually teach. Each teacher is bound to spend at least 10 lessons for at least 5 weeks on the class project, since programs were found to have significant effects only after a longer implementation phase ( Lipowsky and Rzejak, 2012). The class projects include teaching students about the fact that girls and boys do not systematically differ in their aptitudes for different occupations, reflecting on reasons for differences in career choices, and discussing society's gender (in)equality. The teachers are supported in designing the class projects in line with the teaching methods they get to know in the intensive phase.

Evaluation Results

In a pilot study with 38 teachers who participated in REFLECT and their 564 students, the effectivity of the training program was systematically evaluated. The evaluation was carried out by means of a training-control-group design with a multi-method, multi-informant approach using pre- and posttest data. Teachers and students completed different quantitative (knowledge tests; questionnaires with closed answer format) and qualitative instruments (research logbook, portfolios). Both the training group and the control group were surveyed at the beginning and shortly after completion of the project with self-report online questionnaires. Detailed information about the data collection, methods, and results of the evaluation of the training program can be found in two original research articles dealing exclusively with the evaluation of REFLECT - Kollmayer et al. (2019) for teachers and Schultes et al. (2015) for students.

As indicators for teachers' current action repertoire, we assessed their knowledge of gender differences in education using multiple choice questions as well as their use of teaching methods promoting autonomy ( Jerusalem et al., 2009). The multiple-choice questions were analyzed in a way that minimized the probability of guessing the right result ( Kubinger, 2014). One point was awarded if a question was answered completely correct (i.e., if all correct alternatives and no false alternatives were selected), in any other case, zero points were awarded. As indicators for teachers' subjective action space, their self-efficacy for motivation enhancement ( Bandura, 1997) as well as their implicit theories about gender differences ( Dweck et al., 1995) were assessed. In addition, the online questionnaire contained questions regarding teachers' demographic characteristics (e.g., gender, age, years of service) and a shortened form of the modern sexism scale ( Eckes and Six-Materna, 1998). The teachers answered all questions on sliders with a marked middle from 0 (not at all convinced) to 100 (fully convinced). Sample items and reliabilities of the scales are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Sample items and reliabilities of the questionnaires used in the evaluation of REFLECT.

The 38 teachers of the training group were matched with 76 teachers of the control group (consisting of 121 teachers in total) using propensity score matching ( Lee and Little, 2017). In quasi-experimental intervention designs, propensity score matching minimizes effects caused by non-controllable confounding variables. In order to determine relevant matching criteria, we analyzed differences between the two groups at the first measurement point. We detected significant differences between the training group and the control group regarding teachers' sexist attitudes ( Eckes and Six-Materna, 1998) and regarding the extent to which teachers already promoted autonomy in their classrooms, indicating that teachers who participated in the training program REFLECT were less sexist and promoted autonomy to a greater extent than their colleagues who did not participate in REFLECT. To account for these differences, we matched participants of the two groups according to similarity in these variables, as well as their proximity in gender and age. The results of the evaluation show the effectiveness of the training program REFLECT ( Kollmayer et al., 2019). In comparison to the control group, REFLECT teachers' current action repertoire and subjective action space showed a stronger increase. More concretely, over the duration of the training program, trained teachers showed a higher increase in their knowledge about gender differences in education and also a higher increase in promoting students' autonomy in the classroom (= current action repertoire). Moreover, regarding teachers' subjective action space, REFLECT led to a higher increase in teachers' self-efficacy beliefs for enhancing students' motivation and to a stronger decrease in teachers' beliefs that gender differences are unchangeable.

The effectiveness of REFLECT on the part of the students was analyzed in combination with the teachers' fidelity in implementing their class projects during the supervision phase (for details, see Schultes et al., 2015). Teachers had documented their class projects in portfolios, which were rated by two independent experts concerning intervention fidelity to the didactic principles of reflective coeducation. Participating students ( N = 564) were surveyed on their knowledge about gender issues using single-choice questions (wrong/false) and on their perception of diversity fairness in the classroom ( Schober et al., 2007) at a pre- and posttest. Moreover, they also rated the intervention fidelity of the class projects ( Rakoczy et al., 2008). Changes in outcome variables were tested using latent change modeling, and experts' and students' ratings of intervention fidelity were linked to outcomes in students using hierarchical linear modeling. The results showed that the students' knowledge about gender issues increased during the program. When the teachers had implemented the class projects as intended, there was also an increase in students' perception of diversity fairness in the classroom. Sample items and reliabilities of the scales are shown in Table 1.

Discussion

The training program REFLECT focuses on imparting reflective coeducation in secondary schools, where students' gender-typed academic motivation and occupational aspirations develop under the influence of teachers. Reflective coeducation requires teachers to reflect on their own gender stereotypes, to examine whether their teaching is influenced by gender stereotypes, and to develop their teaching competences ( Faulstich-Wieland, 1994). Training teachers is very sustainable as each teacher works with hundreds of students in his/her professional life. The results of the pilot study show that REFLECT not only made teachers see gender differences as less unchangeable, but also gave them confidence for promoting their students' motivation regardless of their gender. Moreover, REFLECT led to an increase in knowledge about gender differences in education and in the use of teaching methods to promote autonomy and individualization. Both aspects are central to reflective coeducation. Only teachers who know how to counteract existing gender stereotypes in their teaching and also believe that they are capable of changing gender differences will promote change.

Of course, secondary schools are not the only educational context where gender stereotypes are maintained. Interventions to promote gender equality must consider the peculiarities of different stages of human development and educational contexts. While students' academic motivation and occupational decisions are especially relevant topics to deal with for secondary school teachers, teachers in preschools have to focus on other topics for realizing reflective coeducation. Preschool teachers were found to project gender stereotypes about play onto their students ( Lynch, 2015) which can result in gender-typed toy preferences in children. Gender-typed toy play in turn leads to the promotion of gender-typed skills, with girls practicing communal roles and boys practicing agentic roles ( Li and Wong, 2016). Therefore, we also developed a training program for preschool teachers, in which they learn about children's gender development and differentiation, mechanisms and materials that perpetuate gender stereotypes in preschool settings, and how to create a less stereotypical environment that enables a greater range of interests and behaviors in children ( Kollmayer et al., 2018c).

The pilot study showed that teachers voluntarily participating in REFLECT were less sexist and had already applied better teaching methods than the average teacher in the control group. Therefore, implementing reflective coeducation in general teacher education could contribute to achieving gender equity in education even more than training programs that reach primarily teachers who are already sensitized to issues of gender equality. However, transferring insights from research to policy and society is not trivial ( Schober et al., 2016). Spiel et al. (2018) propose a six-step procedure for implementing intervention research into public policy, that includes mission-driven problem recognition, ensuring availability of robust scientific knowledge, identification of reasonable starting points for action, establishment of a cooperation process with policymakers, coordinated development of intervention, and transfer of program implementation. Following these steps, the REFLECT program was developed with the support of five Austrian federal ministries. However, even after successful piloting, the contents of the training program were not implemented in general teacher education. This shows the challenges involved in linking the systems of politics and science that still have to be overcome.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics Statement

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants' legal guardian/next of kin.

Author Contributions

MF, BS, and CS developed the training program. MK and M-TS prepared the draft manuscript. MF, ML, and CS provided critical revisions. All authors contributed meaningfully to the manuscript and approved the final version of the manuscript for submission.

Funding

The publication of this article was supported by the open access funding provided by University of Vienna. The development and piloting of the training program REFLECT was funded by the following Austrian federal ministries: Education, the Arts and Culture; Women and Public Service; Transport, Innovation, and Technology; Labor, Social Affairs, and Consumer Protection. The development and piloting of the training program for preschool teachers mentioned in the Discussion section was funded by the Austrian federal ministry for Family and Youth.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

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REFLECT - A Teacher Training Program to Promote Gender Equality in Schools

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Despite formally equal educational opportunities for women and men, educational and occupational careers are still characterized by gender disparities rather than gender equality. Men are overrepresented in STEM fields and higher positions, while women are frequently working in low-status jobs in the health and social sector.

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From an early age, it is important to teach our boys about respecting women.

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A tribute to Rosie the Riveter, this children's book tells the story about a young girl who dreams about being a great engineer. Rosie learns the importance of persistence and following one's dreams without the fear of failure.

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This image details the difference between equity and equality.

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US Census Data on Women in the Workforce

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US Census Data on Women in the Workforce

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This resource includes the census data from 1967-2006, and shows a breakdown of the wage gap in America.