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Around 1915, economic conditions in the South were very poor. These conditions paired with the Jim Crow laws present throughout the South gave many black workers a reason to want to find a new home.

To the luck of these black workers, the perfect opportunity had sprung up. WWI created a great demand for industrial production, but also limited the amount of immigrant laborers coming to the U.S.

These factors meant that there was a massive need for workers in the North. Around 1 million African Americans would leave the South by 1919, searching for work in the North.

This mass movement to the North is a part of what was known as the Great Migration, which lasted from roughly 1915 to 1970.

Click here to learn more about the Great Migration

(A map depicting the general movements of African Americans during the Great Migration)

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•The Harlem Renaissance planted the seed for the Civil Rights Movement as more and more African Americans understood their own personal value and significance.

•Art, novels, poems, and other art forms by black artists showed the world the oppression black people were being faced with. African Americans were finally standing up and gaining the political rights they deserved after being abused and exploited by Jim Crow laws for decades. Over the years,  a lot progress was made towards equality. Today, black and white are equal on paper but there is still more progress to be made towards equality.
#progress

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The Harlem Renaissance challenged white supremacy socially and politically during the 20s and 30s. White supremacy was challenged socially through the rising popularity of African American art and culture. Black Americans were now seen as talented individuals instead of a stereotype. Many artists focused their work on attacking racial violence. Writers like Alice Dunbar Nelson wrote about lynchings in order to bring light to that issue. Overall, white supremacy was challenged through art, literature, and social activism.
#whitesupremacysucks

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Throughout history, negative stereotypes have influenced public perception of African Americans. As such, a major goal of the Harlem Renaissance was to escape these stereotypes.

Slavery Era depictions of black men typically went one of two ways:

Either they were seen as being lazy, unintelligent, and docile

Or they were seen as beasts. Violent creatures, who longed to kill white men and women.

The first stereotype came about as the result of efforts to justify slavery. The argument of slaveholders was basically that black people are too stupid to live by themselves, and that ultimately they are actually happier and better off being slaves. The second stereotype however, had its origins within social Darwinism. Pseudoscience was used to draw comparisons between the stature and behavior of African Americans and that of apes or monkeys. These comparisons would then be used to justify the beating, torturing, and killing of misbehaving or rebellious slaves.

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The most famous stereotype of black men is that of Jim Crow

Jim Crow was a caricature of a black man with an over exaggeration of various black features. He dances all the time, he has pitch black skin, and extremely large lips

Before black people were common throughout the Northern and Western United States, this stereotype is what most white people based their perceptions on.

(A representation of Jim Crow)

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After the emancipation of the slaves, new stereotypes began to spring up. African Americans born into slavery were seen as “the good old Negros," meaning hardworking and happy to work for their old masters. This is compared to African Americans born out of slavery who were seen as discontent and lazy.

The goal was to discourage their newfound independence, and reinforce the idea that they would be happier working for some rich white man.

This goal of discouraging the independence of African Americans can also be seen in the stereotypes surrounding watermelon. Before watermelon became a stereotype of the Jim Crow era, it actually symbolized self sufficiency as growing and selling watermelons was common among the newly freed slaves. However, to discourage this self sufficiency white southerners transformed it into a symbol of uncleanliness and lack of wealth.

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Black women have also faced various stereotypes

The "Mammy" stereotype was popularized by the book "Gone with the Wind" by Margaret Mitchell. The idea was that of a larger black women, with an undying loyalty to a white family and white lifestyle. Although she treated white people with respect, she would dominate over her children and husband (adding to the belief in the inferiority of black men as compared to white men).

An extension of the mammy stereotype is the Aunt Jemimah stereotype. This stereotype reinforced the idea that the place of black women was domestic work (cooking specifically). This stereotype became so engrained that the effects of it are still very much relevant today (Aunt Jemimah syrup and pancakes).

The “sapphire” stereotype depicted African American women as loud, aggressive, and mean. This differed greatly from the mammy stereotype in that sapphire went against all social norms. This stereotype is still prevalent today (think about how many shows and movies you’ve seen with a stereotypical loud and sassy black woman).

The “Jezebelle” stereotype portrayed black women as irresistible seductresses. The goal of this stereotype was to remove the responsibility of white men in cases of rape against black women.

Click here for a more in depth view of Jim Crow and other stereotypes. #StereotypesAlwaysArise

(A picture of Hattie Mcdaniel, a major inspiration for the Mammy stereotype)

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The music scene flourished during the Harlem Renaissance. Jazz music became increasingly popular during this time. Jazz music is still very influential today.

•Louis Armstrong
Louis Armstrong is one of the most iconic musicians that arose from the Harlem Renaissance. Armstrong started off playing his cornet (a brass instrument similar to a trumpet) and he became one of the most sought after cornetists in town. Armstrong turned music into a soloist act by doing his famous spontaneous solos. Armstrong toured with his band called the Hot Seven up until Louis died in 1971.

•In the Invisible Man, the narrator reflects his own thoughts on Louis Armstrong: "Perhaps I like Louis Armstrong because he's made poetry out of being invisible. I think it must be because he's unaware that he is invisible. And my own grasp of invisibility aids me to understand his music." (Ellison 7)

•Billie Holiday
Elinore Harris, AKA Billie Holiday, was a prolific jazz singer during the 30s through the 50s. After she moved to New York in 1928, she began singing at a nightclub in Harlem. Even though she previously had no vocal training, Billie soon developed her own style of singing that launched her into stardom. Cabarets were popular during this time and they were the choice venue for Holiday. Unfortunately, Holiday developed a heroin addiction which damaged her voice and got her arrested for a narcotics violation. Billie still chose to keep singing and her fame still lives on today.

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Please listen to this chilling performance of "Strange Fruit" by Billie Holiday and watch as she pours her emotions out in this song. #sad:(

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Billie Holiday - "Strange Fruit" Live 1959 [Reelin' In The Years Archives]

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Creating a new identity for African Americans 

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Creating a new identity for African Americans 

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•African Americans sought to embrace art in a way that reconstructed the Negro stereotype. Their goal was also to rebirth black heritage through art.
#yayart!
•Another reason African Americans started to develop their own identity was due to the fact that the population of black people, especially in Manhattan, was growing and now they could be part of a black community. This new artistic community gave African Americans a sense of pride and accomplishment.

•Many artists, musicians, and writers incorporated traditional African American culture as well as their southern roots into their work, representing their rich heritage.

•Artists like Langston Hughes and Aaron Douglas sought to challenge black stereotypes and create a new view of African Americans. Visual stereotypes like Sambo dolls were fought against by artists who wished to show the culture and beauty of black people. Other stereotypes concerning black intelligence and work ethic were challenged by black writers and poets to show that they’re hardworking, talented individuals just like anybody else.

(Sambo dolls like the one below were common during this era. They portray an offensive black stereotype from the jet black skin to the over exaggerated facial features. Many of these dolls were made to dance as well.) #offensive

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Many black artists who were popular during the Harlem Renaissance actually gained their fame in Europe. Many of these artists worked in Paris like Josephine Baker.

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Poetry and literature thrived during the Harlem Renaissance. Writers sought to show readers the racism faced by every age and class of black people.

•Langston Hughes
Arguably one of the most iconic poets of the Harlem Renaissance, Langston Hughes portrayed the black experience through poetry, plays, novels, and even Jazz music. Hughes depicted black life in America by reflecting on their shared suffering as well as showing the rich culture they have created together.

Dreams

Hold fast to dreams
For if dreams die
Life is a broken-winged bird
That cannot fly.

Hold fast to dreams
For when dreams go
Life is a barren field
Frozen with snow.

•Alice Dunbar Nelson
Women were also very prominent figures during this time. One of the most important female writers during this time, Alice Dunbar Nelson, was a mixed race writer who showed her complicated view of race and gender through poetry and books. Nelson published her first book, Violets and Other Tales (1895) when she was only 20 years old. Nelson tackled topics such as sexuality, racism, and family and how women are affected by these subjects. Besides writing, Nelson also taught at Howard Highschool and Howard University. While she did this she also pushed for the Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill of 1924.

Amid the Roses

There is tropical warmth and languorous life
Where the roses lie
In a tempting drift
Of pink and red and golden light
Untouched as yet by the pruning knife.
And the still, warm life of the roses fair
That whisper “Come,”
With promises
Of sweet caresses, close and pure
Has a thorny whiff in the perfumed air.

There are thorns and love in the roses’ bed,
And Satan too
Must linger there;
So Satan’s wiles and the conscience stings,
Must now abide—the roses are dead.

(from Violets and Other Tales, 1895)

•Countee Cullen
Countee Cullen is another influential writer of the Harlem Renaissance. During the 1920's, Cullen won more literary awards than any other black artist at that time. Since a young child, Cullen loved writing stories and poems. Cullen was also surrounded by prominent black figures throughout his life. At age 15 Cullen was adopted by Reverend F.A. Cullen who later became the head of the NAACP in Harlem. Countee Cullen also later married Yolande Du Bois who is famous author, W.E.B. Du Bois's, only child. Cullen, like most other writers at this time, tried to stray away from being a "negro poet' and instead just wanted to be a poet. Countee wanted to be seen as an artist rather than grouped into a category.

Harlem Wine

This is not water running here,
These thick rebellious streams
That hurtle flesh and bone past fear
Down alleyways of dreams

This is a wine that must flow on
Not caring how or where
So it has ways to flow upon
Where song is in the air.

So it can woo an artful flute
With loose elastic lips
Its measurements of joy compute
With blithe, ecstatic hips.

These writers, among many others, pioneered a new wave of literature that portrayed the black experience in a critical, yet celebratory way.

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"Dream Deferred (Harlem)" Langston Hughes poem EXAMPLE of Harlem Renaissance literature

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From drawing, to painting, to photography, art during the Harlem Renaissance prospered. Like every other form of expression during this time, the goal of these artists was to represent the individual black artist and stray away from being categorized. These artists wanted to be seen as an artist, and not become invisible by white eyes. Many artists incorporated West African culture into their artwork in order to connect to their roots. Overall, art during the Harlem Renaissance thrived and still continues to influence artists today.

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In the early 1900’s overdevelopment in Northern Manhattan (Harlem) left many buildings empty, and many landlords desperate.

This desperation led to landlords accepting many black tenants into the area despite growing tensions in the North over limited housing space, and the opposition of the white inhabitants already living in the area.

Many of these white inhabitants would end up leaving the area, resulting in Harlem becoming a predominantly black neighborhood. As a result of this fact, Harlem would later became a very popular destination for the incoming migrants of the Great Migration.

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Aaron Douglas is an iconic artist from the Harlem Renaissance. Douglas was influenced by 1920s New York and Art Deco. Douglas strived to create art representing racial pride and his art became highly well known in the Harlem scene. Douglas also made illustrations for books. In James Weldon Johnson's book God's Trombones, Douglas illustrated black characters into the white washed story of Christ and his crucifixion.

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Richmond Barthé is an important artist from the Renaissance who started as a painter but later discovered his passion for sculpture. His work was very popular from the 20s to the 40s.
#CoolSculptureBro

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Richmond Barthé:  African-American sculptor (1901-1989)

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James Richmond Barthé (January 28, 1901 - March 5, 1989) was an African American sculptor known for his many public works, including the Toussaint LOuverture Monument in Port-au-Prince, Haiti and a sculpture of Rose McClendon for Frank Lloyd Wrights Fallingwater House.

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James Latimer Allen was a popular photographer during this time who captured images of well educated African Americans.

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James Latimer Allen  (1907-1977) - Photographer

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Before the Harlem Renaissance, many plays and dramas portrayed black people in a damaging and offensive way. Blackface was popular at this time and it gave a skewed representation of the black experience. Black actors and actresses started developing their own all-black theaters and acting groups. There was a lot of tension within this art form as many black people couldn't agree on the purpose of their plays. Alain Locke, an African American philosopher, believed that drama should focus on the souls of black people rather than try to push some agenda. However, writers like W.E.B Du Bois believed that all art portrays some form of propaganda. Female playwrights also became popular. Georgia Douglas Johnson was a female playwright and poet that focused on the female folk experience.

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The large black population centers that had formed in the North led  to the creation of black culture pride movements. Harlem quickly became a center of art, music, and culture. Many white people became interested in Harlem because of the vibrant culture, but also because of the alcohol that could be found in the speakeasies prevalent throughout Harlem (Prohibition was in effect during this time period).

(A black musician performing during the Harlem Renaissance)

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The stock market crash of 1929 and the Great Depression marked the beginning of the end for the Harlem Renaissance.

The next nail in the coffin was the end of Prohibition, which meant that white people no longer came to Harlem for alcohol.

The final strike against the Harlem Renaissance was the 1935 Harlem Race Riot. Before the riots, racial tensions over police brutality and racism had already been spreading throughout Harlem. However, the arrest of a Puerto Rican teenager named Lino Rivera acted as a catalyst for rioting. After the teenager was caught committing petty theft, a police officer attempted to remove him from the scene while avoiding a growing crowd of people attracted by the commotion. However, since Lino's whereabouts were unknown, the crowd feared that he was either being beaten by the officer or was dead, which resulted in rioting. Ultimately the riot left three people dead and millions of dollars in property damages, as well as massive growth in racial tensions.

Click here to learn more about the riot. #GoodThingsAlwaysEnd

Click here to learn more about the history of the Harlem Renaissance

(A picture taken during the riot)

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Drag Balls became increasingly popular during the Harlem Renaissance's night life scene.

•Drag, which has become very popular today, is an expressive form of art where men dress as glamorous women while dancing, singing, performing, etc. These Drag Balls hosted a variety of patrons who all enjoyed viewing these lavish parties. White people also enjoyed attending and Drag Balls became a place of inclusion.

•Lesbians, bi-sexuals, gay men, and even transgendered people all flocked to these balls in order to feel seen and included. Many of these Drag Balls consisted of mostly gay men, and many famous characters of the Harlem Renaissance attended them. Langston Hughes, Countee Cullen, Richard Bruce Nugent, and many other important figures were all frequent attendees to these drag balls.
#inclusive
•The inclusivity of these events portrayed the goals of the Harlem Renaissance and showed that many different types of people can all get along in the same room. Many exclusively black Drag Balls were formed where the "girls" participated in different drag events. These places were a safe-haven for (mainly gay) black people to congregate and express themselves.

#NotCommonlyDiscussed
(Flash warning at the beginning of the video)

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How Do I Look, Harlem Drag Balls Trailer

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The Harlem Renaissance inspired many African Americans to produce art and music.

• Click here to view African American Art in the collection of the National Gallery of Art produced over the years. #StillRelevantToday

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•The Harlem Renaissance brought light to women's rights issues, especially for black women. Black women could not use being male or being white in order to access social equality. The efforts of these women helped bring women of all types together to fight against the male patriarchy. It took until 1965 for black and latinx women to be able to vote without being discriminated based on color and gender. Today, feminism is still a social issue but the efforts these Harlem women made improved the lives of women across America.
#gowomen

(Zora Neale Hurston 1891-1960. An important author and feminist during the Harlem Renaissance. Her most popular work was her novel Their Eyes Were Watching God.)

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A major goal of the Harlem Renaissance was to escape the many stereotypes that had plagued African Americans. However, many new stereotypes would also be formed as a result of the Harlem Renaissance.

The Harlem Renaissance made white people interested in black culture, but that doesn’t necessarily mean that they were interested in black people.

Black culture became very trendy as African Americans were characterized as uncaring about the world around them, and only wanting to sing and dance. The view on their place in the world had shifted from that of laborers for the white man, to that of the entertainers of the white man.

The white Americans’ interest in black culture, but not in black people is best represented by the Cotton Club. The Cotton Club would have performances from prominent black musicians, however only white people were allowed into the club. These white people wanted to experience black culture without having to actually intermingle with black people. Click here to learn more about the Cotton Club.

Plays and movies that dramatized black culture and black life found huge success amongst white audiences, while productions that focused on more serious racial issues consistently failed to reach a large audience.

The arrival of the Great Depression proved that interest in black culture truly was just a trend. As soon as people began to lose their jobs interest in the Harlem Renaissance disappeared, and along with it the hopes of social change amongst the black community.

(A picture of the Cotton Club)

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•At the beginning of the novel, the IM is invited to give a speech at his graduation. When he arrives, he realizes he is there to provide entertainment to the town's most important white citizens. Another form of entertainment provided was a naked, blond, white woman, "... I saw a beautiful girl the color of ivory pleading in a voice like my mother's as she stood before a group of slave owners who bid for her naked body..." (Ellison 7).  The IM and his classmates were forced to watch as she danced. This scene showed that women were just forms of entertainment, much like the narrator and his classmates. Even though she was white, she still wasn't as important as the white men.

• The narrator and Mr. Norton go visit Trueblood during Chapter 2, a black man who lives near the narrator's school. Trueblood has been exiled by the other black people in the community and Norton asks Trueblood to explain why. Trueblood tells Norton the story of how he raped his daughter and got her pregnant. " And I figgers too, that if I don't move it maybe ain't no sin, 'cause it happened when I was asleep -- although maybe sometimes a man can look at a little ole pigtail gal and see him a whore -- you'all know that?" (Ellison 47). Trueblood sexualizes his daughter and feels that he has control over her. He calls his own daughter a whore and feels it's her fault that he wanted to have sex with her.

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The prevalence of stereotypes is a major theme throughout The Invisible Man:

While at a gathering in Chapter 14, the Invisible Man is approached and asked to sing simply because he is black. When he says that he doesn't sing, he gets the response, “Nonsense, all colored people sing” (Ellison 242). The Harlem Renaissance stereotype that all black people sing and dance is clearly present here.

Pre-Harlem Renaissance stereotypes are still prevalent throughout the story.

At one point in Chapter 20, the Invisible Man finds his friend out on the street selling Sambo dolls and singing, “This sambo, this jambo, this high stepping joy boy” (Ellison 335). The Invisible Man is shocked to see his friend has devolved into a state where he's willing to sell the dolls, however it shows that the Harlem Renaissance wasn't completely successful in getting rid of old stereotypes.

During chapter 17, the Invisible Man is told, “You got bad hair! You got thick lips! They say you stink! They hate you, mahn. You African. AFRICAN!" (Ellison 287), by a fellow black man. Not every African American believes that the Harlem Renaissance has actually made any change to the typical white person's view of the typical black man.

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The Invisible man takes place during the end of the Harlem Renaissance amidst growing economic and racial tensions in the Harlem area:

In Chapter 13, after an elderly black couple is kicked out of their home, a growing crowd of black men and women becomes enraged at the white men evicting them. One of them shouts, “Black men, did you ever see such a brute? Is he a gentlemen I ask you? The brute! Give it back to him, black men. Repay the brute a thousandfold!” (Ellison 217). Growing economic tensions are leading into racial tensions.

In Chapter 20, after returning to his favorite bar, the Invisible Man asks the owner if business is good, to which he responds, “I’d rather not discuss it brother, business is bad. Very bad” (Ellison 329). The economy within Harlem is stagnating.

All these tensions would eventually lead to the Harlem Riot

After nearly being killed during the chaos of the riot in Chapter 25, the Invisible Man overhears an explanation of how it began. “Didn’t I see it with my own eyes? About eight o’clock down on Lenox and 123rd this paddy slapped a kid for grabbing a Baby Ruth and the kids momma took it up and then the paddy slapped her and all hell broke loose,” (Ellison 419). Although this explanation doesn’t exactly match the events that occurred in real life, it isn’t far off. A small trigger is all it takes to cause a riot.

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Interest in black culture, without genuine interest or concern for black people, is still present in the modern day.

Police brutality, racial profiling, poverty within black communities,  the war on drugs, and various other race issues are topics of ongoing controversy and conflict within the United States.

Despite all the controversy surrounding racial issues, interest in black culture is still extremely high. Rap and R&B music tops the charts. Black actors and athletes are immensely popular throughout the country. Much of the lingo and fashion sense of youth across America is heavily influenced by black culture.

Black culture is undeniably influential to modern day trends in fashion, music, etc. However, similar to outcomes of the Harlem Renaissance, the influences of black culture have struggled to produce widespread social change. Recent social events might point in the direction of racial progress, however it will require more than trendiness to accomplish lasting effects.

(Check the billboard top 100 chart and see how many songs were created by or feature a black person)

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Skip to main content

Billboard Hot 100

THE WEEK'S MOST POPULAR CURRENT SONGS ACROSS ALL GENRES, RANKED BY STREAMING ACTIVITY DATA BY ONLINE MUSIC SOURCES TRACKED BY LUMINATE, RADIO AIRPLAY AUDIENCE IMPRESSIONS AS MEASURED BY LUMINATE AND SALES DATA AS COMPILED BY LUMINATE.

see charts legends

Stats Credits Awards News Share

Songwriter(s):

B.G.Knowles Carter, T.Y.Nash, C.A.Stewart, S.C.Carter, A.George, F.C.McFarlane, A.J.Pigott, F.Ross

Producer(s):

B.Knowles Carter, T.Y.Nash, Tricky, J.C.Isaken

Imprint/Promotion Label:

Parkwood/Columbia

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Billboard Hot 100

Week of August 20, 2022

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Skip to main content THE WEEK'S MOST POPULAR CURRENT SONGS ACROSS ALL GENRES, RANKED BY STREAMING ACTIVITY DATA BY ONLINE MUSIC SOURCES TRACKED BY LUMINATE, RADIO AIRPLAY AUDIENCE IMPRESSIONS AS MEASURED BY LUMINATE AND SALES DATA AS COMPILED BY LUMINATE.

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#beautiful painting by Ellis Wilson

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Works cited here

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The Invisible Man spends his life trying to create change for African Americans across the country. He is disgusted by common black stereotypes that surround him on the daily.

• In Chapter 14, the Invisible Man calls Brother Jack and he tells the narrator to go meet him immediately. They arrive at a building called the Chthonian. Brother Jack wants the narrator to join the brotherhood and he explains the goals of their organization. "What are we doing? What is our mission? It's simple; we are working for the better world for all people. It's that simple. Too many have been dispossessed of their heritage, and we have banded together in brotherhood so as to do something about it. What do you think of that?" (Ellison 235). This was the goal of many African American people during the Harlem Renaissance and many people still have these goals today.

•Just before IM leaves Mary's house to join the Brotherhood in Chapter 15, IM notices a very upsetting coin bank. ". . . the cast-iron figure of a very black, red-lipped and wide-mouthed Negro . . . stared up at me from the floor, his face an enormous grin, his single large black hand held palm up before his chest. It was a bank, a piece of early Americana, the kind of bank which, if a coin is placed in the hand and a lever pressed upon the back, will raise its arm and flip the coin into the grinning mouth." (Ellison 247). The coin bank represents racial stereotypes like how African Americans are considered an object made to entertain white people.

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This video is an explanation of our project and how to navigate it. :)

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This video is an explanation of our project and how to navigate it. :)