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Busts of Senators

Senators in the first century AD held much less power than their predecessors, although the Senate still had the right to confer the title of emperor.

This alone ensured that the Senate and its members remained relevant and important.

The Roman Senate started life as an advisory council, filled entirely with patricians. In the last two centuries of the republic, however, it had become much more powerful and a major player in politics and government.

Civil war

Many senators had been killed in the civil war that brought Julius Caesar to power in 46 BC: as a result, the Senate was looking a little empty. Caesar increased the number of senators from around 600 to 900. This changed the membership of the Senate considerably: many of the new faces were Equestrians or came from Italian towns – some even came from Gaul.

This increase in the number of senators soon reversed itself and, during the first century, the Senate consisted of 600 men. Most were either sons of senators, or were elected quaestors (junior magistrates).

Climbing the ladder

Only Roman citizens aged 25 or over, with both military and administrative experience, could become quaestors, the lowest rung on the government ladder. Potential candidates were nominated by the emperor and the elections were merely a formality.

Once elected, an ambitious senator would progress through the different ranks of magistrates. These included the quaestorship, the aedileship, the praetorship and, ultimately, the consulship and the position held at any one time determined his senatorial rank.

Privileges of office

In addition to their political and judicial powers, senators had special privileges. They alone could hold the highest official offices and judgeships in criminal and civil courts. In addition, senators enjoyed reserved seating at public ceremonies and games, and they alone had the honor of wearing the 'latus clavus' – the purple striped toga.

In 27 BC, Augustus claimed he had restored the republic. In truth, Rome was governed by a dynastic monarchy and real power was held by the emperor. Augustus pretended that he valued the traditional republican institutions. He understood that it was politically important to pay lip service to the Senate and ensure it kept some prestige.

New ruler, new rules

Augustus also began a new rule that senators had to have property worth 1,000,000 sesterces (Roman coins). Senators were also not allowed to become directly involved in business – particularly shipping or government contracts where there might be a conflict of interest. Given they were also unpaid, this meant that only a small percentage of the population could afford to become deeply involved in politics.

During the empire, the senate was at the head of the government bureaucracy and was a law court. The emperor held the title of Princeps Senatus, and could appoint new senators, summon and preside over Senate discussions, and propose legislation.

The Senate therefore took its lead from the emperor and, in most important areas, was only an advisory body. However, it still had the right to confer the title of emperor and this power alone meant that the Senate and its members remained relevant and important, even during the worst years of the first century.

Where to next:
Emperors - Julius Caesar
Emperors - Augustus

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The Roman Empire: in the First Century. The Roman Empire. Social Order. Senators | PBS

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Busts of Senators Senators in the first century AD held much less power than their predecessors, although the Senate still had the right to confer the title of emperor. This alone ensured that the Senate and its members remained relevant and important. The Roman Senate started life as an advisory council, filled entirely with patricians.

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HISTORY CRUNCH - History Articles, Biographies, Infographics, Resources and More

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However, as Rome increased in power, having a governmental position became increasingly sought after. As a result, numerous Roman men aimed to get involved with the government. However, many of these ambitious men wanted Rome to be ruled by a single man, as opposed to groups of elected officials. They wanted Rome to be ruled by an emperor. Julius Caesar is one example of a man who wanted to control all of Rome and its empire.

However, if Caesar became the sole roman ruler and Emperor, it would have marked the end of the Roman governmental system at the time. Many people were opposed to change and so one day when Caesar was making a speech with regards to his belief that a one-man rule of Rome would be best, Caesar was murdered. However, the murder only sparked more problems because Caesar's supporters started a civil war which ended up being very long lasting and extremely expensive. After many years, most of the Roman people ended up agreeing with the proposed one-man rule, in part because they were tired of war, and in part because Caesars supporters had grown in strength. As a result, Augustus, Caesar's nephew who was seen as a strong ruler became emperor in 27 BC, which marked the end of the republic of Rome.

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Initially, Rome was ruled by kings, with Romulus being the first. After only 7 kings had ruled, the Roman people decided to govern themselves and so its own form of government was developed. Despite...

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Roman government revolved around the Roman Senate with its body of aristocratic citizens who distinguished themselves from everyone else with their titles, purple-striped togas, senatorial rings and even special shoes. Senators held the key public offices and many would command provinces and armies. Figures such as Julius Caesar and the emperors who followed would diminish the Senate's role, but it would remain an influential body throughout Rome's long history. There were, too, the popular assemblies that enacted legislation and an army of magistrates who enforced it. In addition, courts interpreted the huge body of laws which went back to the Twelve Tables and included countless amendments, cases and imperial edicts.

In this collection, we examine the changing role of the Senate, the fine details of Roman law-making, and some of the key magisterial positions like the aediles and quaestors who controlled every facet of a Roman citizen's civic duties, from paying tax to participating in religious festivals.

During the time of the Republic, these various assemblies were the voice of the citizens of Rome, and although not fully democratic in the modern definition of the word, they allowed at least some portion of the Roman citizenry to be heard. Their essential role in Roman government was crucial enough that the army inscribed on their military standards the letters SPQR - Senatus Populusque Romanus or Senate and Roman people.

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Roman government revolved around the Roman Senate with its body of aristocratic citizens who distinguished themselves from everyone else with their titles, purple-striped togas, senatorial rings and even special shoes. Senators held the key public offices and many would command provinces and armies.

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The Roman Empire was a primarily polytheistic civilization, which meant that people recognized and worshiped multiple gods and goddesses. Despite the presence of monotheistic religions within the empire, such as Judaism and early Christianity, Romans honored multiple deities. They believed that these deities served a role in founding the Roman civilization and that they helped shape the events of people's lives on a daily basis. Romans paid allegiance to the gods both in public spaces and in private homes. While the Roman state recognized main gods and goddesses by decorating public buildings and fountains with their images, families worshipping at home also put special emphasis on the deities of their choosing.

The gods and goddesses of Greek culture significantly influenced the development of Roman deities and mythology. Due to Rome's geographic position, its citizens experienced frequent contact with the Greek peoples, who had expanded their territories into the Italian peninsula and Sicily. As the Roman Republic was rising to prominence, it acquired these Greek territories, bringing them under the administration of the Roman state. Romans adopted many aspects of Greek culture, adapting them slightly to suit their own needs. For example, many of the gods and goddesses of Greek and Roman culture share similar characteristics. However, these deities were renamed and effectively rebranded for a Roman context, possessing names that are different from their Greek counterparts.

The main god and goddesses in Roman culture were Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Jupiter was a sky-god who Romans believed oversaw all aspects of life; he is thought to have originated from the Greek god Zeus. Jupiter also concentrated on protecting the Roman state. Military commanders would pay homage to Jupiter at his temple after winning in battle.

Juno was Jupiter's wife and sister. She resembled the Greek goddess Hera in that she kept a particularly watchful eye over women and all aspects of their lives. Minerva was the goddess of wisdom and craft. She watched over schoolchildren and craftspeople such as carpenters and stonemasons. Minerva is thought to be the equivalent of the goddess Athena, who was the Greek goddess of wisdom.

Other Roman gods and goddesses who were adapted from Greek culture include Venus, who drew on Aphrodite, goddess of love; Neptune, a sea god who was inspired by the Greek god Poseidon; Pluto, who ruled the Roman underworld as the god Hades did in Greek culture; Diana, Roman goddess of the hunt who had her Greek equivalent in Artemis; and Mars, god of war, who was fashioned after the Greek god Ares. Just as the Greeks influenced Roman culture, the Romans inspired the cultural development of later societies. You may by now have noticed that many of the planets in our solar system were named after Roman deities.

Rome did have some of its own gods and goddesses who did not trace their origins back to Greek culture. For example, Janus was a god with two faces that represented the spirit of passages such as doorways and gates. Believed to preside over beginnings, it is fitting that the month of January is named after Janus. Janus' son was Tiberinus, the god of the river Tiber, which runs through the city of Rome.

According to Roman mythology, the gods had a hand in the founding of the city of Rome itself. Mars, god of war, and a Vestal Virgin named Rhea Silvia were the parents of twin boys, Romulus and Remus. Vestal Virgins were not permitted to marry or bear children but were instead to devote their lives to serving Vesta, goddess of the hearth.

It is said that King Amulius ordered that the twins be thrown into the Tiber River as a punishment to Rhea Silvia for betraying her vow of celibacy. Luckily, the boys were rescued from the river by a mother wolf. She helped to raise them until a local couple adopted them.

As the boys grew up, they became important members of the community. They dethroned King Amulius and worked together to establish a new city. In a later argument about the city, however, Romulus killed his brother Remus. Romulus went on to name the city after himself, calling it Rome (or Roma).

The presence and influence of gods and goddesses were integral parts of life in the Roman state. The people of Rome built temples to their gods and observed rituals and festivals to honor and celebrate them. Any favorable or unfavorable circumstances in Roman life could be attributed to the mood of certain gods, so people would likewise make offerings to the gods in thanks, or in an attempt to appease their tempers. Unlike many monotheistic religious or spiritual traditions, the Romans gods were seen as caring little about the morality of the Roman people. Rather, their chief concern was being paid tribute through very specific rituals.

We can still recognize traces of the Roman gods and goddesses in the artifacts that remain from the ancient civilization and the art that pays homage to them. Carvings of Janus still survive and statues of Neptune spout water from city fountains. Today we appreciate the stories and mythology built around these deities as insights into what life was like over 2,700 years ago for the ancient Romans.

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The Roman Empire was primarily a polytheistic civilization, which meant that people recognized and worshiped multiple gods and goddess. The main god and goddesses in Roman culture were Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva.

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Painting depicting a religious ceremony

In Latin, "religio" means "something that binds." For Romans, religion was a force that bound families together, bound subjects to their ruler and bound men to the gods.

Private and public

Roman religion was divided into two. Spirits watched over people, families and households, and the paterfamilias was in charge of the household worship that honored them.

Romans also had a set of public gods, such as Jupiter and Mars. State worship was much more formal: colleges of priests paid tribute to these gods on behalf of Rome itself.

Divine blessing

The objective of Roman worship was to gain the blessing of the gods and thereby gain prosperity for themselves, their families and communities.

Emperors understood the central importance of religion to the lives of the Romans and used it for their own ends. Augustus appointed himself as the chief priest – or Pontifex Maximus – and used the appearance of Halley's Comet to claim that he was, himself, the son of a god.

Cult worship

Unlike most religions today, the Roman gods did not demand strong moral behavior. Roman religion involved cult worship. Approval from the gods did not depend on a person's behavior, but on perfectly accurate observance of religious rituals. Each god needed an image – usually a statue or relief in stone or bronze – and an altar or temple at which to offer the prayers and sacrifices.

Judaism in Ancient Rome

However, the Roman religion was not the only one practiced in the first century AD. Far from it. Communities of Jews had existed in cities throughout the Roman Empire for centuries. Although they were generally treated with respect, trouble did occur. The Jewish philosopher, Philo, wrote of brutal treatment in Alexandria, while a revolt in Judaea led to the destruction of the temple and a change in the practice of the Jewish faith.

Rise of Christianity

The first century also saw the birth of a brand new religion. Although he was executed by Rome at an early age, Jesus would have a massive impact on the Roman Empire. After his death, his message of eternal life and hope was spread across the empire by missionaries such as Paul. And although Christians in Rome suffered appalling persecution at times, their ideas refused to die: instead, they would conquer Rome itself.

Where to next:
Enemies and Rebels – Josephus & Judaea
Life in Roman Times – Family Life

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The Roman Empire: in the First Century. The Roman Empire. Relgion | PBS

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Painting depicting a religious ceremony In Latin, "religio" means "something that binds." For Romans, religion was a force that bound families together, bound subjects to their ruler and bound men to the gods. Private and public Roman religion was divided into two.

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Unit 4 Lesson 3 Read Aloud: Roman Gods and Goddesses

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ROMAN EMPIRE | Educational Video for Kids.

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Mother and child

Ancient Rome was a man's world. In politics, society and the family, men held both the power and the purse-strings – they even decided whether a baby would live or die.

Families were dominated by men. At the head of Roman family life was the oldest living male, called the "paterfamilias," or "father of the family." He looked after the family's business affairs and property and could perform religious rites on their behalf.

Absolute power

The paterfamilias had absolute rule over his household and children. If they angered him, he had the legal right to disown his children, sell them into slavery or even kill them.

Only the paterfamilias could own property: whatever their age, until their father died, his sons only received an allowance, or peliculum, to manage their own households.

Sons were important, because Romans put a lot of value on continuing the family name. If a father had no sons then he could adopt one – often a nephew – to make sure that the family line would not die out.

Materfamilias

Roman women usually married in their early teenage years, while men waited until they were in their mid-twenties. As a result, the materfamilias (mother of the family) was usually much younger than her husband.

As was common in Roman society, while men had the formal power, women exerted influence behind the scenes. It was accepted that the materfamilias was in charge of managing the household. In the upper classes, she was also expected to assist her husband's career by behaving with modesty, grace and dignity.

Baby love?

The influence of women only went so far. The paterfamilias had the right to decide whether to keep newborn babies. After birth, the midwife placed babies on the ground: only if the paterfamilias picked it up was the baby formally accepted into the family.

If the decision went the other way, the baby was exposed – deliberately abandoned outside. This usually happened to deformed babies, or when the father did not think that the family could support another child. Babies were exposed in specific places and it was assumed that an abandoned baby would be picked up and taken a slave.

Infant mortality

Even babies accepted into the household by the paterfamilias had a rocky start in life. Around 25 percent of babies in the first century AD did not survive their first year and up to half of all children would die before the age of 10.

As a result, the Roman state gave legal rewards to women who had successfully given birth. After three live babies (or four children for former slaves), women were recognized as legally independent. For most women, only at this stage could they choose to shrug off male control and take responsibility for their own lives.

Where to next:
Religion in Ancient Rome – Roman Worship
Life in Roman Times – Weddings, Marriages and Divorce

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The Roman Empire: in the First Century. The Roman Empire. Life In Roman Times. Family Life | PBS

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Mother and child Ancient Rome was a man's world. In politics, society and the family, men held both the power and the purse-strings - they even decided whether a baby would live or die. Families were dominated by men. At the head of Roman family life was the oldest living male, called the "paterfamilias," or "father of the family."

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7.1 The Daily Life of a Roman Family - World History Volume 1, to 1500 | OpenStax

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This free textbook is an OpenStax resource written to increase student access to high-quality, peer-reviewed learning materials.

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Discover all about the Ancient Roman economy with information on trade, taxes, manufacturing, imports, coins and much more.

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The Economy of Ancient Rome by Instructomania

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Since the Roman Empire covered such vast expanses, they had to come up with an efficient way to travel and move their products, so they constructed roads. The roads were solid and built to withstand even the harshest environments and flooding. They crossed throughout the empire, leading to the popular phrase "all roads lead to Rome." They allowed legions and merchants to move quickly. Many of these roads are still used today.

Roman structures were durable due to their innovative use of concrete. They made concrete by combining lime and volcanic ash to create a liquid which formed a stronger material when set. The secret to their self-repairing concrete recipe was only recently discovered. Many of the Roman structures that are still standing today were built using this concrete.

With the usage of this material, Romans were able to create new architectural designs such as the arch. The arch was a curved structure that Romans used to build. It could support massive weight because it was built with concrete and a keystone. The keystone was the final stone that would lock the other blocks in the arch into place.

During this period, Julius Caesar created the Julian Calendar. The calendar was created in 46 BCE to keep in line with the seasons. The new Julian Calendar made the year exactly 365 days long with a leap year every four years as compared to the old 355-day calendar. This calendar was widely in use until 1582 CE and is the precursor to the calendar that we use today.

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A summary on the technology developed in Ancient Rome, including aqueducts, concrete, and more.