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To effectively use technology in the classroom to enhance student engagement, teachers should consider the following tips:

Choose technology that aligns with your teaching goals.

Before introducing any technology into your classroom, think about what you want to achieve and how the technology will support those goals.

Integrate technology seamlessly into your lesson plans.

Technology should be used to supplement, rather than replace, traditional teaching methods. Consider how the technology will fit into your existing lesson plans and how you can use it to enhance student learning.

Provide clear instructions and support.

Make sure that students understand how to use the technology and have access to the resources they need to succeed. Consider offering training sessions or setting up a tech support system to help students who are struggling.

Monitor and assess student progress.

Use technology to track student progress and provide feedback on their learning. This can help you identify areas where students need additional support and can help you adjust your teaching strategies accordingly.

https://www.theiotacademy.co/blog/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-technology-in-education/

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Introduction

The modern classroom's learning environment has seen major changes during the past 20 years. But, the benefits we observe in this setting are due to the advent of new technology options. Technology provides the ability to save, process, and share all educational materials through different electronic devices. One can also generate new content in a much more appealing manner.

Technology has made digital tools a crucial support for education professionals. However, there are both advantages and disadvantages of technology in education. Read the blog below to know how introducing technology in a classroom setting can help or harm the education system.

What Tools for Education Does Technology Provide to the Classroom?

The push for digitization is changing teaching resources. It is putting more emphasis on dynamic and student engagement with the subject matter. However, the traditional ways place the focus on the teacher as the main character. Due to the pros and cons of technology, some institutes mix both modern and traditional ways of teaching.

In the current scenario, there is the use of concurrent presentations, videos, and visuals to improve student engagement. Schools now also have new sources of information and resources available to them. This is because of modern information and communication technologies. It enables both students and instructors to ask questions right away.

Furthermore, there is access to interactive tools like chat rooms and discussion forums at the same time. Moreover, tools like email, word processors, image editors, etc. also play a crucial role here.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Technology in Education

We will review the benefits and drawbacks of technology in education below. Additionally, we will discuss how it affects students today after taking into account the points made by both sides.

Advantages of Technology in Education

1. Encouragement

Using technology during the learning process encourages youngsters to continue studying. Many individuals don't like going to college because they believe it to be a waste of their time. Now they can also do online courses while doing a job.

2. Interaction

It promotes better interaction between parents and instructors. There are more chances for parents and teachers to connect when technology is in use in the classroom.

3. Cost Saving

The cost of using technology in the classroom is quite low. It is a major benefit when we discuss the science and technology advantages and disadvantages.

4. Possibilities

It gives today's students more educational possibilities. Today's kids display three essential types of intelligence: emotional, creative, and instructional. Children can take on their curiosity in various ways via technology.

5. Behavioral Assessment

We now have better access to student behavior data. Moreover, we have many software options, technology platforms, and applications to gather information on students. It shows attendance patterns and problems with specific subject learning. You can also track how they respond in particular situations.

6. Reachability

We can provide students with access to data from a single location by using technology. This is another crucial benefit in the list of advantages and disadvantages of technology in student's lives.

7. Future Preparation

Technology helps in preparing youngsters for the future. Thus, we must expose learners to technology today to prepare them for the modern world.

8. Collaboration

Technology also makes it simple to help students improve collaboration skills. Additionally, the online tools motivate students to collaborate securely.

9. Credibility to teachers

The credibility of teachers increases when they employ technology in the classroom. It is good to introduce technology to the classroom and help students learn there.

10. Engagement

Technology motivates learners to remain interested in their learning environment. It is because when students believe they already understand the topic, they get quickly bored.

Disadvantages of Technology in Education

1. Distraction

For students, having technology around might be distracting. More than anything else, their attention may be on the entertainment. Among the advantages and disadvantages of technology, this is a leading factor in drawbacks.

2. Possibility of Cheating

Cheating may be easier due to technology. A precise assessment of a student's knowledge is a must to assess the student's overall progress. But, students can easily share answers using email or chat.

3. Loss of Focus

Some students may lose focus in class when using technology. Online interaction with other people is a very different experience than online collaboration.

4. Reliability of Resources

It is possible that some students are unable to differentiate between trustworthy and fake sources. Today, there is a lot of false material available on the Internet under the pretext of being true. This is a crucial drawback in the list of advantages and disadvantages of using technology.

5. Replacement to Real Teachers

In some schools, some technologies can take the position of the teacher. Today's interactive learning sessions are so successful that a student can learn without a teacher. This is because software or an app can take the place of a human teacher.

6. Privacy Concern

Every day, when we use technology in the classroom, we put our privacy at risk. Hence, there are also some privacy concerns for students when using technology.

7. Health Issues

Technology can bring health issues to some children. Also, too much time spent staring at a computer screen might cause eye strain.

8. Poor Time Management

Students often lose track of time when using technology in the classroom. Youngsters can easily adapt to new situations. However, they may end up with more screen time as the classroom is influential for each student. Time mismanagement is a major con among the advantages and disadvantages of technology.

9. Legal Guidelines

There may be limits on the usage of objects under the guidelines of child protection. Thus, schools are aware of the potential drawbacks that technology can have in the classroom.

10. Unnecessary Dependency on Technology

Dependencies on technology can make it difficult to recollect knowledge. Having access to a wealth of resources is great. But because they are there, they can also lead to dependency.

Conclusion

Everyone has different views on the use of technology in the educational system. However, one should maintain a realistic perspective because the benefits still exceed the drawbacks.

Therefore, a persistent focus on drawbacks should not force you to call for a return to traditional education. But, it is a chance to identify the gaps in the technology and instructional strategies. Additionally, it is up to educational institutions and teachers to assess the advantages and disadvantages of technology.

Today, technology is as crucial as education itself. In the modern period, learning and teaching are nearly impossible without technology.

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Must Know 10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Technology in Education - theiotacademy

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Must Know 10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Technology in Education

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Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities.

Characteristics of Dyslexia:

Learning to speak.

Retention of phonological and phonemic awareness tasks.

Learning letters and their sounds. Reading words in isolation.

Organizing written and spoken language. Decoding words.

Memorizing number facts.

Reading quickly enough to comprehend (reading with appropriate accuracy, rate, and prosody).

Persisting with and comprehending longer reading assignments.

Spelling.

Learning a foreign language.

https://www.ksde.org/Portals/0/CSAS/CSAS%20Home/Kansas%20Dyslexia%20Handbook%20(2023-2024).pdf

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Alphabetic Principle:

The Alphabetic Principle is the concept that letters represent individual phonemes in a spoken word.

This principle is critical for learning how to read and spell.

This needs to be established early as it is the first step in learning how to read and write.

The Alphabetic Principle can be broken up into two parts:

1. Alphabetic Understanding - knowing that words are made up of letters and sounds.

2. Phonological Recording - knowing how to translate letters into the appropriate speech sounds.

Insight that spoken words are made up of a sequence of somewhat separable sounds - called phonemes

The sounds in spoken words (phonemes) match directly to the letters in written words (graphemes) - (vice-versa)

Every words can be broken apart into phonemes (tiniest parts of speech)

Every written word is made up of specific symbols from the alphabet

Every sound in a spoken word is represented by a letters

https://braintrusttutors.com/what-is-the-alphabetic-principle/

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What is The Alphabetic Principle? | Definition & Examples - Braintrust

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The alphabetic principle is what helps children know how to "sound out," or decode, words. Read more what this means for your child.

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The four-part Language Processing System:

1. Phonological Processing System - hears and recognizes words in sentences (processes spoken language) activates the meaning processing system.

2. Meaning Processing System - reviews stored vocabulary for the possible meaning of word (example: glass)

3. Context Processing System - involves background knowledge and language structure

4. Orthographic Processing System - Print

https://relay.libguides.com/science-of-teaching-reading-resource-guide/four-part-processing-model

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The reading brain can also be understood through the Four-Part Processing Model for Word Recognition (1989). This model is a simplified representation of the cognitive processing work our brains do to result in fluent reading. According to Seidenberg and McClelland, these four parts are the: phonological, orthographic, meaning or semantic, and context processing systems.

the phonological processing system, which enables our work with the speech-sound system of our own language and other languages. This is system is responsible for our ability to:

Identify and categorize the phonemes in a given language system

Produce speech sounds and syllables

Compare and contrast words that sound similar

Segment a word into its phonemes and hold those individual phonemes in memory so that the word can be translated into print

the orthographic processing system, which enables us to recognize and recall written language symbols. This system stores information about print and increases the efficiency and automaticity of word decoding and encoding (spelling). For example, even though letters are abstract visual symbols that can vary in size, font, case, and style (consider, for example, the differences between printed text and handwritten text or two fonts on your computer), we have little difficulty recognizing and interpreting these symbols once we've learned them. That's the orthographic processing system at work.

the meaning processing system, or semantic processing system, interprets words' meanings in and out of context. Consider this our mental dictionary. According to Marilyn Adams, a single word activates a web of connected knowledge-this knowledge is stored in our meaning processing system. As an example, consider all of the different meanings that come to mind when you consider the word "bug" (Adams, 2011).

the context processing system, which interacts with and supports the meaning processing system to help us comprehend text. This system helps us establish a word's meaning based on its context: where the word is located in a given sentence in addition to the ideas, concepts, and events present across a text. Because a single word activates a web of connected knowledge, this system helps us identify and prioritize the most applicable knowledge given context to make meaning. Consider, for example, how your understanding of the word "bug" changes across the following passage:
Driving through the English countryside in her blue Bug, Stella fiddled with the radio. She searched frantically for something-anything-to settle her nerves and keep her mind busy. Unknown to the rolling hills, quiet homes, and quaint roads surrounding her, Stella was a spy on her very first reconnaissance mission. Though she had quickly established herself in training as cool and confident, Stella was, at this very moment, a nervous wreck. She frantically turned the radio dial from one station to the next-nothing but static. There's a darn bug in this radio, she thought. Spiraling, her imagination raced to the worst. Could the radio be bugged? Oh, it must be. Why else wouldn't it be working?

Reference: Adams, Marilyn J. "Advancing Our Students' Language and Literacy: The Challenge of Complex Texts." Achievethecore.org :: Advancing Our Students' Language and Literacy: The Challenge of Complex Texts, American Educator, 2011, achievethecore.org/page/877/advancing-our-students-language-and-literacy-the-challenge-of-complex-texts.

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LibGuides: Science of Teaching Reading Resource Guide: The Four-Part Processing Model for Word Recognition

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LibGuides: Science of Teaching Reading Resource Guide: The Four-Part Processing Model for Word Recognition

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What is the Science of Reading/Structured Literacy?

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What is the Science of Reading/Structured Literacy?

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Science of Reading:

The Science of Reading focuses on the Simple View of Reading.

Word Recognition X Language Comprehension = Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension should begin early ( comprehension modeling, text
structures)

Structured Literacy:

How literacy is today:

Deep understanding of what is read.

Remembering important information

Linking new information to prior knowledge

Knowing when and where to use knowledge

Use knowledge appropriately in and out of school.

Communicate effectively with others.

Do something with literacy. Don’t just know what literacy is... USE IT!

Children/Students/Adults - need to be able to read a VARIETY of text pieces.

Examples:

Articles

Picture Books

Chapter Books

Novels

Digital Print (how to decipher digital print)

https://www.readingrockets.org/classroom/evidence-based-instruction/science-reading

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Get the basics on the science of reading (SOR), how to understand research studies, and what it means for classroom instruction.

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Dr. Linnea Ehri developed four phases in which students go through when learning how to read words. These phases are as follows:

1. Pre-alphabetic phase - little knowledge of letter sounds, use

pictures to represent letters

2. Partial alphabetic phase - learning that letters represent sounds,

and the shape of letters

3. Full alphabetic phase - decoding harder words, unfamiliar word

patterns

4. Consolidated Alphabetic phase - learn more about words,

syllables

Ehir (1998) -

Sight Word Reading - recalling words by sight

Decoding - identifying letter-sound correspondence and larger units in words and blending them together to make a word. (c-a-t, f-l-o-p)

Analogizing - comparing an unknown word to a similarly spelled unknown word (phone-stone, past-fast)

“If you know show, you will know bow.”

Contextual Guessing - using context to figure out words

Thompson (1999) -

1. Recall (sight word reading)
2. Generation (decoding, analogizing, using context)

https://sites.google.com/escneo.org/sst3literacy/theoretical-models-of-reading/ehris-four-phases-of-word-reading

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Ehri (1996, 2014) conceptualizes word reading development into four phases, prealphabetic, early alphabetic, later alphabetic, and consolidated alphabetic. Each stage illustrates how word-reading develops for typical children between the ages of four and six. The model also demonstrates how phonemic awareness skills and orthographic mapping are crucial foundational skills for children to develop automatic sight word recognition (Moats & Tolman, 2019). The prealphabetic phase is characterized by children not having letter-sound awareness and recognizing words incidentally based on visual features of the word. In the early alphabetic phase, children begin to use some letter-sound correspondence to decode words. Their phonological awareness skills are characterized at the early level where they can break words into syllables, onset-rime, and identify/isolate initial sounds of words. The later alphabetic phase is when children begin to develop automatic sight word recognition and to use letter-sound correspondence. In this phase, they also demonstrate basic phonemic awareness skills of segmenting and blending words with 3-4 phonemes. In the consolidated alphabetic phase, children develop an increasing automatic sight word recognition, orthographic mapping, syllable patterns, morphemes and demonstrate advanced phonemic awareness, including deletion, substitution and reversal of phonemes.

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SST3 Literacy - Ehri's Four Phases of Word Reading

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Ehri's Phases of Word-Reading Ehri (1996, 2014) conceptualizes word reading development into four phases, prealphabetic, early alphabetic, later alphabetic, and consolidated alphabetic. Each stage illustrates how word-reading develops for typical children between the ages of four and six. The

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Simple View of Writing:

Foundational Writing Skills x Composition = Skilled Writing Expression

Foundational Skills: encoding of words into written symbols "nuts and bolts" of writing

Examples: letter formation, handwriting, correct spelling, punctuation/special organization

Composition: knowledge of topic. Ability to choose words and order them logically.

Example: topic knowledge, vocabulary/word choice, sentence formulation (complete/incomplete sentence, verb tenses), grammar and usage (commas, punctuation, quotation), organization of ideas, audience awareness

Handwriting

Stage of Writing:

Early Writing Stages:

Pre-phonetic Stage: place letters on a page with no regard to words (scribbles)

Semi-phonetic stage: represents some phoneme with graphemes

(beginning sounds)

Phonetic stage: nearly every phoneme is represented by a grapheme.

Transitional stage: students realized that words can not always be written as they sound.

Syntax:

Syntax is the study and understanding of grammar.

Grammar is the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses that make a sentence.

Syntax is first understood by listening to language (speaking, listening to read-alouds, reading stories).

Students benefit from instruction on how to form correct sentences and parts of sentences.

Semantics:

Helps broaden and deepen students’ understanding of related words

Helps students recognize and distinguish between shades of meaning

Enhances students’ vocabulary, which can help them be more precise and descriptive in their spoken and written language.

Helps develop students’ word-learning skills and encourages curiosity about words.

Grammar:

Parts of Speech

Nouns (person, place, thing, idea)

Pronouns (I, you, he, she, it)

Verbs (action words)

Adjectives (describe nouns)

Adverbs (modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs)

Prepositions (show relationships)

Conjunctions (connect words/phrases)

Interjections (express emotion)

https://www.whps.org/uploaded/Offices/Curriculum_Instruction_and_Assessment/Families_-_Academics/Stages_of_Writing_Development.pdf

https://www.readingrockets.org/classroom/classroom-strategies/semantic-feature-analysis

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It is important that English learners learn how to speak English.

It is equally important that they not abandon their native language.

According to McFarlan (et al. 2017), 77% of English language learners speak Spanish.

English learners have substantially lower test scores than English-speaking students.

Importance of Learning English:

It is important to expose learners to English as soon as possible.

Research indicates that it takes English learners at least five years to reach the same oral skill level as their English-speaking peers.

The push for a language arts curriculum has made outcomes harder for English language learners.

Exposure is key!

Effective Teaching Practice:

English language learners require support from teachers.

Some language learners face not only a language barrier but also a cultural barrier.

It is important to make students feel comfortable and provide as much support as possible.

Build on student experiences and familiar concepts.

Provide students with background knowledge.

Designate language and content objectives for EACH lesson.

Graphic organizers.

Have clear instructions and be as concise as possible.

Use pictures or real-life objects.

Assessment for English Learners:

Modify assessments when able.

Give students more time to do the assessments.

Place students where they feel comfortable.

Give them the assessment during the day when the student is most focused.

Read the test to students (when applicable).

Have students take a practice test.

Make sure you document what exactly you have modified for the students.

Do not modify norm-reference tests, as it will skew the norm.

https://www.nea.org/professional-excellence/student-engagement/tools-tips/english-language-learners-what-you-need-know

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https://www.ateachableteacher.com/phonological-awareness-vs-phonemic-awareness/

Phonological Awareness:

Having an awareness of sound properties in words. Having the ability to hear and manipulate sounds in words.

https://jillianstarrteaching.com/what-is-phonological-awareness/

Word Awareness - Knowing how many words are in a sentence. (clap out words, push up counters for words)

Alliteration-producing and identifying words that start with the same sound (name games, fun phrases)

Syllable awareness - parts in a word (clapping, pushing up counters, breaking up words and having students guess)

Rhyming - words that end with the same sounds

Phonemic Awareness:

spoken language consists of a series of small sound units or phonemes and the ability to manipulate these phonemes (sounds)

Sound out words: /k/ /a/ /t/= cat (hearing)

Blend sounds /m/ /a/ /n/ = man (oral language)

Pre-requisite for reading

Rhyme

Alliteration-same letter or sound at the beginning or adjacent

SOUNDS and spoken language

https://sarahsnippets.com/tips-and-activities-for-phonemic/

Phonics:

actual printed letters

words

writing sentences

anything written

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What is Phonological Awareness? 5 Key Parts to Know - Teaching with Jillian Starr

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It a term that gets thrown around a lot, but what is phonological awareness? Let’s break down the skill progression to really highlight its importance.

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Syllabus Types:

Closed

Vowel-Consonant-e (VCe)

Open

Vowelt Team (including diphthongs)

Vowel-r (r-controlled)

Consonant-le (C-le)

Leftovers: Odd and Schwa syllables

Syllabus Division

Letter sequences that are less likely to occur next to each other within a syllable.

For example, in the word haystack, we have several clues as to where to divide the word.

First, there are two morphemes, hay and stack.

Second, each syllable is a common variant of CVC units and contains common onsets (h and st) and common rimes (ay and ack).

Third, the letter combination ys is not likely to begin a syllable. Double consonants are also a common signal of a syllabic division.

Spelling:

Orthographic mapping is the process that successful readers use to become fluent readers.

Through orthographic mapping, children use the oral processing part of their brain to
connect the letters of the words they already know (phonemes) to the letters in the word (the spellings). They then store these meanings as sight words.

The letters the reader sees and the sounds the reader hears connect and get processed together in their brains. Students connect something they know with something new.

https://www.readingrockets.org/blogs/shanahan-on-literacy/what-should-morphology-instruction-look

https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/spelling-and-word-study/articles/six-syllable-types

https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/spelling

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Teacher question:
Are there any resources that provide a list of morphemes to teach at each K-5 grade level? I have been looking for a definitive list of morphemes that is organized by grade level like the Fry sight word list. I often come across research about how L1 and L2 students acquire morphemes, but I am looking for a list that represents the morphemes that students will most likely see in print at each K-5 grade level. Does anything like that exist? Thank you for your time.
Shanahan's response:

The short answer to this question is, "No, I don't know of such a list."

But when have I ever been satisfied with the short answer to anything?

Let's make sure we're all in agreement as to what constitutes a morpheme? Basically, a morpheme is the "smallest grammatical unit." It isn't the same thing as a word, and yet many words are morphemes. The distinction turns on whether the unit (the morpheme or word) can stand on its own. Words have to have that kind of independence, while morphemes don't require it.

Thus, bags, trucked, running, and redirect are all words in the English language while bag, s, truck, ed, run, ing, re, and direct are all morphemes. Each morphemic unit carries meaning, but sometimes morphemes can do that independently (bag, truck, run, direct), and sometimes they need to be combined with other morphemes to be considered a word (s, ed, ing, re).

I admitted ignorance on this issue, and I've tried to turn that ignorance to your advantage. I contacted Jeffrey and Peter Bowers. Both are outstanding scholars (Jeff at the University of Bristol in the UK, and Peter at WordWorks Literacy Centre, in Ontario) who are particularly knowledgeable about teaching morphology to improve literacy. They've both published widely on the issue, and both have chided me when they felt I wasn't paying sufficient attention to how words work morphologically. These days I know no one better able to provide you with a thoughtful answer to your question, and boy was I right!

Word Matrix: a map of a word family

Word Sums: reveal underlying structure of any complex word (a word with more than just a base)

un + help + ful + ness > unhelpfulness

Here is Peter Bower's response (with my light editing)

I have no knowledge of such a list, but I wouldn't recommend one anyway.

My recommendation based on theory not direct research evidence - is that the main value comes from teaching all or many members of a morphological family at one time with the matrix and word sums (see the attached figure illustrating a matrix and word sum). In the younger grades I start with free bases [those morphemes that stand alone as words], but once that is established, I have no trouble introducing bound bases [the units that can't stand alone]. This relates to the research we cite about the value of studying meaningfully related items at one time rather than disconnected items.

Instead of a "scope and sequence" of morphemes to teach, what I recommend is starting with words in the children's vocabulary, analyzing such words to find their bases, then looking for other members of that family.

The point is not that there is a "scope and sequence" of morphemes to teach. Rather there is a kind of a "scope" of orthographic concepts that we want students to learn, and teachers can address those concepts based on whatever words are central to the readings they are introducing to the students.

A brief list of those concepts that should be taught would include:

Every word is a base or a base with something else (another base or affix)

Bases and affixes (morphemes) are the meaningful building blocks that construct words.

We can analyze complex words into constituent morphemes with word sums and show their interrelationship with a matrix.

English spelling prioritizes consistent spelling of morphemes over consistent pronunciation of morphemes. (This is why we refer to morphemes by their spelling not their pronunciation. The base of the word action is not referred to by the pronunciation of the word act. Instead it is referred to by its spelling. The base "a - c - t". This is the same as the fact that we don't refer to the <-ed> suffix by one or all of its three pronunciation, we call it by it's spelling "e-d suffix.")

Thus, we need to understand grapheme-phoneme correspondences from within the context of morphological families. (e.g. we learn the phonology of the grapheme by studying morphological families).

There are reliable conventions for the three suffixing conventions.

Studying and understanding the suffixing conventions is not primarily about improving spelling accuracy, it is about being able to analyze hypotheses about connections between words. We can test the hypothesis that has a base only if we know vowel suffixes replace final, non-syllabic s (image/ + ine -> imagine).

The "structure and meaning test": To determine that two words share a base, we need evidence from both structure (word sum) and meaning (etymology). So with the earlier example of words related to (play, playing, playful, replay, playhouse), we can prove all of those words can be analyzed with word sums with coherent affixes and bases. But we can also show that they all go back to an Old English root plegan, plegian for "frolic, move rapidly". However, the word which can be analyzed structurally turns out not to be related. It does not belong in the morphological family with the others because it goes back to a Latin root plac(ere) for "fold". So to "display" is to "unfold".

If we are going to teach children how their writing system works, we need to teach them the interrelation of morphology, phonology, and etymology. As we have pointed out, this is why Structured Word Inquiry (SWI) is not about "adding" morphological instruction to phonics instruction - its about teaching how the system works.

This is why I argue that SWI teaches grapheme-phoneme correspondences more explicitly and accurately than phonics. Phonics instruction (under the definition of associations of pronunciations and letters without reference to morphology or etymology) cannot explain the grapheme-phoneme correspondences in countless words like does or rough or every or homophones, and so on. So many people miss the absolute detail into orthographic phonology that comes with SWI.

Here are some videos to illustrate my point.

Grade 2 Morphology

A teacher showing investigations from his class.

Grade 1 Morphology

Investigating grapheme-phoneme correspondences - with the context of morphological word sums.

Kindergarten Morphology

A kindergarten lesson I taught introducing the word sum and matrix that touches on grapheme-phoneme correspondences like the pronunciation of the <-s> suffix for /z/ and /s/.

It's as simple as starting with the "known" and then expanding from that. Even if kids know all the words in a morphological family (e.g. play, playing, playful, replay, playhouse) the lesson is not about new vocabulary, but learning how word structure links words. That concept can then be applied anywhere.

The other thing I keep in mind when choosing morphological families to investigate is the orthographic concepts a family has to offer. If I've established the fact that words that share a base share a spelling and a meaning connection, then I can introduce a base like with words like actor, acting, react, and action as a way to introduce the fact that the pronunciation of morpheme might change but keep the spelling. In that way we learn the phonology of t is not the "t sound", but that the grapheme can write /t/ when that is the appropriate sound. I've attached an example of a lesson I've used for that before.

I also draw on the <-ed> suffix from early on to highlight this same concept that morphemes do not have pronunciations until they are in a word. The pronunciation of a word like is another useful one to get rid of this idea of a "t sound" since this very common pronunciation of a very common suffix is what is typically thought of the "t sound," but their ain't no /t/!

And then you also encounter words that give rise to the need to teach all the suffixing changes.

These are concepts teachers need to learn and they can bring into work with their class as they investigate words."

Shanahan again

I don't disagree with Peter on any of this, except I'm not as dismissive of the kind of list that you are requesting. I don't see it as mutually exclusive from the curriculum goals that he specified or contradictory of the kind of instruction he described.

Many teachers, when referring to morphology or "structural analysis", actually are talking about affixes alone, and not the bases. If that is the case here, there are some lists like that which present the most common prefixes and suffixes from textbooks in grades 3-9 (White, Sowell, & Yanagihara, 1989). You can easily find those lists on line and you could definitely make use of those lists to make sure that you are hitting all the notes if you do the word sums and matrixes that Peter recommends.

Otherwise, I haven't been able to come up with a graded list of bases for you to use. But I have passed your letter along to my friends at MetaMetrics (the Lexile people) and have asked if they could produce such a list from their language corpus of more than 1 billion words. Stay tuned!
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What Should Morphology Instruction Look Like?

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Are there any resources that provide a list of morphemes to teach at each K-5 grade level? I have been looking for a definitive list of morphemes that is organized by grade level like the Fry sight word list.

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What is Fluency?:

Fluency is the ability to read rapidly, smoothly, without many errors, and with appropriate expression.

Often done orally, but silent reading fluency is extremely
important.

When done silently, a fluent reader reads rapidly, without stumbling over words and WITH COMPREHENSION.

Fluency is important because our brain can only do one thing at a time. Reading demands that we attend to two operations—decoding individual words and engaging in cognitive processes to understand what we are reading.

(If too much of our mental capacity is used to focus on words, we will not comprehend the text.)

Stages of Reading Development—Chall (1996):

Stage 0: Emergent Literacy Stage (basics of print)

Stage 1: Formal Reading Instruction - (decoding, alphabetic system)

Stage 2: Decoding—reading word by word, begin fluency skills (primary grades)

Stage 3-6: Build fluency skills (comprehension, reading more complex text).

Guiding students to become Fluent Readers:

Reading builds on automaticity, vocabulary, world knowledge, and
the desire to read more.

To get good at reading, you have to read!

Reading develops fluency skills.

Provide a wide range of books and reading materials that are interesting for students.

Reading material needs to be at that child’s reading level.

To help students become fluent, independent readers, they need to have some selection in what they read. They need to read for pleasure, information, escape, or whatever interests they have.

https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/fluency

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Fluency is the ability to read a text accurately, quickly, and with expression.Fluent reading builds stamina for reading lengthy or complex texts. Reading fluency serves as a bridge between word recognition and comprehension.

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Created by Dr. Hollis Scarborough

Contains 2 strands:

Language Comprehension and Word Recognition

The Language comprehension strand includes:

Background knowledge, Vocabulary, Language Structures,

Verbal Reasoning and Literacy Knowledge

The Word Recognition strand includes:

Phonological awareness, decoding, and sight recognition.

All of these strands intertwine together. If the student has mastered all of the strands, reading comprehension will take place.

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Vocabulary:

Children’s vocabulary knowledge grows tremendously throughout school years.

According to NAEYC (2014), by the age of 3, there is a 30 MILLION word gap between children from the wealthiest to the poorest families.

Levels of Word Knowledge:

According to Beck et al (1987), there are 3 levels of word knowledge.

1. Unknown - unfamiliar words

2. Acquainted - basic meaning only after a student gives it some attention

(typical vocabulary words)

3. Established - words known easily and automatically

Vocabulary Programs in a Classroom:

1. Provide children with frequent, extensive, and varied language approaches.

2. Includes instruction in individual words.

3. Provide students with instruction in learning words independently.

4. Foster's word consciousness—builds students' interest in words.

This also involves reading, writing, speaking, and listening.

Ways to Expose Vocabulary to Students:

Interactive Oral Reading

Children and an adult discuss unknown words that come up in their reading.

Designed for primary grades but effective in upper grades as well.

Exposes children to words that they wouldn’t normally be exposed to.

Teaching Individuals Words:

Teaching individual words depends on how much students know and how well you want them to know the words you present.

1. Learning Basic Vocabulary - Building basic vocabulary words. Learn to read the most frequently used words in the English language. (sight words)

2. Learning to Read Unknown Words - Learning to read words that are already in their oral vocabulary (sight words and high-frequency words)

3. Learning new words that represent known concepts - these words are not in oral or reading vocabulary— but they have an available concept of the word (ELL learners).

4. Learning new words that represent new concepts - MOST DIFFICULT

Why Vocabulary Words Do I Teach:

Beck & colleagues (2003, 2013) suggest 3 tiers of words:

Tier One Words - Basic Words. Don’t necessarily need to be taught. (dog, cat, house)
• Tier Three Words - low-frequency words. Usually found in specific domains of literature. Usually taught in content areas (science, social studies, math)
• Tier Two Words - High-frequency words for mature language uses. These are the words to focus on. (ferocious, magnitude, etc.)

https://www.readingrockets.org/article/choosing-words-teach

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Goal of All Readers - Comprehension

Comprehension is an evolving process. It begins before a book is opened, changes as the book is read, and continues to change after the book is read.

A good book or book of high interest is easier to comprehend than something of little or no interest to you.

Some students comprehend better with digital print. They can click around on the digital copy and find unknown vocabulary words and links of interest to them.

Other students enjoy reading actual printed materials (Senses).

Four components of comprehension:

1. Knowledge

2. Strategies

3. Metacognition

4. Motivation

Developing Knowledge:

Comprehension does not occur without knowledge (prior knowledge and background knowledge, language comprehension).

Prior knowledge may be the best predictor of students' ability to comprehend, especially in informational text.

The construction-integration model states that comprehension occurs when an idea
in the text is linked to another or when the reader uses prior knowledge.

It is helpful to activate students' prior knowledge before they read.

Pre-reading discussions are critical.

ELL students need to be taught to use their cultural beliefs and knowledge to make connections in reading.

Internet can be a great resource to help make connections and activate knowledge.

https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/comprehension

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Word Recognition x Language comprehension =Reading

comprehension

Research studies show that a student’s reading

comprehension scores can be predicted if decoding skills

and language comprehension abilities are known.

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The Science of Reading Basics, Part 2: The Simple View of Reading