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Airbus is at the heart of space exploration, designing and delivering innovative spacecraft, robots, scientific experiments services and space stations.

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Dirty drinking water is a major problem around the world, causing millions of cases of disease and death every year. About 663 million people (that's 1 out of every 10 people on Earth) lack access to safe water, and 2.4 billion people (1 out of every 3) lack access to a toilet.

Let's take a look at some inventions and innovations that are helping more people get sanitary water around the world, some of which are in use now and others that hope to be one day.

LifeStraw: The LifeStraw is what it sounds like - a straw-shaped filter that you can stick directly into water, purifying up to 1000 liters. The company now has a wider line of products, including drinking bottles and multi-user systems.

Slingshot: Invented by Dean Kamen and running on a Stirling engine or solar panel, the Slingshot has been used in tests in Africa to provide clean water to rural schools.

HIPPO Water Roller Project: The HIPPO Water Roller doesn't purify water, but it does provide better access to clean water. It's a simple rolling-drum system for carrying water long distances, holding 90 liters (about 24 gallons).

LifeSack: The LifeSack is truly ingenious, starting as a container for grain or other foods to be shipped wherever needed. But once it arrives at its destination, it can use solar power to purify water for drinking (and is easily worn as a backpack).

Drinkable Book: While not currently available, the Drinkable Book from WaterIsLife is an educational book on water hygiene, but you can rip the pages out and use them several times as water filters.

Hydrologic Ceramic Water Filters: Hydrologic was awarded a prize for ceramic water filters to be used in Cambodia, which remove 99.99% of bacteria in water.

LUVWater Bottle: The LUVWater bottle uses built-in ultraviolet LEDs and filters to purify water, actually using the weight of the water to power itself ( see it in action here).

The Water-Generating Billboard: More of an interesting idea than a real product, there's a water-generating billboard in Lima, Peru, that was created by engineers as an advertisement. It generates about 96 liters of water per day.

The Watercone: The Watercone is a very simple and easy to use desalination device which transforms salty or brackish water into potable water, using solar power and evaporation.

The Cycloclean: The Cycloclean is a bicycle-powered water purifier, using 4 filters and producing 6 liters of drinking water per minute (3 times the amount a single person needs per day).

Do you have a novel idea for a water purifier, or some other kind of fluid hydraulic system? Then check out the Products for Life Challenge, a $50,000 contest to come up with environmentally friendly and long-lasting fluidic products.

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Ten Awesome Water Purification Inventions

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Dirty drinking water is a major problem around the world, causing millions of cases of disease and death every year. About 663 million people (that's 1 out of every 10 people on Earth) lack access to safe water, and 2.4 billion people (1 out of every 3) lack access to a toilet.

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Climate change will affect global water availability through compounding changes in seasonal precipitation and evaporation - Nature Communications

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Adequate water availability is key to human and ecosystem sustainability. Here, the authors show that seasonally variable regimes become more variable, and the combined influence of seasonality and magnitude of climate variables will affect future water availability.

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In March 2019, storm clouds rolled across Oklahoma; rain swept down the gutters of New York; hail pummeled northern Florida; floodwaters forced evacuations in Missouri; and a blizzard brought travel to a stop in South Dakota. Across much of America, it can be easy to assume that we have more than enough water. But that same a month, as storms battered the country, a government-backed report issued a stark warning: America is running out of water.

Within as little as 50 years, many regions of the United States could see their freshwater supply reduced by as much as a third, warn scientists. Of all the freshwater basins that channel rain and snow into the rivers from which we draw the water we rely on for everything from drinking and cooking to washing and cleaning, nearly half may be unable to meet consumers' monthly demands by 2071. This will mean serious water shortages for Americans.

Shortages won't affect only the regions we'd expect to be dry: with as many as 96 out of 204 basins in trouble, water shortages would impact most of the U.S., including the central and southern Great Plains, the Southwest, and central Rocky Mountain states, as well as parts of California, the South, and the Midwest. And if 50 years seems like a long way off, the reality is much sooner: shortages could occur in 83 basins as early as 2021. With 40 out of 50 states expecting water shortages, it's time to start thinking about where our water is going.

From the snow-capped Rockies to the flat expanses of the prairies, and from the wetlands of Florida to the deserts of Arizona, the U.S. is a country of geographical extremes with rainfall patterns to match: Louisiana gets over 60 inches of rainfall a year, while in Nevada, less than 10 inches of rain falls annually in valleys and deserts. But climate change is impacting precipitation. In broad terms, while the wettest regions of the U.S. are getting wetter, the drier areas are getting drier, and there are some seasonal shifts in water patterns-rising temperatures mean the snowmelt that feeds many rivers begins and ends earlier, contributing to summer water shortages. Even where precipitation is projected to increase, mostly in the nation's northern regions, the trend is toward more intense concentrations of rainfall that are difficult to capture and use. At the same time, 145 basins are expected to be drier, especially in the Southwest, southern Great Plains, and Florida. In the West, California has already faced some of its worst droughts in recorded history.

Along with decreasing rainfall comes rising temperatures. By 2050 the U.S. could be as much as 5.7°F warmer, and extreme weather events, such as heatwaves and drought, could be more intense and occur more frequently. As temperatures warm, evaporation increases, further decreasing water in lakes, reservoirs, and rivers. For example, every degree of warming in the Salt Lake City region could drop the annual water flow of surrounding streams by as much as 6.5 percent-for cities in the western U.S. that rely on cool temperatures to generate snow and rain, warmer weather is bad news.

As the U.S. water supply decreases, demand is set to increase. On average, each American uses 80 to 100 gallons of water every day, with the nation's estimated total daily usage topping 345 billion gallons -enough to sink the state of Rhode Island under a foot of water. By 2100 the U.S. population will have increased by nearly 200 million, with a total population of some 514 million people. Given that we use water for everything, the simple math is that more people mean more water stress across the country.

And we are already tapping into our reserves. Aquifers, porous rocks and sediment that store vast volumes of water underground, are being drained. Nearly 165 million Americans rely on groundwater for drinking water, farmers use it for irrigation―37 percent of our total water usage is for agriculture-and industry needs it for manufacturing. Groundwater is being pumped faster than it can be naturally replenished. The Central Valley Aquifer in California underlies one of the nation's most agriculturally productive regions, but it is in drastic decline and has lost about ten cubic miles of water in just four years.

Decreasing supply and increasing demand are creating a perfect water storm, the effects of which are already being felt. The Colorado River carved its way 1,450 miles from the Rockies to the Gulf of California for millions of years, but now no longer reaches the sea. In 2018, parts of the Rio Grande recorded their lowest water levels ever; Arizona essentially lives under permanent drought conditions; and in South Florida's freshwater aquifers are increasingly susceptible to salt water intrusion due to over-extraction.

With a potential disaster looming, there are doubts about the effectiveness and environmental impacts of traditional responses, including expanding reservoirs and mining more aquifers. New solutions are needed. Desalination plants can produce as much as 50 million gallons of freshwater a day-California has 11 desalination plants, and another 10 are being planned. But despite costs that are half of what they once were, desalinated water is still about twice as expensive as extracted freshwater. Water transfers from wet to dry regions, such as from the Colorado River basin to California, are another expensive option already in use. Proposals have periodically forwarded to pipe water south from Alaska and Canada, but costs and complexity have prevented any further planning or development.

Perhaps the simplest solution is to use less water. Los Angeles has grown by a million people since the 1970s, but water usage is still the same. Water meters and careful pricing help discourage waste, while fixing aging infrastructure will keep more water in the system-a water mains break in the U.S. approximately every two minutes. In the agriculture sector, reducing irrigation by as little as two percent could avert shortages in one-third of the affected basins; farmers could save water by using drip irrigation, soil moisture sensors, and planting more drought-resistant crops. And every American can save more water at home in multiple ways, from taking shorter showers to not rinsing dishes under a running faucet before loading them into a dishwasher, a practice that wastes around 20 gallons of water for each load. These are such small actions, but taken by many, they could amount to the biggest water savings―and we're going to need every drop.

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Decreasing precipitation and rising populations could bring a perfect storm of water shortages for the United States. Where is our water going?

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A quarter of humanity faces extreme water stress -- and it's poised to get worse, new report finds | CNN

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The world is facing an "unprecedented water crisis" driven by soaring demand and the accelerating climate crisis, according to a new report.

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Climate change

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Imminent risk of global water crisis warns the UN world water Development Report 2023

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Imminent risk of global water crisis warns the UN world water Development Report 2023

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Imminent risk of a global water crisis, warns the UN World Water Development Report 2023

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Between two and three billion people worldwide experience water shortages. These shortages will worsen in the coming decades, especially in cities, if international cooperation in this area is not boosted, warn UNESCO and UN-Water in the latest edition of the UN World Water Development Report.

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National Geographic climate change

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Climate change is a long-term shift in global or regional climate patterns. Often climate change refers specifically to the rise in global temperatures from the mid-20th century to present.

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https://www.concernusa.org/story/countries-with-water-stress-and-scarcity/

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According to UN-Water 2.3 billion people live in water-stressed countries

According to UNICEF, 1.42 billion people - including 450 million children - live in areas of high or extremely high water vulnerability

785 million people lack access to basic water services

The WHO reports that 884 million people lack access to safe drinking water

Two-thirds of the world's population experience severe water scarcity during at least one month of the year

The Global Water Institute estimates that 700 million people could be displaced by intense water scarcity by 2030

3.2 billion people live in agricultural areas with high water shortages or scarcity

Approximately 73% of people affected by water shortages live in Asia

The global water crisis is a women's issue : In what UNICEF calls "a colossal waste of time," women and girls spend an estimated 200 million hours hauling water every day

What do water stress and water scarcity mean?

Water is a complex issue given that there is no one primary cause for the global water crisis. Water scarcity is a more objective means of comparing the availability (or lack thereof) of water across countries, usually representing the ratio of a region's water demand to water supply. This means that we can quantify the water crisis on the whole.

However, this doesn't account for all of the risks involved in the global water crisis. Water stress is therefore a broader term that basically means that there is not enough potable water to meet demand. This not only accounts for what's available, but also the quality of water, environmental factors that determine a country's future water availability, and public management of water infrastructure. This is why, as we can see below, a country like Nepal - with abundant water resources - can still face water shortages. This can be a bit more subjective, which is why one organization may prioritize certain indicators to rank water scarcity and another may focus on other - equally valid - factors to come up with a slightly different ranking.

Regardless of the names we use or the order we put countries in, the problem is the same: We need water in order to live. Unfortunately, these ten countries are among those where that is becoming an increasingly larger challenge.

3. Afghanistan

Water has become even scarcer in Afghanistan in the wake of the recent political upheaval and transition in the country, the latest developments of a decades-long crisis fed by conflict, instability, natural disasters, economic insecurity, and climate change - including the worst drought in the last 27 years. UNICEF estimates that 8 out of every 10 Afghans drink unsafe water, and 93% of the country's children live in areas with high water scarcity and vulnerability.

Concern has been in Afghanistan since 1998 and will remain as long as it's safe for us to continue our programs. This includes watershed management, the practice of maintaining an area of land that channels all water running underneath it into a single, larger body of water for communities to use. This solution reduces the frequency and impact of flooding and soil erosion, and helps to maintain water levels through increased soil moisture and groundwater recharge.

At the end of 2021, northern was experiencing its worst drought in nearly 70 years due to low levels of water in the Euphrates River. Over a decade of conflict exacerbating climate-change-related weather events. Before 2010, the International Committee of the Red Cross reports, 98% of people in Syria's cities and 92% of people in its rural communities had reliable access to safe water. That's dropped by over 40%, with only 50% of water and sanitation systems still functioning. "The triggers of the water crisis are layered and complex," the Red Cross writes , "but one thing is clear: they are the direct and indirect consequences of the ongoing conflict." Water scarcity has also been linked to the beginnings of the current conflict, as well as historical conflicts in the country.

In that year alone, we reached over 85,000 people through water trucking into camps for internally-displaced people, rehabilitating water stations, and providing emergency assistance to camps that required water points and latrines. We also identified several water stations and networks to rehabilitate and improve, which will reach an additional 262,000.

The severe drought conditions are combined with lower groundwater levels, which in turn have been brought about largely by the climate crisis and inadequate water management policies.

Concern began working in Turkey in 2013, as part of our response to the Syrian refugee crisis. Our work in the country largely focuses on providing assistance to these refugees and host populations through programs geared towards education, livelihoods, and social protection.

6. Burkina Faso

Concern began work in Burkina Faso last year, with a major focus on water, sanitation, and hygiene services. In our first year, we provided 500 families - both members of the internally-displaced and host communities - with unconditional, multi-purpose cash transfers combined with hygiene campaigns. We've also worked with 200 additional families on a cash-for-work program that improves livelihoods as well as local sanitation infrastructure.

borders Burkina Faso's northeastern territory, and sits completely within the Sahel, leaving the entire country threatened by drought and desertification. In regions like Tillabéri, which is largely rural, there is a chronic shortage of clean water, particularly during the warm months which regularly see temperatures beyond 100° Fahrenheit. UNICEF estimates that only 56% of Nigeriens have access to a source of drinking water, and just 13% have access to basic sanitation services. In the areas that need help the most, violence and insecurity make it difficult for experts to assess the situation and work with communities to find tenable solutions.

Concern first started working in Niger nearly 20 years ago, and our work continues to find sustainable solutions to the climate crisis in this country, particularly as it relates to food security. With so many Nigeriens dependent on agriculture for food and livelihoods, even the smallest variation in rain can carry a large impact. We work with communities, health structures, and national authorities to develop preparedness and response actions to better anticipate and reduce the consequences and the impact of natural disasters such as droughts. Last year, we reached over 404,000 people with this work.

Unlike many of the countries on this list, Nepal is home to 2.7 % of the earth's available freshwater thanks to a number of glaciers, rivers, springs, lakes, groundwater, and high amounts of rainfall. It ranks behind Brazil as one of the most water-abundant countries. However, it's also a country where water scarcity has reached a crisis point, especially in the last 20 years. While Nepal has many water sources, its network and infrastructure is not able to meet supply or demand. In 2020, the region that's home to capital city Kathmandu met less than 20% of its local water needs. Of the eight rivers that flow through Kathmandu, none are clean.

Concern began working in Iraq four years ago in response to both the Syrian crisis and Iraq's own high numbers of internal displacement. WASH is one of the key focuses of our work in displacement camps. Alongside our partner organization Kurdistan Reconstruction and Development Society (KURDS), we successfully took over responsibility for water, sanitation, and hygiene management in nine of these camps. Coinciding with the COVID-19 pandemic, management of these services has focused on ensuring an adequate supply of safe and sustainable water as well as the provision of hygiene and sanitation materials such as soap, in line with government and WHO guidelines.

This has effects in the opposite direction: In 2020, the country also faced devastating floods as the Nile reached its highest point in 100 years. On average, 200,000 people each year are affected by flooding in Sudan, but, in 2020, these floods affected over 800,000. One of the biggest concerns was waterborne diseases, the spread of which was encouraged by the fact that only a third of the country has basic sanitation support.

The global water crisis: Concern's approach

Ensuring access to clean water and sanitation and providing hygiene information and training are key aspects of Concern's work, with active water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) programs in 18 countries.

Over the last 55 years, we have dug, drilled, and bored thousands of wells in remote and vulnerable communities across dozens of countries, and built countless latrines in their schools and health centers. The hours saved and the illnesses prevented make it one of the most effective things we do.

When drought or displacement prevent access to clean water supplies, we do what it takes to connect communities, including trucking water to temporary tanks and installing pumps in camps. We work hand-in-hand with communities to help them assess the longstanding challenges they face, change behaviors, and ensure water and sanitation infrastructure will be maintained for the long term. And we foster a sense of ownership, build sustainable maintenance practices, and create transparent financial management systems that benefit the community.

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10 countries with water stress and scarcity - and how we're helping

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According to UN-Water 2.3 billion people live in water-stressed countries According to UNICEF, 1.42 billion people - including 450 million children - live in areas of high or extremely high water vulnerability 785 million people lack access to basic water services The WHO reports that 884 million people lack access

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Climate Change Timeline (scroll to bottom for 2021)

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Climate Change Timeline (scroll to bottom for 2021)

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Timeline (Milestones)

Here are gathered in chronological sequence the most important events in the history of climate change science. (For a narrative see the Introduction and Summary.) This list of milestones includes some of the major influences external to the science itself. Following it is alist of other external influences.

1800-1870
Level of carbon dioxide gas (CO2) in the atmosphere, as later measured in ancient ice, is about 290 ppm (parts per million).

Mean global temperature (1850-1890) is roughly 13.6°C.

First Industrial Revolution. Coal, railroads, and land clearing speed up greenhouse gas emission, while better agriculture and sanitation speed up population growth.

1859
Tyndall demonstrates that some gases block infrared radiation, and notes that changes in the concentration of the gases could bring climate change. => Other gases

International Meteorological Organization begins to compile and standardize global weather data, including temperature. => International

1896
Arrhenius publishes first calculation of global warming from human emissions of CO2. Simple models

1897
Chamberlin produces a model for global carbon exchange including feedbacks. => Simple models

1870-1910
Second Industrial Revolution. Fertilizers and other chemicals, electricity, and public health further accelerate growth.

1914-1918
World War I; governments learn to mobilize and control industrial societies.

1920-1925
Opening of Texas and Persian Gulf oil fields inaugurates era of cheap energy.

1938
Callendar argues that CO2 greenhouse global warming is underway, reviving interest in the question. => CO2 greenhouse

1939-1945
World War II. Military grand strategy is largely driven by a struggle to control oil fields.

1955
Phillips produces a convincing computer model of the global atmosphere. => Models (GCMs)

1956
Ewing and Donn offer a feedback model for abrupt climate change. => Simple models

Plass calculates that adding CO2 to the atmosphere will have a significant effect on the radiation balance. => Radiation math

1957
Launch of Soviet Sputnik satellite. Cold War concerns support 1957-58 International Geophysical Year, bringing new funding and coordination to climate studies. => International

Revelle finds that CO2 produced by humans will not be readily absorbed by the oceans. => CO2 greenhouse

1960
Mitchell reports downturn of global temperatures since the early 1940s.=> Modern temp's

Keeling accurately measures CO2 in the Earth's atmosphere and detects an annual rise.
=> CO2 greenhouse

The CO2 level is 315 ppm. Mean global temperature (five-year average) is 13.9°C.

1962
Cuban Missile Crisis, peak of the Cold War.

1963
Calculations suggest that feedback with water vapor could make the climate acutely sensitive to changes in CO2 level. => Radiation math

First meeting of experts concerned with global warming warns that a rise in sea level is likely, with "immense flooding" of shorelines. => Impacts

1965
Boulder, Colorado meeting on causes of climate change: Lorenz and others point out the chaotic nature of the climate system and the possibility of sudden shifts. => Chaos theory

1966
Emiliani's analysis of deep-sea cores and Broecker's analysis of ancient corals show that the timing of ice ages was set by small orbital shifts, suggesting that the climate system is sensitive to small perturbations. => Climate cycles

Manabe and Wetherald make a convincing calculation that doubling CO2 would raise world temperatures a couple of degrees. => Radiation math

1968
Studies suggest a possibility of collapse of Antarctic ice sheets, which would raise sea levels catastrophically. => Sea rise, ice, floods

Nimbus III satellite begins to provide comprehensive global atmospheric temperature measurements. => Government

1970
First Earth Day. Environmental movement attains strong influence, spreads concern about global degradation. => Public opinion

Aerosols from human activity are shown to be increasing swiftly. Bryson claims they counteract global warming and may bring serious cooling. => Aerosols

1971
SMIC conference of leading scientists reports a danger of rapid and serious global change caused by humans, calls for an organized research effort. => International

Mariner 9 spacecraft finds a great dust storm warming the atmosphere of Mars, plus indications of a radically different climate in the past.=> Venus & Mars

Droughts in Africa, Ukraine, India cause world food crisis, spreading fears about climate change. => Public opinion

1973
Oil embargo and price rise bring first "energy crisis". => Government

1974
Cooling from aerosols suspected to be as likely as warming; some journalists talk of a new ice age but scientists doubt all theories, call for more research. => Public opinion

1975
Warnings about environmental effects of airplanes lead to investigations of trace gases in the stratosphere and discovery of danger to ozone layer. => Other gases

Manabe and collaborators produce complex but plausible computer models which show a temperature rise of a few degrees for doubled CO2. => Models (GCMs)

1976
Studies show that CFCs (1975) and also methane and ozone (1976) can make a serious contribution to the greenhouse effect. => Other gases
Deep-sea cores show a dominating influence from 100,000-year Milankovitch orbital changes, emphasizing the role of feedbacks. => Climate cycles

Deforestation and other ecosystem changes are recognized as major factors in the future of the climate. => Biosphere
1979
Second oil "energy crisis." Strengthened environmental movement encourages renewable energy sources, inhibits nuclear energy growth. => Public opinion

US National Academy of Sciences report finds it highly credible that doubling CO2 will bring 1.5-4.5°C global warming. => Models (GCMs)

World Climate Research Programme launched to coordinate international research. => International

1981
Election of Reagan brings backlash against environmental movement to power. Political conservatism is linked to skepticism about global warming. => Government

IBM Personal Computer introduced. Advanced economies are increasingly delinked from energy production.

Some scientists predict greenhouse warming "signal" should become visible around the year 2000. => Modern temp's

Strong global warming since mid-1970s is reported, with 1981 the warmest year on record. => Modern temp's

Speculation over catastrophic climate change following a nuclear war, or a dinosaur-killing asteroid strike, promote realization of the atmosphere's fragility. => World winter

Antarctic ice cores show that CO2 and temperature went up and down together through past ice ages, pointing to powerful feedbacks. =>

Broecker speculates that a reorganization of North Atlantic Ocean circulation can bring swift and radical climate change. => The oceans

1986
Meltdown of reactor at Chernobyl (Soviet Union) cripples plans to replace fossil fuels with nuclear power.

1987
Montreal Protocol of the Vienna Convention imposes international restrictions on emission of ozone-destroying gases. => International

1988
News media coverage of global warming leaps upward following record heat and droughts plus statements by Hansen. => Public opinion

Ice-core and biology studies confirm living ecosystems give climate feedback by way of methane, which could accelerate global warming. => Other gases

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is established. => International

Fossil-fuel and other U.S. industries form Global Climate Coalition to persuade politicians and the public that climate science is too uncertain to justify action. => Public opinion

1990
First IPCC report says world has been warming and future warming seems likely. => International

Global warming skeptics claim that 20th-century temperature changes followed from solar influences. (The solar-climate correlation would fail in the following decade.) => Solar variation

Geologists discover massive extinction event 55 million years ago, associated with tremendous global heating caused by increase in greenhouse gases. => Rapid change

Study of ancient climates reveals climate sensitivity to CO2 in same range as predicted independently by computer models. => Models (GCMs)

Greenland ice cores suggest that great climate changes (at least on a regional scale) can occur in the space of a single decade. => Rapid change

Reports of the breaking up of Antarctic ice shelves and other signs of actual current warming in polar regions begin affecting public opinion. => Public opinion

1997
Toyota introduces Prius in Japan, first mass-market electric hybrid car; swift progress in large wind turbines, solar electricity, and other energy alternatives.

International conference produces Kyoto Protocol, setting targets for industrialized nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions if enough nations sign onto a treaty (rejected by U.S. Senate in advance). => International

1998
A "Super El Niño" makes this an exceptionally warm year, equaled in later years but not clearly exceeded until 2014. Borehole data confirm extraordinary warming trend. => Modern temp's

Qualms about arbitrariness in computer models diminish as teams model ice-age climate and dispense with special adjustments to reproduce current climate. => Models (GCMs)

Criticism that satellite measurements show no warming are dismissed by National Academy of Sciences panel. => Modern temp's

Mann's "hockey stick" data indicates current warming is historically unprecedented.
=> Modern temp's

Variety of studies emphasize variability and importance of biological feedbacks in carbon cycle, liable to accelerate warming. => Biosphere

2001
Warming observed in ocean basins; match with computer models gives a clear signature of greenhouse effect warming. => Models (GCMs)

Third IPCC report states baldly that global warming, unprecedented since the end of the last ice age, is "very likely," with highly damaging future impacts => Impacts and possible severe surprises. Effective end of debate among all but a few scientists. => International

Deadly summer heat wave in Europe accelerates divergence between European and US public opinion. => Public opinion

First major books, movie, and art work featuring global warming appear. => Public opinion

Kyoto treaty goes into effect, signed by major industrial nations except US. Work to retard emissions accelerates in Japan, Western Europe, US regional governments and corporations.
=> International

European Union initiates "cap and trade" market to reduce emissions.

Hurricane Katrina and other major tropical storms spur debate over impact of global warming on storm intensity. => Sea rise, ice, floods

In longstanding "hockey stick" controversy, scientists conclude that post-1980 global warming was unprecedented for centuries or more. => Modern temp's The rise could not be attributed to changes in solar energy. => Solar variation

"An Inconvenient Truth" documentary persuades many but sharpens political polarization.
=> Public opinion

China overtakes the United States as the world's biggest emitter of CO2.

Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets and Arctic Ocean sea-ice cover found to be shrinking faster than expected. => Sea rise, ice, floods

Climate scientists point out that even if all greenhouse gas emissions could be halted immediately, global temperature will remain elevated for millennia. =>

Many experts warn that damage from climate change is arriving at a faster pace than was anticipated just a few years earlier. => International

Excerpts from stolen e-mails of climate scientists fuel public skepticism. => Public opinion

Studies find total carbon emitted determines global temperature; the "budget" for avoiding dangerous heating is mostly used up.=> International

2011
Reaction to nuclear reactor disaster at Fukushima (Japan) ends hopes for a renaissance of nuclear power.

2013
An apparent pause or "hiatus" in global warming of the atmosphere since 1998, publicized by skeptics, is explained; the world is still warming (as following years would confirm). Modern temp's

2015
Researchers find collapse of West Antarctic ice sheet may be irreversible, bringing meters of sea-level rise over future centuries. => Sea rise, ice, floods

Rise of methane in atmosphere accelerates, threatening dangerous feedbacks. => Other gases

Paris Agreement: nearly all nations pledge to set their own targets for greenhouse gas cuts and to report their progress. => International

2016
Solar electricity and wind power become economically competitive with fossil fuels in some regions.

2018
IPCC report on 1.5°C warming says that to avoid dangerous climate change, the world's greenhouse gas emissions must be in sharp decline by 2030. => International.

2019
Increasing disasters (tropical cyclones, wildfires, etc.) join scientists' warnings to spur public demonstrations and civil disobedience.=> Impacts => Public opinion

Sixth IPCC report warns that catastrophic outcomes cannot be ruled out. => Impacts

Glasgow conference spurs pledges to restrict emissions - not enough to avoid dangerous climate change, but risk of catastrophic change is reduced. => International.

2022
Democrats in U.S. Congress pass legislation providing subsidies to reduce the nation's greenhouse gas emissions. => Government
Mean global temperature is 14.8°C, the warmest in tens of thousands of years. Level of CO2 in the atmosphere is 421 ppm, the highest in millions of years.

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A hypertext history of how scientists came to (partly) understand what people are doing to cause climate change. An abridged web version of Spencer R. Weart’s book presented by the American Institute of Physics.

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Over 122 million more people are facing hunger in the world since 2019 due to the pandemic and repeated weather shocks and conflicts, including the war in Ukraine, according to the latest State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World (SOFI) report published today jointly by five United Nations specialized agencies.

If trends remain as they are, the Sustainable Development Goal of ending hunger by 2030 will not be reached, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Food Programme (WFP) warn.
A wake-up call for the fight against hunger
The 2023 edition of the report reveals that between 691 and 783 million people faced hunger in 2022, with a mid-range of 735 million. This represents an increase of 122 million people compared to 2019, before the COVID-19 pandemic.

While global hunger numbers have stalled between 2021 and 2022, there are many places in the world facing deepening food crises. Progress in hunger reduction was observed in Asia and Latin America, but hunger was still on the rise in Western Asia, the Caribbean and throughout all subregions of Africa in 2022. Africa remains the worst-affected region with one in five people facing hunger on the continent, more than twice the global average.

"There are rays of hope, some regions are on track to achieve some 2030 nutrition targets. But overall, we need an intense and immediate global effort to rescue the Sustainable Development Goals. We must build resilience against the crises and shocks that drive food insecurity-from conflict to climate, said UN Secretary-General António Guterres through a video message during the launch of the report at the UN Headquarters in New York.

The heads of the five UN agencies, FAO Director-General QU Dongyu; IFAD President Alvaro Lario; UNICEF Executive Director Catherine Russell; WFP's Executive Director Cindy McCain; and WHO Director General Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus write in the report's Foreword: "No doubt, achieving the Sustainable Development Goal target of Zero Hunger by 2030 poses a daunting challenge. Indeed, it is projected that almost 600 million people will still be facing hunger in 2030. The major drivers of food insecurity and malnutrition are our "new normal", and we have no option but to redouble our efforts to transform agrifood systems and leverage them towards reaching the Sustainable Development Goal 2 (SDG 2) targets."
Beyond hunger
The food security and nutrition situation remained grim in 2022. The report finds that approximately 29.6 percent of the global population, equivalent to 2.4 billion people, did not have constant access to food, as measured by the prevalence of moderate or severe food insecurity. Among them, around 900 million individuals faced severe food insecurity.

Meanwhile, the capacity of people to access healthy diets has deteriorated across the world: more than 3.1 billion people in the world - or 42 percent - were unable to afford a healthy diet in 2021. This represents an overall increase of 134 million people compared to 2019.

Millions of children under five continue to suffer from malnutrition: in 2022, 148 million children under five years of age (22.3 percent) were stunted, 45 million (6.8 percent) were wasted, and 37 million (5.6 percent) were overweight.

Progress has been seen in exclusive breastfeeding with 48 percent of infants under 6-months of age benefiting from this practice, close to the 2025 target. However, more concerted efforts will be required to meet the 2030 malnutrition targets.

New evidence: Urbanization is driving changes in agrifood systems
The report also looks at increased urbanization as a 'megatrend' affecting how and what people eat. With almost seven in ten people projected to live in cities by 2050, governments and others working to tackle hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition must seek to understand these urbanization trends and account for them in their policymaking.

In particular, the simple rural and urban divide concept is no longer sufficient to understand the ways in which urbanization is shaping agrifood systems. A more complex rural-urban continuum perspective is needed considering both the degree of connectivity that people have and types of connections that exist between urban and rural areas.

For the first time, this evolution is documented systematically across eleven countries. The report illustrates that food purchases are significant not only among urban households but also across the rural-urban continuum, including those residing far from urban centers. The new findings also show how consumption of highly processed foods is also increasing in peri-urban and rural areas of some countries.

Unfortunately, spatial inequalities remain. Food insecurity affects more people living in rural areas. Moderate or severe food insecurity affected 33 percent of adults living in rural areas and 26 pe in urban areas.

Children's malnutrition also displays urban and rural specificities: the prevalence of child stunting is higher in rural areas (35.8 percent) than in urban areas (22.4 percent). Wasting is higher in rural areas (10.5 percent) than in urban areas (7.7 percent), while overweight is slightly more prevalent in urban areas (5.4 percent) compared to rural areas (3.5 percent).

The report recommends that to effectively promote food security and nutrition, policy interventions, actions and investments must be guided by a comprehensive understanding of the complex and changing relationship between the rural-urban continuum and agrifood systems.

What they said FAO

Director-General, QU Dongyu: "Recovery from the global pandemic has been uneven, and the war in Ukraine has affected the nutritious food and healthy diets. This is the 'new normal' where climate change, conflict, and economic instability are pushing those on the margins even further from safety. We cannot take a business-as-usual approach."

IFAD President, Alvaro Lario: "A world without hunger is possible. What we are missing is the investments and political will to implement solutions at scale. We can eradicate hunger if we make it a global priority. Investments in small-scale farmers and in their adaptation to climate change, access to inputs and technologies, and access to finance to set up small agribusinesses can make a difference. Small-scale producers are part of the solution. Properly supported, they can produce more food, diversify production, and supply both urban and rural markets - feeding rural areas and cities nutritious and locally grown food.''

UNICEF Executive Director, Catherine Russell: "Malnutrition is a major threat to children's survival, growth and development. The scale of the nutrition crisis demands a stronger response focused on children, including prioritizing access to nutritious and affordable diets and essential nutrition services, protecting children and adolescents from nutrient-poor, ultra-processed foods, and strengthening food and nutrition supply chains including for fortified and therapeutic foods for children."

WFP Executive Director, Cindy McCain: "Hunger is rising while the resources we urgently need to protect the most vulnerable are running dangerously low. As humanitarians, we are facing the greatest challenge we've ever seen. We need the global community to act swiftly, smartly, and compassionately to reverse course and turn the tide on hunger. At WFP, we are committed to working with all our partners - both old and new - to create a world where no one questions when their next meal will come."

WHO Director-General, Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus: "Child wasting remains unacceptably high and there has been no progress in reducing child overweight. We need targeted public policies, investments and actions to create healthier food environments for all."'
Notes to editors: the SOFI report
The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World is an annual report jointly prepared by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), the World Food Programme (WFP) and the World Health Organization (WHO).

Since 1999, it monitors and analyses the world's progress towards ending hunger, achieving food security and improving nutrition. It also provides an in-depth analysis of key challenges for achieving these goals in the context of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The report targets a wide audience, including policymakers, international organizations, academic institutions and the general public.

This year's theme is aligned with the UN General Assembly "New Urban Agenda" and will complement and guide the discussions at the 2023 High Level Political Forum - particularly on sustainable cities and communities (SDG 11), and especially during the three-day ministerial segment of the forum held from 17 to 19 July 2023 and in the lead-up to the SDG Summit in September.
Glossary of key terms
Acute food insecurity: food insecurity found in a specified area at a specific point in time and of a severity that threatens lives or livelihoods, or both, regardless of the causes, context or duration. Has relevance in providing strategic guidance to actions that focus on short-term objectives to prevent, mitigate or decrease severe acute food insecurity. This indicator is used in the Global Report on Food Crisis (FSIN and Global Network Against Food Crises. 2023).

Hunger: an uncomfortable or painful sensation caused by insufficient energy from diet. In this report, the term hunger is synonymous with chronic undernourishment and is measured by the prevalence of undernourishment (PoU).

Malnutrition: an abnormal physiological condition caused by inadequate, unbalanced or excessive intake of macronutrients and/or micronutrients. Malnutrition includes undernutrition (child stunting and wasting, and vitamin and mineral deficiencies) as well as overweight and obesity.

Moderate food insecurity: a level of severity of food insecurity at which people face uncertainties about their ability to obtain food and have been forced to reduce, at times during the year, the quality and/or quantity of food they consume due to lack of money or other resources. It refers to a lack of consistent access to food, which diminishes dietary quality and disrupts normal eating patterns. It is measured with the Food Insecurity Experience Scale and contributes to track the progress towards SDG Target 2.1 (Indicator 2.1.2).

Severe food insecurity: a level of severity of food insecurity at which, at some time during the year, people have run out of food, experienced hunger and at the most extreme, gone without food for a day or more. It is measured with the Food Insecurity Experience Scale and contributes to track the progress towards SDG Target 2.1 (Indicator 2.1.2).

Undernourishment: a condition in which an individual's habitual food consumption is insufficient to provide the amount of dietary energy required to maintain a normal, active, healthy life. The prevalence of undernourishment is used to measure hunger and progress towards SDG Target 2.1 (Indicator 2.1.1).

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122 million more people pushed into hunger since 2019 due to multiple crises, reveals UN report

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Over 122 million more people are facing hunger in the world since 2019 due to the pandemic and repeated weather shocks and conflicts, including the war in Ukraine, according to the latest State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World (SOFI) report published today jointly by five United Nations specialized agencies.

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https://www.worldwatercouncil.org/en/water-crisis

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Towards a way to improve the situation

"There is a water crisis today. But the crisis is not about having too little water to satisfy our needs. It is a crisis of managing water so badly that billions of people - and the environment - suffer badly." World Water Vision Report

With the current state of affairs, correcting measures still can be taken to avoid the crisis to be worsening. There is a increasing awareness that our freshwater resources are limited and need to be protected both in terms of quantity and quality. This water challenge affects not only the water community, but also decision-makers and every human being. "Water is everybody's business" was one the the key messages of the 2nd World Water Forum.

Saving water resources

Whatever the use of freshwater (agriculture, industry, domestic use), huge saving of water and improving of water management is possible. Almost everywhere, water is wasted, and as long as people are not facing water scarcity, they believe access to water is an obvious and natural thing. With urbanization and changes in lifestyle, water consumption is bound to increase. However, changes in food habits, for example, may reduce the problem, knowing that growing 1kg of potatoes requires only 100 litres of water, whereas 1 kg of beef requires 13 000 litres.

Improving drinking water supply

Water should be recognized as a great priority. One of the main objectives of the World Water Council is to increase awareness of the water issue. Decision-makers at all levels must be implicated. One of the Millenium Development Goals is to halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and sanitation. To that aim, several measures should be taken:

guarantee the right to water;

decentralise the responsibility for water;

develop know-how at the local level;

increase and improve financing;

evaluate and monitor water resources.

Improving transboundary cooperation

As far as transboundary conflicts are concerned, regional economic developement and cultural preservation can all be strengthened by states cooperating of water. Instead of a trend towards war, water management can be viewed as a trend towards cooperation and peace. Many initiatives are launched to avoid crises. Institutional commitments like in the Senegal River are created. In 2001, Unesco and Grenn Cross International have joined forces in response to the growing threat of conflicts linked to water. They launched the joint From Potential Conflicts to Co-Operation Potential programme to promote peace in the use of transboundary watercourses by addressing conflicts and fostering co-operation among states and stakeholders.

More about this program: www.gci.ch/en/programs/natural_02.htm
www.unesco.org/water/wwap/pccp

Water resources are becoming scarce

Agricultural crisis

Although food security has been significantly increased in the past thirty years, water withdrawals for irrigation represent 66 % of the total withdrawals and up to 90 % in arid regions, the other 34 % being used by domestic households (10 %), industry (20 %), or evaporated from reservoirs (4 %). (Source: Shiklomanov, 1999)
As the per capita use increases due to changes in lifestyle and as population increases as well, the proportion of water for human use is increasing. This, coupled with spatial and temporal variations in water availability, means that the water to produce food for human consumption, industrial processes and all the other uses is becoming scarce.

Environmental crisis

It is all the more critical that increased water use by humans does not only reduce the amount of water available for industrial and agricultural development but has a profound effect on aquatic ecosystems and their dependent species. Environmental balances are disturbed and cannot play their regulating role anymore.

An increase in tensions

As the resource is becoming scarce, tensions among different users may intensify, both at the national and international level. Over 260 river basins are shared by two or more countries. In the absence of strong institutions and agreements, changes within a basin can lead to transboundary tensions. When major projects proceed without regional collaboration, they can become a point of conflicts, heightening regional instability. The Parana La Plata, the Aral Sea, the Jordan and the Danube may serve as examples. Due to the pressure on the Aral Sea, half of its superficy has disappeared, representing 2/3 of its volume. 36 000 km2 of marin grounds are now recovered by salt.

Source: WaterGAP 2.0 - December 1999

Water stress results from an imbalance between water use and water resources. The water stress indicator in this map measures the proportion of water withdrawal with respect to total renewable resources. It is a criticality ratio, which implies that water stress depends on the variability of resources. Water stress causes deterioration of fresh water resources in terms of quantity (aquifer over-exploitation, dry rivers, etc.) and quality (eutrophication, organic matter pollution, saline intrusion, etc.) The value of this criticality ratio that indicates high water stress is based on expert judgment and experience ( Alcamo and others, 1999). It ranges between 20 % for basins with highly variable runoff and 60 % for temperate zone basins. In this map, we take an overall value of 40 % to indicate high water stress. We see that the situation is heterogeneous over the world.

The concept of Water Stress

Already there is more waste water generated and dispersed today than at any other time in the history of our planet: more than one out of six people lack access to safe drinking water, namely 1.1 billion people, and more than two out of six lack adequate sanitation, namely 2.6 billion people (Estimation for 2002, by the WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2004). 3900 children die every day from water borne diseases ( WHO 2004). One must know that these figures represent only people with very poor conditions. In reality, these figures should be much higher.

Photo by ADMVB bokidiawe@yahoogroupes.fr

Water Crisis

While the world's population tripled in the 20th century, the use of renewable water resources has grown six-fold. Within the next fifty years, the world population will increase by another 40 to 50 %. This population growth - coupled with industrialization and urbanization - will result in an increasing demand for water and will have serious consequences on the environment.

People lack drinking water and sanitation

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Towards a way to improve the situation "There is a water crisis today. But the crisis is not about having too little water to satisfy our needs. It is a crisis of managing water so badly that billions of people - and the environment - suffer badly."

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Climate Influences on Hurricanes

Climate change is worsening hurricane impacts in the United States by increasing the intensity and decreasing the speed at which they travel. Scientists are currently uncertain whether there will be a change in the number of hurricanes, but they are certain that the intensity and severity of hurricanes will continue to increase. These trends are resulting in hurricanes being far more costly in terms of both physical damages and deaths. To avoid the worst impacts moving forward, communities in both coastal and inland areas need to become more resilient.

Hurricanes are subject to a number of climate change-related influences:

Warmer sea surface temperatures intensify tropical storm wind speeds, giving them the potential to deliver more damage if they make landfall. Over the 39-year period from 1979-2017, the number of major hurricanes has increased while the number of smaller hurricanes has decreased. Based on modeling, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration predicts an increase in Category 4 and 5 hurricanes, alongside increased hurricane wind speeds. Warmer sea temperatures also cause wetter hurricanes, with 10-15 percent more precipitation from storms projected. Recent storms such as Hurricane Harvey in 2017 (which dropped more than 60 inches in some locations), Florence in 2018 (with over 35 inches) and Imelda in 2019 (44 inches) demonstrate the devastating floods that can be triggered by these high-rain hurricanes.

Sea level rise is already making coastal storms more damaging and is expected to continue worsening. Globally, average sea level has risen over half a foot since 1900 and is expected to rise 1 to 2.5 feet during this century. Coastal regions will experience the worst of these effects. Sea level rise increases the risk of coastal flooding and has intensified the impact of several recent storms. A study of Hurricane Katrina estimated that higher sea levels led to flood elevations 15-60 percent higher than climate conditions in 1900. A study of Hurricane Sandy estimated that sea levels at the time increased the likely of flooding by three times and that additional rising will make severe flooding four times more likely in the future.

Changes in the atmosphere, like the warming of the Arctic, may be contributing to other trends seen in the hurricane record. Hurricanes today travel more slowly than they previously did. Though the mechanism that is causing this slowdown is still debated, it is clear that storms are "stalling" and subjecting coastal regions to higher total rainfall and longer periods of high winds and storm surge. This has increased the destruction caused by recent storms in the United States.

The warming of mid-latitudes may be changing the pattern of tropical storms, leading to more storms occurring at higher latitudes. A northward shift in the location at which storms reach their peak intensity has been observed in the Pacific, but not in the North Atlantic, where hurricanes that make landfall in the Gulf and East Coast are created. This shift could put much more lives and property at risk, however more research is required to better understand how hurricane tracks might change.

Definition of a Hurricane

Hurricanes and tropical storms are types of tropical cyclones. These are rapidly rotating, low-pressure systems with activity like thunder and lightning that develop in the tropics or subtropics. Stronger systems are called "hurricanes" in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean or "typhoons" in the northwestern Pacific. Weaker tropical cyclones are called "tropical depressions" or "tropical storms."

The National Hurricane Center categorizes hurricanes based on wind speed. A storm with winds exceeding 74 mph is a Category 1 hurricane. Storms with winds stronger than 111 mph are considered "major hurricanes" (Category 3 or higher). Wind speed is just one of many factors that contribute to a hurricane's impact. Other factors include its track (the site where the storm makes landfall), size, storm structure, rainfall amount, duration, and the vulnerability of the area it affects.

The frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones vary from basin to basin. In the North Atlantic Basin, the long-term (1966-2009) average number of tropical storms is around 11 annually, with roughly six storms becoming hurricanes.

Hurricane Activity 1950-2019

Threats Posed by Hurricanes

Climate change is adding to the cost and threat of hurricanes. While there have been extreme storms in the past, recent history reflects the growing financial risk of hurricanes. Four of the ten costliest hurricanes on record in the United States occurred in 2017 and 2018 and Hurricane Katrina (2005) remains the most expensive hurricane on record, costing over $186 billion (2022 dollars).
Click here to see C2ES's map of billion-dollar extreme weather events.
It is important to note that while stronger hurricanes are causing more damages, increased development in coastal areas is leading to a growing amount of property risk. There are nearly 50 million homes and at least $1.4 trillion in assets within an eighth of a mile of the coast. U.S. coastal populations grew by roughly 35 million people between 1970 and 2010. As more development occurs in harm's way, the greater the risk of damage will grow.

In addition to damages to buildings, hurricanes threaten infrastructure, undermine energy, water, and sewer systems, transportation, and flood management structures. These systems are critical in providing essential services to communities and supporting business continuity.

Stronger hurricanes also pose a significant risk to public health and human lives. Hurricane Katrina caused over 1,800 deaths, and in 2017 Hurricane Maria caused nearly 3,000 deaths in Puerto Rico. Hurricane Fiona in 2022 triggered an island-wide power outage. Disruptions to water supplies and power systems can create risk for waterborne illness, environmental contaminants, mosquito borne illnesses, and can result in hospital closures which impacts the ability for patients to receive care. These risks are especially pressing in marginalized communities that have fewer resources with which to prepare for and recover from hurricanes.

How to Build Resilience

Making immediate reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, with the aim of halting global warming, is essential to reduce the risk of the strongest storms in the future. Communities can bolster their resilience to the impacts of hurricanes by:

Preserving coastal wetlands, dunes, and reefs to absorb storm surge

Ensuring new building and development does not occur in flood-prone areas or historic hurricane tracts

Replenishing beaches and improving infrastructure that affords coastal protection, such as seawalls.

Elevating vulnerable buildings to reduce the potential for flood damage

Encouraging residents in areas that have historically low hurricane risk to purchase flood insurance and helping those with recurrent damages to relocate to safer locations through managed retreat and buyout programs

Designing structures and codifying building codes to be resilient to high winds and flying debris

Preparing directly prior to a storm's arrival by implementing thorough community awareness initiatives, boarding windows, clearing property of potential flying debris, and activating an evacuation plan.

The Climate Mapping for Resilience and Adaptation portal helps communities understand and plan for their climate risks today and in the future, including a real-time map of wildfire, drought, flooding, and extreme heat across the United States.

Learn more about resilience through our Climate Resilience Portal.

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Climate change is worsening hurricane impacts in the United States by increasing the intensity and decreasing the speed at which they travel. Scientists are currently uncertain whether there will be a change in the number of hurricanes, but they are certain that the intensity and severity of hurricanes will continue to increase.

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Nuclear Power: The Road to a Carbon Free Future

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While global attention is focused on Ukraine, said WFP in a press release, a "hidden hunger emergency" is engulfing South Sudan with about 8.3 million there - including refugees - facing extreme hunger in the coming months.

As the 2022 lean season peaks, food becomes scarce and provisions are depleted, according to the latest findings published in the 2022 Humanitarian Needs Overview.

Particularly at risk are tens of thousands of South Sudanese who are already severely hungry following successive and continuous shocks and could starve without food assistance.

'Ring of fire'

South Sudan forms part of a 'ring of fire' encircling the globe where climate shocks, conflict, COVID-19, and rising costs are driving millions closer to starvation, said the UN emergency food relief agency.

The impact of the climate crisis and ongoing conflict have led to large scale displacement, livelihoods losses, the destruction of arable land and crops as well as rising food prices, threatening the survival of communities living in some of the most isolated areas in the South Sudanese states of Jonglei, Lakes, Unity and Warrap.

"The extent and depth of this crisis is unsettling. We're seeing people across the country have exhausted all their available options to make ends meet and now they are left with nothing," said Adeyinka Badejo, Deputy Country Director of the World Food Programme in South Sudan.

Turning the tide on hunger

While providing critical food and nutrition assistance to meet the immediate needs of populations at risk, WFP simultaneously implements resilience building activities, to help these communities cope with sudden shocks without losing all their productive assets.

"Given the magnitude of this crisis, our resources only allow us to reach only some of those most in need with the bare minimum to survive, which is not nearly enough to allow communities to get back on their feet", added Ms. Badejo. "WFP is working tirelessly not only to cater for these immediate needs, but also to support communities to restore their own resilience and be better prepared to face new shocks".

Nearly 6 million reached

In 2021, WFP reached 5.9 million people with food and nutrition assistance, including more than 730,000 people in South Sudan who benefited from livelihoods activities.

In Greater Jonglei and Unity States, where unprecedented floods and localized conflict prevented people from reaching their cultivated fields, WFP supported people with cash assistance to buy food and other basic needs, provided communities with tools to protect and maintain critical assets, and trained young people in food-related programmes, including post-harvest management.

Projects in the field

To help communities prepare for the impact of floods, WFP built dikes in areas at risk such as Bor in Jonglei State, where constructing an 18km barrier enabled thousands of displaced families to return to their homes.

WFP also began restoring a key roadway submerged following the devastating floods that hit Bentiu in Unity State, where many people remain displaced.

In areas not affected by floodwaters, WFP worked with community members to clear and cultivate more than 40,000 acres of land to grow food, thereby enabling smallholder farmers to be more self-reliant year-round.

"Investing in resilience is an important step to help communities find their way out of poverty and hunger. While we stand on their side to address their most immediate challenges, we must also work closely with the Government and other development partners to seek longer-term solutions to some of the chronic problems that South Sudan faces - addressing entrenched inequity and isolation and restoring conditions for peace and stability" said Ms. Badejo.

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South Sudan bracing for 'worst hunger crisis ever'

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More than 70 percent of South Sudan's population will struggle to survive the peak of the annual 'lean season' this year, as the country grapples with unprecedented levels of food insecurity caused by conflict, climate shocks, COVID-19, and rising costs, the UN's World Food Programme (WFP) warned on Friday.

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Water Crisis | Saving Earth | Encyclopedia Britannica

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Water Crisis | Saving Earth | Encyclopedia Britannica

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Learn about the causes and effects of water scarcity at a global level, and about some of the strategies and solutions that can help us address it.

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Artificial Intelligence (AI) technology has become increasingly important in the modern world due to its numerous applications and benefits and is quickly changing how we live our lives. In this blog post, we will explore why AI is so important in today's world, what are the reasons that make AI unavoidable and significant, and how it is shaping our future. Let us deep dive into this!

What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?

In simple words, Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the development of intelligent machines that can perform tasks that usually require human intelligence. Some examples include visual perception, speech recognition, decision-making and language translation.

How does AI technology work?

AI technology involves the use of algorithms, computer programs and statistical models to enable machines to collect data, process information, recognize patterns, and make decisions based on that knowledge. By following this process, it is continuously learning, improving and evolving to deliver better outcomes.

Importance of Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence has the potential to transform various fields and revolutionize several industries, including healthcare, transportation, finance, education, marketing and entertainment. To understand its importance, let us have a look at some of the key benefits of AI -

Improves Efficiency and Productivity: One of the most significant benefits of artificial intelligence is that it can help improve efficiency and productivity in various industries. For example, in manufacturing, AI-powered robots can perform tasks that are repetitive and time-consuming, freeing up human workers to focus on more complex tasks. Similarly, in the healthcare industry, AI can help improve patient outcomes by streamlining administrative tasks and allowing medical professionals to focus on providing personalized care to their patients.

Personalized Recommendations: Another key benefit of AI technology is that it can provide personalized recommendations to users. This is particularly important in industries such as e-commerce, digital marketing, and entertainment, where personalized recommendations can help increase customer engagement and loyalty to a great extent. For example, online retailers such as Amazon and Netflix use AI algorithms to recommend products and content to their users based on their browsing and viewing history. This plays an important role in nurturing qualified leads and boosting conversions.

Predictive Analytics: Thereafter, AI can also help businesses make better decisions through predictive analytics. By analyzing large amounts of data, AI algorithms can identify patterns and trends that humans may miss, providing businesses with insights that can help them make more informed decisions. According to a survey by PwC, 63 % of business executives believe that AI will have a significant impact on their industry. For example, predictive analytics can be used in finance to identify potential risks and opportunities in the stock market, allowing investors to make smarter and safer investment decisions.

Enhanced Safety and Security: Finally, artificial intelligence also plays a key role in improving safety and security. For example, AI-powered facial recognition technology is being used in various public spaces and private organizations alike to identify potential security threats and prevent unauthorized access. Similarly, AI-powered drones can be used to monitor and respond to natural disasters, providing valuable data for emergency care and saving lives.

Future of Artificial Intelligence

As artificial intelligence continues to evolve, it is clear that its potential applications and benefits are limitless. According to a report by IDC, global spending on AI is expected to reach $ 98 billion by 2023. Listed below are some of the potential developments we can expect in the future of AI:

Advancements in Machine Learning: As mentioned earlier, machine learning is the core of AI technology , and we can expect significant advancements in this field in the future. This includes improvements in deep learning algorithms, which can enable machines to learn more complex tasks and understand the world better. As machines become more capable of learning from data and recognizing patterns, they will be able to make more accurate predictions and facilitate smart decision-making.

Increased Use of AI in Healthcare: AI is already making significant strides in the healthcare industry. Going forward, it can help diagnose diseases, develop personalized treatment plans and improve patient outcomes. Moreover, in the future, AI is expected to become more integrated into healthcare systems, enabling more efficient and accurate diagnoses and treatments.

Facilitating High-Quality 3D Visualisation: Next, AI technology is increasingly being used in 3D design applications to enhance and streamline the design process. AI algorithms can use generative design to explore a wide range of design possibilities and come up with optimized solutions. They can analyze 3D scans to automatically detect and correct errors, such as missing or extra geometry. As a result, they are expected to assist designers to produce more accurate and high-quality 3D models. For a free demo of Toggle3D.ai - a 3D design studio on the web, click here .

Expansion of AI in Education: Thereafter, the importance of artificial intelligence in education industry is also considerable . It has the potential to transform education by enabling personalized learning and improving student outcomes substantially. From intelligent tutoring systems to adaptive learning platforms, it will be widely implemented to adjust to the needs and abilities of individual students.

Implementation in Natural Language Processing: Natural language processing (NLP) is the field of AI that deals with language understanding and generation. As NLP technology advances, machines will be able to understand and interpret human language more accurately. This can have significant implications for fields such as customer service, where chatbots and virtual assistants can provide more human-like interactions.

Increased Automation in Manufacturing Processes: In current times, AI technology has already been applied to automate many manufacturing processes, but this trend is expected to continue and rise in the future. As machines become more capable of performing complex tasks, they will be able to replace human workers in many manufacturing processes.

Improved Autonomous Vehicles: Next, autonomous vehicles will undergo significant improvements in this field in the future. As AI algorithms become more sophisticated, autonomous vehicles will be able to navigate more complex environments and make more accurate decisions. This can have crucial implications for transportation, from reducing accidents to improving traffic flow.

Advancing Event Management: Finally, AI will also play a key role in revolutionizing the event management industry. In addition to automating and streamlining various tasks related to event management, AI algorithms will be able to analyze venue layouts and attendee behaviour to optimize the placement of booths, signage, and other elements to improve attendee flow and engagement. It will also be able to provide important data in real-time, providing event organizers with insights into attendee engagement and satisfaction. One of the most remarkable software that uses AI to optimize every aspect of your event in current times is MapD. Check it out here .

However, as with any new technology, there are also concerns about its negative impact and threat to society. For example, AI can automate many tasks that are currently performed by humans, leading to job displacement in various industries. This can ultimately cause economic disruption and social instability, particularly for workers in low-skilled jobs. In addition to this, it can also pose serious privacy and security risks and ethical concerns. Despite these concerns, there is no denying the importance of artificial intelligence in the modern world. As we continue to develop and refine this technology, it will undoubtedly play an increasingly important role in shaping our future.

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The Importance of Artificial Intelligence in Today's World

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Explore why artificial intelligence has become a critical technology in today's world and how it's transforming the way we think and live.

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Do we Need Nuclear Energy to Stop Climate Change?

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“Do we NEED Nuclear Energy to STOP CLIMATE CHANGE”

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“Do we NEED Nuclear Energy to STOP CLIMATE CHANGE”

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Do we Need Nuclear Energy to Stop Climate Change?

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Sustainable development cannot exist without resilience, peace and security. Our efforts aim at supporting integrated, effective and coherent action by the European Union in order to mitigate security risks, prevent conflicts, sustain peace, help partner countries to recover from major crises and achieve the sustainable development goals (SDGs). In turn, the SDGs call on all states to establish accountable and resilient institutions that make all people feel safe and secure in their everyday life.

Conflicts and security threats of today are becoming more and more intricate and protracted. These are linked, among others, to deep-seated inequalities, poverty, weak governance and rule of law, lack of inclusion and participation, organised crime and illicit economies, discrimination and gender inequalities, radicalisation and violent extremism, terrorism, forced displacement and migration, climate change and environmental degradation - including unequal access to and unsustainable exploitation of natural resources, minerals and energy sources.
These challenges know no borders and therefore require global responses, as well as local knowledge.
We collaborate with EU Member States, the international community, our partner countries and civil society organisations, mainly to:

Facilitate the transition of partner countries from fragility to resilience and from conflict to peace

Develop and roll-out methodologies to support the humanitarian-development-peace nexus

Implement guidance, policies and tools for conflict prevention, conflict sensitivity, resilience and peace building

Conduct joint studies and resilience analysis to enable active, balanced and effective engagement in fragile and conflict situations

Centre of expertise for cooperation on resilience, peace and security programmes for issues related to women, youth and children

Provide expertise for cooperation on efficient security sector reform (SSR), arms-control, anti-money laundering (AML) and countering the financing of terrorism (CFT), disarmament-demobilization-reintegration (DDR), mine action and explosives, small arms light weapons

Providing expertise and capacity building to strengthen regional and national security, including the entire criminal justice chain (law enforcement, judiciary, border management, customs)

Mitigate global and emerging threats, such as terrorism and violent extremism, transnational organised crime (including environmental crime, illicit trafficking and cybercrime), protection and resilience of critical infrastructure (including public, maritime, air and cyber spaces) - as multipliers of global security challenges

Support priority areas of state action in a green and human rights friendly manner

Launch and coordinate the annual Crisis Declaration exercise as well as any ad-hoc requests from the EU Delegations (e.g. COVID-19 crisis related)

Liaise with other Commission services, the EEAS, EU Member States and other stakeholders to ensure appropriate integration of the external dimension of EU policies and maximizing synergies and ensuring the contribution of cooperation policy to the EU political priorities.

From fragility to resilience, from conflict to peace

The concept of fragility is multidimensional. As defined in the States of Fragility 2020 reports of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), fragility can be economic, environmental, political, societal, and security-related. The same report estimates that more than 80% of the worlds poorest will be living in fragile contexts by 2030 if no action is taken.

While poverty, fragility and conflict are closely interlinked, armed conflicts affect increasingly both low- and middle-income countries. This is why the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the new European Consensus on Development both explicitly acknowledge the interdependence and mutually reinforcing nature of security, peace and sustainable development.

Fragile countries are more vulnerable to internal and external shocks because they lack both capacity and legitimacy to take action. We help our partner countries address their own fragilities to strengthen their resilience to shocks. We help them build their capacities and regain the trust and respect of their people.

The EU policy approach to Resilience implies a shift from crisis containment to upstream measures to address the underlying vulnerabilities and structural causes of fragility and conflicts. We help our partners build resilience at all levels by strengthening: the preparedness and adaptability of states, societies, communities and individuals to various pressures and shocks, the capacity to build, maintain or restore core public functions in full respect of democracy, rule of law, human rights and fundamental freedoms, as well as the capacities to deal more peacefully with conflict risks and tensions.

Security and Peace are some of the main aspects addressed by the Sustainable Development Goal 16 (SDG 16). Conflict prevention, peacebuilding, inclusive and equitable post-conflict recovery are essential to build resilience, a necessary precondition to sustainable development.

Addressing security related threats and challenges

We help our partner countries by supporting them reform the security sector (SSR) to strengthen accountability and effectiveness of the security sector for the State and its people without discrimination, with respect for human rights and the rule of law. The UN Security Council Resolution 2151 (2014) stresses that SSR in post-conflict environments is critical to the consolidation of peace, stability and good governance, preventing countries from relapsing in conflict. Enhancing their capacities to anticipate and mitigate potential national or international risks is instrumental for global security.

The EU Global Strategy and numerous other sector-specific policy documents have highlighted the need to ensure coordination and cooperation in tackling those threats at local, national, regional and international levels. The EU has consistently developed policies and projects with partner countries and organisations for this purpose and provides analysis and security solutions to meet security objectives when facing complex global threats and regional instability around the world.

Our action

Our three key areas - resilience, peace and security - are tightly connected as part of one single continuum, which ranges from addressing root causes of instability, conflict and fragility, to conflict prevention, resilience and peacebuilding and mediation, using the EU toolbox, methodologies and expertise in capacity building and security sector reform.   The added value is thus to bring the various aspects of these three key areas together.

We are focused on longer-term development to help our partner countries build their capacities for lasting peace and to be ready to tackle global and complex threats. Our work is closely tied to that of the European External Action Service (EEAS) and the service for Foreign Policy Instruments (FPI), which are under the authority of the High Representative of the EU for foreign affairs and security policy.

Without peace our efforts to eradicate poverty and inequality will be seriously compromised - or might simply not succeed. Therefore, the EU Global Strategy and our European Consensus on Development promote a more credible and joined-up approach that streamlines our policies and instruments, and steps up our financial support to peace and security.

Security and development is about people, and about their right to live in safety, dignity and prosperity. This means that people must also be at the heart of our response, as agents of change in resolving conflict, longer-term development impacts and building sustainable and lasting peace.

Moreover, a Humanitarian-Development-Peace (HDP) nexus approach implies that actors work hand in hand to find and deliver collective outcomes to reduce overall vulnerability and unmet needs, strengthen risk management capacities and address root causes of conflict. This requires fostering complementarity, synergies and cooperation.

A central element of the EU's integrated approach to conflict and crises is that joint conflict analyses should be regularly carried out and updated for countries that are at risk of or facing conflict or instability and where the EU has a significant engagement. The main aim is to attain a culture of early action to effectively address the risks of emerging, escalating violent conflicts by making the EU's engagement in fragile contexts conflict sensitive.

Global Europe-NDICI funding instrument

We finance our development cooperation in the field of security, resilience and peacebuilding in partner countries through Global Europe-NDICI funding instrument for the MFF period 2021-2027. This instrument is of even greater importance in light of the heavy economic and social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic worldwide.

Global Europe is the main financial instrument for the EU's external action, with an overall budget of €79.5 billion. The total allocation will be divided as follows:

€60.38 billion for geographic programmes (at least €19.32 billion for the Neighbourhood, at least €29.18 billion for Sub-Saharan Africa, €8.48 billion for Asia and the Pacific, and for Americas and the Caribbean €3.39 billion)

€6.36 billion for thematic programmes (Human Rights and Democracy, Civil Society Organizations, Peace, Stability and Peace Conflict Prevention and Global Challenges)

€3.18 billion for rapid response actions such as crisis management, conflict prevention and peace building.

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Sustainable development and peace and security go hand-in-hand. One is not possible without the other, which is why we fully support our partner countries in their efforts to establish long-term stability.

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Nuclear energy is energy in the core of an atom

Atoms are tiny particles in the molecules that make up gases, liquids, and solids. Atoms are made up of three particles, called protons, neutrons, and electrons. An atom has a nucleus (or core) containing protons and neutrons, which is surrounded by electrons. Protons carry a positive electrical charge, and electrons carry a negative electrical charge. Neutrons do not have an electrical charge. Enormous energy is present in the bonds that hold the nucleus together. This nuclear energy can be released when those bonds are broken. The bonds can be broken through nuclear fission, and this energy can be used to produce (generate) electricity.

Source: NASA (public domain)

In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart, which releases energy. All nuclear power plants use nuclear fission, and most nuclear power plants use uranium atoms. During nuclear fission, a neutron collides with a uranium atom and splits it, releasing a large amount of energy in the form of heat and radiation. More neutrons are also released when a uranium atom splits. These neutrons continue to collide with other uranium atoms, and the process repeats itself over and over again. This process is called a nuclear chain reaction. This reaction is controlled in nuclear power plant reactors to produce the desired amount of heat.

Nuclear energy can also be released in nuclear fusion, where atoms are combined or fused together to form a larger atom. Fusion is the source of energy in the sun and stars. Developing technology to harness nuclear fusion as a source of energy for heat and electricity generation is the subject of ongoing research, but whether it will be a commercially viable technology is not yet clear because of the difficulty in controlling a fusion reaction.

Nuclear fuel-uranium

Uranium is the fuel most widely used by nuclear plants for nuclear fission. Uranium is considered a nonrenewable energy source, even though it is a common metal found in rocks worldwide. Nuclear power plants use a certain kind of uranium, referred to as U-235, for fuel because its atoms are easily split apart. Although uranium is about 100 times more common than silver, U-235 is relatively rare.

Most U.S. uranium ore is mined in the western United States. Once uranium is mined, the U-235 must be extracted and processed before it can be used as a fuel.

Last updated: August 21, 2023.

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Introduction to nuclear energy, nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, and uranium as a source of nuclear fuel.

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Global Food Crisis 2022 (go to bottom for more links)

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Global Food Crisis 2022 (go to bottom for more links)

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Food insecurity has been rising since 2018. Even before Russia's invasion of Ukraine, the increasing frequency and severity of climate shocks, regional conflicts and the pandemic were all taking their toll, disrupting food production and distribution, and driving up the cost of feeding people and families.

The situation took an even more dramatic turn with the war in Ukraine. This pushed the prices of food and fertilizers higher still-hurting importers and prompting several countries to impose export restrictions. The result is an unprecedented 345 million people whose lives and livelihoods are in immediate danger from acute food insecurity. And around the globe more than 828 million people go to bed hungry every night, according to the World Food Programme.

The impact of the food shock is felt everywhere. The suffering is worst in 48 countries, many highly dependent on imports from Ukraine and Russia-mostly low-income countries. Of those, about half are especially vulnerable due to severe economic challenges, weak institutions, and fragility.

Alongside the human toll, the financial costs are also escalating. A new paper by IMF staff estimates the impact of higher import costs for food and fertilizer for highly exposed to food insecurity will add$9 billion to their balance of payments pressures-in 2022 and 2023. This will erode countries' international reserves, and their ability to pay for food and fertilizer imports.

In many places, even though food prices have eased somewhere from recent peaks, still high food-and energy-prices have fueled a cost-of-living crisis that is likely to increase poverty and hurt growth, potentially fueling political instability.

As a result, policymakers in many countries have introduced fiscal measures to protect people from the current food crisis. For this year alone, we estimate that highly exposed countries need as much as $7 billion to help the poorest households cope.

Rapid response

Strong and swift policy action is needed across four areas to mitigate the global food crisis and avert human suffering.

First, rapidly and adequately support people vulnerable to food insecurity through humanitarian assistance from the World Food Programme and other organizations, alongside effective domestic fiscal measures. Policymakers around the world should prioritize fighting inflation and protecting the most vulnerable to alleviate the burden of the cost-of-living crisis. Near-term social assistance should focus on providing emergency food relief or cash transfers to the poor, such as those recently announced by Djibouti, Honduras, and Sierra Leone. Where this is not possible, second-best subsidies and tax measures can provide temporary relief.

Second, maintaining open trade, including within regions, to allow food to flow from surplus areas to those in need. We should build on the progress made under the Black Sea Grain Initiative and at the 12th Ministerial Conference of the World Trade Organization by urgently phasing out export bans imposed by major food producers. Protectionist measures only serve to make the food crisis worse, accounting for as much as 9 percent of the increase in world wheat prices, according to the World Bank.

Third, increase food production and improve distribution, including through ensuring adequate access to fertilizers and crop diversification. Increasing trade financing and reinforcing supply chains is vital to addressing the current food price shock. The World Bank and other multilateral development banks play a key role as they increase trade financing for agricultural commodities and other food products and their support to countries for critical logistics and infrastructure upgrades.

Fourth, investing in climate-resilient agriculture will be vital to increasing future harvests. More intense and more unpredictable climatic events are increasing food insecurity. Low-income countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa , are among the least prepared to face the effects of climate change. Solutions should be tailored to country circumstances, with a focus on low-cost, high-impact measures, such as investing in new crop varieties, improving water management, and information dissemination. For example, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Rwanda are leveraging mobile technology to provide farmers with rainfall forecasts to optimize the planting of crops and the purchase of crop insurance.

Decisive action

The international community must also take decisive action to ensure that the needed financing is in place to deal with the immediate crisis and to strengthen food security in the medium-to-long term.

Institutions specialized in food security, such as the World Food Programme and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, need to be adequately funded because they play a vital role with their local presence in many nations and an unwavering focus on the human cost of acute food insecurity.

More grants and concessional financing from donors and international organizations, are urgently needed to support cash and in-kind assistance for people suffering most acutely from food insecurity. In some countries, debt relief will also be needed.

As an additional line of defense, IMF financing supports countries in meeting external financing needs associated with the global food shock. Since Russia's invasion of Ukraine, new Fund-supported economic programs in Benin, Cabo Verde, Georgia, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zambia, included policies to address the impact of the food crisis. Additional financing for existing programs in Jordan , Moldova, Pakistan, and Senegal provided support for additional measures to strengthen social safety nets and address food insecurity.

A new food shock window under the IMF's emergency financing is expected to be approved this week by our Executive Board. The proposed window will provide increased access to emergency financing for a year for countries that are most vulnerable. Where grants and concessional financing from partners are not enough, or a Fund-supported program is not possible, it will offer a new channel of IMF support.

This global food crisis has staggering humanitarian impact and large financial costs. It requires a comprehensive and well-coordinated approach to ensure complementarity and maximum efficiency in resource use. Together with the World Bank and our global partners, we recently issued a second joint statement calling for action on global food insecurity.

We must all act now to ease the suffering of those experiencing hunger, by supporting countries who take strong policy action with the financing they need.

-This blog also reflects contributions by Guillaume Chabert, Daehaeng Kim, Lukas Kohler, Gaëlle Pierre, Naoya Kato, Majdi Debbich and Chiara Castrovillari.

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Global Food Crisis Demands Support for People, Open Trade, Bigger Local Harvests

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Unprecedented humanitarian challenge requires rapid action to ease suffering of those without enough to eat and provide financing to countries in need

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As the factors driving water scarcity are complex and vary widely across countries and regions, UNICEF works at multiple levels to introduce context-specific technologies that increase access to safe water and address the impacts of water scarcity. We focus on:

Identifying new water resources: We assess the availability of water resources using various technologies, including remote sensing and geophysical surveys and field investigations.

Improving the efficiency of water resources: We rehabilitate urban water distribution networks and treatment systems to reduce water leakage and contamination, promoting wastewater reuse for agriculture to protect groundwater.

Planning for urban scarcity: We plan for future water needs by identifying available resources to reduce the risk of cities running out of water.

Expanding technologies to ensure climate resilience: We support and develop climate-resilient water sources, including the use of deeper groundwater reserves through solar-powered water networks. We also advance water storage through small-scale retention structures, managed aquifer recharge (where water is pumped into underground reserves to improve its quality), and rainwater harvesting.

Changing behaviours: We work with schools and communities to promote an understanding of the value of water and the importance of its protection, including by supporting environmental clubs in schools.

Planning national water needs: We work with key stakeholders at national and sub-national levels to understand the water requirements for domestic use and for health and sanitation, and advocate to ensure that this is reflected in national planning considerations.

Supporting the WASH sector: We develop technical guidance, manuals and online training programmes for WASH practitioners to improve standards for water access.

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Addressing the growing lack of available water to meet children's needs

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With all the hype around Artificial Intelligence - robots, self-driving cars, etc. - it can be easy to assume that AI doesn't impact our everyday lives. In reality, most of us encounter Artificial Intelligence in some way or the other almost every single day. From the moment you wake up to check your smartphone to watching another Netflix recommended movie, AI has quickly made its way into our everyday lives. According to a study by Statista, the global AI market is set to grow up to 54 percent every single year. But what exactly is AI? Will it really serve good to mankind in the future? Well, there are tons of advantages and disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence which we'll discuss in this article.

Read More: From a mother and a grandmother to also becoming an AI professional. Julie Beers says there's nothing we can do if we put our mind to it! Read more about her motto and her experience with our Caltech Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning Bootcamp in her Simplilearn AI Machine Learning Bootcamp Review.

What is Artificial Intelligence?

Before we jump on to the advantages and disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence, let us understand what is AI in the first place. From a birds eye view, AI provides a computer program the ability to think and learn on its own. It is a simulation of human intelligence (hence, artificial) into machines to do things that we would normally rely on humans. There are three main types of AI based on its capabilities - weak AI, strong AI, and super AI.

Weak AI - Focuses on one task and cannot perform beyond its limitations (common in our daily lives)

Strong AI - Can understand and learn any intellectual task that a human being can (researchers are striving to reach strong AI)

Super AI - Surpasses human intelligence and can perform any task better than a human (still a concept)

Advantages & Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

An artificial intelligence program is a program that is capable of learning and thinking. It is possible to consider anything to be artificial intelligence if it consists of a program performing a task that we would normally assume a human would perform. Let's begin with the advantages of artificial intelligence.

Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

1. Reduction in Human Error

One of the biggest advantages of Artificial Intelligence is that it can significantly reduce errors and increase accuracy and precision. The decisions taken by AI in every step is decided by information previously gathered and a certain set of algorithms. When programmed properly, these errors can be reduced to null.

2. Zero Risks

Another big advantage of AI is that humans can overcome many risks by letting AI robots do them for us. Whether it be defusing a bomb, going to space, exploring the deepest parts of oceans, machines with metal bodies are resistant in nature and can survive unfriendly atmospheres. Moreover, they can provide accurate work with greater responsibility and not wear out easily.

3. 24x7 Availability

There are many studies that show humans are productive only about 3 to 4 hours in a day. Humans also need breaks and time offs to balance their work life and personal life. But AI can work endlessly without breaks. They think much faster than humans and perform multiple tasks at a time with accurate results. They can even handle tedious repetitive jobs easily with the help of AI algorithms.

4. Digital Assistance

Some of the most technologically advanced companies engage with users using digital assistants, which eliminates the need for human personnel. Many websites utilize digital assistants to deliver user-requested content. We can discuss our search with them in conversation. Some chatbots are built in a way that makes it difficult to tell whether we are conversing with a human or a chatbot.

We all know that businesses have a customer service crew that must address the doubts and concerns of the patrons. Businesses can create a chatbot or voice bot that can answer all of their clients' questions using AI.

Related Reading: Top Digital Marketing Trends

5. New Inventions

In practically every field, AI is the driving force behind numerous innovations that will aid humans in resolving the majority of challenging issues.

For instance, recent advances in AI-based technologies have allowed doctors to detect breast cancer in a woman at an earlier stage.

6. Unbiased Decisions

Human beings are driven by emotions, whether we like it or not. AI on the other hand, is devoid of emotions and highly practical and rational in its approach. A huge advantage of Artificial Intelligence is that it doesn't have any biased views, which ensures more accurate decision-making.

7. Perform Repetitive Jobs

We will be doing a lot of repetitive tasks as part of our daily work, such as checking documents for flaws and mailing thank-you notes, among other things. We may use artificial intelligence to efficiently automate these menial chores and even eliminate "boring" tasks for people, allowing them to focus on being more creative.

Example: In banks, it's common to see multiple document checks to obtain a loan, which is a time-consuming task for the bank's owner. The owner can expedite the document verification process for the advantage of both the clients and the owner by using AI Cognitive Automation.

8. Daily Applications

Today, our everyday lives are entirely dependent on mobile devices and the internet. We utilize a variety of apps, including Google Maps, Alexa, Siri, Cortana on Windows, OK Google, taking selfies, making calls, responding to emails, etc. With the use of various AI-based techniques, we can also anticipate today's weather and the days ahead.

Example: About 20 years ago, you must have asked someone who had already been there for instructions when you were planning a trip. All you need to do now is ask Google where Bangalore is. The best route between you and Bangalore will be displayed, along with Bangalore's location, on a Google map.

9. AI in Risky Situations

One of the main benefits of artificial intelligence is this. By creating an AI robot that can perform perilous tasks on our behalf, we can get beyond many of the dangerous restrictions that humans face. It can be utilized effectively in any type of natural or man-made calamity, whether it be going to Mars, defusing a bomb, exploring the deepest regions of the oceans, or mining for coal and oil.

For instance, the explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power facility in Ukraine. As any person who came close to the core would have perished in a matter of minutes, at the time, there were no AI-powered robots that could assist us in reducing the effects of radiation by controlling the fire in its early phases.

10. Faster decision-making

Faster decision-making is another benefit of AI. By automating certain tasks and providing real-time insights, AI can help organizations make faster and more informed decisions. This can be particularly valuable in high-stakes environments, where decisions must be made quickly and accurately to prevent costly errors or save lives.

11. Pattern identification

Pattern identification is another area where AI excels. With its ability to analyze vast amounts of data and identify patterns and trends, AI can help businesses and organizations better understand customer behavior, market trends, and other important factors. This information can be used to make better decisions and improve business outcomes.

12. Medical Applications

AI has also made significant contributions to the field of medicine, with applications ranging from diagnosis and treatment to drug discovery and clinical trials. AI-powered tools can help doctors and researchers analyze patient data, identify potential health risks, and develop personalized treatment plans. This can lead to better health outcomes for patients and help accelerate the development of new medical treatments and technologies.

Let us now look at what are the main disadvantages that Artificial intelligence holds.

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

1. High Costs

The ability to create a machine that can simulate human intelligence is no small feat. It requires plenty of time and resources and can cost a huge deal of money. AI also needs to operate on the latest hardware and software to stay updated and meet the latest requirements, thus making it quite costly.

2. No creativity

A big disadvantage of AI is that it cannot learn to think outside the box. AI is capable of learning over time with pre-fed data and past experiences, but cannot be creative in its approach. A classic example is the bot Quill who can write Forbes earning reports. These reports only contain data and facts already provided to the bot. Although it is impressive that a bot can write an article on its own, it lacks the human touch present in other Forbes articles.

3. Unemployment

One application of artificial intelligence is a robot, which is displacing occupations and increasing unemployment (in a few cases). Therefore, some claim that there is always a chance of unemployment as a result of chatbots and robots replacing humans.

For instance, robots are frequently utilized to replace human resources in manufacturing businesses in some more technologically advanced nations like Japan. This is not always the case, though, as it creates additional opportunities for humans to work while also replacing humans in order to increase efficiency.

4. Make Humans Lazy

AI applications automate the majority of tedious and repetitive tasks. Since we do not have to memorize things or solve puzzles to get the job done, we tend to use our brains less and less. This addiction to AI can cause problems to future generations.

5. No Ethics

Ethics and morality are important human features that can be difficult to incorporate into an AI. The rapid progress of AI has raised a number of concerns that one day, AI will grow uncontrollably, and eventually wipe out humanity. This moment is referred to as the AI singularity.

6. Emotionless

Since early childhood, we have been taught that neither computers nor other machines have feelings. Humans function as a team, and team management is essential for achieving goals. However, there is no denying that robots are superior to humans when functioning effectively, but it is also true that human connections, which form the basis of teams, cannot be replaced by computers.

7. No Improvement

Humans cannot develop artificial intelligence because it is a technology based on pre-loaded facts and experience. AI is proficient at repeatedly carrying out the same task, but if we want any adjustments or improvements, we must manually alter the codes. AI cannot be accessed and utilized akin to human intelligence, but it can store infinite data.

Machines can only complete tasks they have been developed or programmed for; if they are asked to complete anything else, they frequently fail or provide useless results, which can have significant negative effects. Thus, we are unable to make anything conventional.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence - The Bottom Line

Now that you know both the advantages and disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence, one thing is for sure has massive potential for creating a better world to live in. The most important role for humans will be to ensure that the rise of the AI doesn't get out of hand. Although there are both debatable pros and cons of artificial intelligence , its impact on the global industry is undeniable. It continues to grow every single day driving sustainability for businesses. This certainly calls for the need of AI literacy and upskilling to prosper in many new age jobs. Simplilearn's Caltech Post Graduate Program in AI & ML will help you fast track your career in AI and prepare you for one of the world's most exciting jobs. This program covers both AI basics and advanced topics such as deep learning networks, NLP, and reinforcement learning. Get started with this course today and build your dream career in AI.

What is Artificial Intelligence?

Before we jump on to the advantages and disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence, let us understand what is AI in the first place. From a birds eye view, AI provides a computer program the ability to think and learn on its own. It is a simulation of human intelligence (hence, artificial) into machines to do things that we would normally rely on humans. There are three main types of AI based on its capabilities - weak AI, strong AI, and super AI.

Weak AI - Focuses on one task and cannot perform beyond its limitations (common in our daily lives)

Strong AI - Can understand and learn any intellectual task that a human being can (researchers are striving to reach strong AI)

Super AI - Surpasses human intelligence and can perform any task better than a human (still a concept)

Advantages & Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

An artificial intelligence program is a program that is capable of learning and thinking. It is possible to consider anything to be artificial intelligence if it consists of a program performing a task that we would normally assume a human would perform. Let's begin with the advantages of artificial intelligence.

Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

1. Reduction in Human Error

One of the biggest advantages of Artificial Intelligence is that it can significantly reduce errors and increase accuracy and precision. The decisions taken by AI in every step is decided by information previously gathered and a certain set of algorithms. When programmed properly, these errors can be reduced to null.

2. Zero Risks

Another big advantage of AI is that humans can overcome many risks by letting AI robots do them for us. Whether it be defusing a bomb, going to space, exploring the deepest parts of oceans, machines with metal bodies are resistant in nature and can survive unfriendly atmospheres. Moreover, they can provide accurate work with greater responsibility and not wear out easily.

3. 24x7 Availability

There are many studies that show humans are productive only about 3 to 4 hours in a day. Humans also need breaks and time offs to balance their work life and personal life. But AI can work endlessly without breaks. They think much faster than humans and perform multiple tasks at a time with accurate results. They can even handle tedious repetitive jobs easily with the help of AI algorithms.

4. Digital Assistance

Some of the most technologically advanced companies engage with users using digital assistants, which eliminates the need for human personnel. Many websites utilize digital assistants to deliver user-requested content. We can discuss our search with them in conversation. Some chatbots are built in a way that makes it difficult to tell whether we are conversing with a human or a chatbot.

We all know that businesses have a customer service crew that must address the doubts and concerns of the patrons. Businesses can create a chatbot or voice bot that can answer all of their clients' questions using AI.

Related Reading: Top Digital Marketing Trends

5. New Inventions

In practically every field, AI is the driving force behind numerous innovations that will aid humans in resolving the majority of challenging issues.

For instance, recent advances in AI-based technologies have allowed doctors to detect breast cancer in a woman at an earlier stage.

6. Unbiased Decisions

Human beings are driven by emotions, whether we like it or not. AI on the other hand, is devoid of emotions and highly practical and rational in its approach. A huge advantage of Artificial Intelligence is that it doesn't have any biased views, which ensures more accurate decision-making.

7. Perform Repetitive Jobs

We will be doing a lot of repetitive tasks as part of our daily work, such as checking documents for flaws and mailing thank-you notes, among other things. We may use artificial intelligence to efficiently automate these menial chores and even eliminate "boring" tasks for people, allowing them to focus on being more creative.

Example: In banks, it's common to see multiple document checks to obtain a loan, which is a time-consuming task for the bank's owner. The owner can expedite the document verification process for the advantage of both the clients and the owner by using AI Cognitive Automation.

8. Daily Applications

Today, our everyday lives are entirely dependent on mobile devices and the internet. We utilize a variety of apps, including Google Maps, Alexa, Siri, Cortana on Windows, OK Google, taking selfies, making calls, responding to emails, etc. With the use of various AI-based techniques, we can also anticipate today's weather and the days ahead.

Example: About 20 years ago, you must have asked someone who had already been there for instructions when you were planning a trip. All you need to do now is ask Google where Bangalore is. The best route between you and Bangalore will be displayed, along with Bangalore's location, on a Google map.

9. AI in Risky Situations

One of the main benefits of artificial intelligence is this. By creating an AI robot that can perform perilous tasks on our behalf, we can get beyond many of the dangerous restrictions that humans face. It can be utilized effectively in any type of natural or man-made calamity, whether it be going to Mars, defusing a bomb, exploring the deepest regions of the oceans, or mining for coal and oil.

For instance, the explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power facility in Ukraine. As any person who came close to the core would have perished in a matter of minutes, at the time, there were no AI-powered robots that could assist us in reducing the effects of radiation by controlling the fire in its early phases.

10. Faster decision-making

Faster decision-making is another benefit of AI. By automating certain tasks and providing real-time insights, AI can help organizations make faster and more informed decisions. This can be particularly valuable in high-stakes environments, where decisions must be made quickly and accurately to prevent costly errors or save lives.

11. Pattern identification

Pattern identification is another area where AI excels. With its ability to analyze vast amounts of data and identify patterns and trends, AI can help businesses and organizations better understand customer behavior, market trends, and other important factors. This information can be used to make better decisions and improve business outcomes.

12. Medical Applications

AI has also made significant contributions to the field of medicine, with applications ranging from diagnosis and treatment to drug discovery and clinical trials. AI-powered tools can help doctors and researchers analyze patient data, identify potential health risks, and develop personalized treatment plans. This can lead to better health outcomes for patients and help accelerate the development of new medical treatments and technologies.

Let us now look at what are the main disadvantages that Artificial intelligence holds.

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

1. High Costs

The ability to create a machine that can simulate human intelligence is no small feat. It requires plenty of time and resources and can cost a huge deal of money. AI also needs to operate on the latest hardware and software to stay updated and meet the latest requirements, thus making it quite costly.

2. No creativity

A big disadvantage of AI is that it cannot learn to think outside the box. AI is capable of learning over time with pre-fed data and past experiences, but cannot be creative in its approach. A classic example is the bot Quill who can write Forbes earning reports. These reports only contain data and facts already provided to the bot. Although it is impressive that a bot can write an article on its own, it lacks the human touch present in other Forbes articles.

3. Unemployment

One application of artificial intelligence is a robot, which is displacing occupations and increasing unemployment (in a few cases). Therefore, some claim that there is always a chance of unemployment as a result of chatbots and robots replacing humans.

For instance, robots are frequently utilized to replace human resources in manufacturing businesses in some more technologically advanced nations like Japan. This is not always the case, though, as it creates additional opportunities for humans to work while also replacing humans in order to increase efficiency.

4. Make Humans Lazy

AI applications automate the majority of tedious and repetitive tasks. Since we do not have to memorize things or solve puzzles to get the job done, we tend to use our brains less and less. This addiction to AI can cause problems to future generations.

5. No Ethics

Ethics and morality are important human features that can be difficult to incorporate into an AI. The rapid progress of AI has raised a number of concerns that one day, AI will grow uncontrollably, and eventually wipe out humanity. This moment is referred to as the AI singularity.

6. Emotionless

Since early childhood, we have been taught that neither computers nor other machines have feelings. Humans function as a team, and team management is essential for achieving goals. However, there is no denying that robots are superior to humans when functioning effectively, but it is also true that human connections, which form the basis of teams, cannot be replaced by computers.

7. No Improvement

Humans cannot develop artificial intelligence because it is a technology based on pre-loaded facts and experience. AI is proficient at repeatedly carrying out the same task, but if we want any adjustments or improvements, we must manually alter the codes. AI cannot be accessed and utilized akin to human intelligence, but it can store infinite data.

Machines can only complete tasks they have been developed or programmed for; if they are asked to complete anything else, they frequently fail or provide useless results, which can have significant negative effects. Thus, we are unable to make anything conventional.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence - The Bottom Line

Now that you know both the advantages and disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence, one thing is for sure has massive potential for creating a better world to live in. The most important role for humans will be to ensure that the rise of the AI doesn't get out of hand. Although there are both debatable pros and cons of artificial intelligence , its impact on the global industry is undeniable. It continues to grow every single day driving sustainability for businesses. This certainly calls for the need of AI literacy and upskilling to prosper in many new age jobs. Simplilearn's Caltech Post Graduate Program in AI & ML will help you fast track your career in AI and prepare you for one of the world's most exciting jobs. This program covers both AI basics and advanced topics such as deep learning networks, NLP, and reinforcement learning. Get started with this course today and build your dream career in AI.

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Top Advantages and Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence [2023 Edition]

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With all the hype around Artificial Intelligence - robots, self-driving cars, etc. - it can be easy to assume that AI doesn't impact our everyday lives. In reality, most of us encounter Artificial Intelligence in some way or the other almost every single day.

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By the Numbers: Dire warning on climate change l ABCNL

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By the Numbers: Dire warning on climate change l ABCNL

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South Africa must tread carefully in its economic relationships to avoid being caught in the escalating tension between east and west, and more specifically China and the US. The country's hosting, and the outcome, of the 2023 Agoa Summit should strengthen its role in diplomatic relations and contribute towards safeguarding the country's economic interests.

From 2-4 November 2023, the US and 35 sub-Saharan African countries will meet in Johannesburg for the 20th Africa Trade and Economic Cooperation Forum (Agoa Forum). It entails strengthening trade and investment ties between the US and sub-Saharan Africa through the Africa Growth and Opportunity Act ( Agoa), US legislation which provides various trade preferences to eligible countries in the region.

Given Russia's continuing war in Ukraine and its rising tension with Nato, plus the China-US trade war, tensions between east and west are high. South Africa has come under attack for its non-alignment role in the Ukraine war. It refused to support UN resolutions condemning Russia. This resulted in some US congressmen pushing for the forum to be moved out of South Africa.

The country recently hosted the 15th Brics summit, which resolved to expand the Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa grouping to 11 member states. The enlargement will bolster Brics' role as a geopolitical alternative to the west, which is dominated by the US. Might this be a direct challenge to American hegemony?

I have been researching major global economic developments, such as globalisation and the impact of the 2008 global financial crisis, for 20 years. This body of work shows the risks that come with behaviour like South Africa's. The country could find itself in the middle of a tense situation.

South Africa needs to pull off an exceptional balancing act in managing its international relations in a sensible way that protects and advances its economic interests.

Note that the geopolitical tensions between China and the US are not just about trade disputes. They also include espionage, China's Belt and Road Initiative, climate change and environmental issues, and tensions over Hong Kong, Taiwan and South China Sea disputes.

As a major source of infrastructure financing to sub-Saharan Africa, China is now the region's largest bilateral official lender. Its total sub-Saharan African external public debt - what these governments owe to China - rose from less than 2% before 2005 to over 17% in 2021.

Agoa might present a challenge to China as competition for its own interests in Africa. China would like African countries to untie or loosen their agreements with the US. It is thus a good moment to take stock of the actual benefits South Africa has derived from the Agoa agreement with the US.

What Agoa is about

The Agoa agreement was approved as legislation by the US Congress in May 2000 for an initial 15 years. On 29 June 2015 it was extended and signed into law by then president Barack Obama for a further 10 years to 2025.

It will come into review again in 2024, hence the importance of the upcoming summit. Recently, Louisiana senator John Kennedy introduced a bill to the US Congress to extend Agoa by a further 20 years to 2045. This is a bid to counter China's growing influence in Africa, and to continue to allow sub-Saharan African countries preferential access to US markets.

Agoa's benefits to South Africa

In 2021, the US was the second most significant destination for South Africa's exports worldwide, mainly thanks to Agoa. China took the top spot; Germany was third. The US ranked third as a source of South Africa's imports, following China and Germany. In that year, the total trade volume between South Africa and the US reached its zenith at $24.5 billion, with a trade imbalance of $9.3 billion in South Africa's favour.

Agoa offers preferential entry for about 20% of South Africa's exports to the US, or 2% of South Africa's global exports. The stock of South African investment in the US has more than doubled since 2011, amounting to US$3.5 billion in 2020. American foreign direct investment (FDI) in South Africa increased by over 70% over that period, to US$10 billion. This made the US South Africa's fifth largest source of FDI in 2019. The US was its third largest destination for outward FDI.

US investment in South Africa is mainly concentrated in manufacturing, finance and insurance, and wholesale trade, which is vital for economic growth. American multinationals doing business in South Africa employ about 148,000 people.

More specifically, Agoa's benefits include:

duty-free and quota-free access to the US market for a wide range of South African products. This benefits South Africa's textile and apparel industry in particular. To sub-Saharan African countries, Agoa provides duty-free access to the US market for over 1,800 products. This is in addition to the more than 5,000 products that are eligible for duty-free access under the US Generalised System of Preferences programme

export diversification, especially of items such as agricultural products, textiles, and manufactured goods. This is vital for increasing export earnings, which help to improve South Africa's balance of payments, particularly its trade account.

capacity building through technical assistance and programmes to help South African businesses meet US standards, thus becoming more competitive in the global marketplace.

economic development and poverty reduction, which aligns with South Africa's developmental goals.

Balancing economic interests

China is the largest consumer of South African commodity exports, and thus a key influencer of the rand exchange rate. In addition, China and Russia's planned move towards de-dollarisation (trying to replace the petrodollar system with their own system) puts American interests under threat. This means South Africa needs to carefully navigate its relations with the US and its Brics partners, China and Russia.

It will want to keep strong ties with the US through Agoa without getting into a difficult position between China and the US. The outcome of the November meeting will have serious economic implications.

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Agoa trade deal talks: South Africa will need to carefully manage relations with the US and China

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Pretoria needs to pull off a balancing act in managing South Africa's international relations to advance its economic interests.

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1. Nuclear power plants produced 772 billion kilowatt hours of electricity in 2022

U.S. nuclear power plants generated 772 billion kilowatt hours of electricity in 2022. That's enough to power more than 72 million homes! U.S. reactors have supplied around 20% of the nation's power since the 1990s and are also the largest producer of nuclear energy in world.

2. Nuclear power provides nearly half of America's clean energy

Nuclear energy provided 47% of America's carbon-free electricity in 2022, making it the largest domestic source of clean energy.

Nuclear power plants do not emit greenhouse gases while generating electricity.

They produce power by boiling water to create steam that spins a turbine. The water is heated by a process called fission, which makes heat by splitting apart uranium atoms inside a nuclear reactor core.

3. Nuclear energy is one of the most reliable energy sources in America

Nuclear power plants operated at full capacity more than 92% of the time in 2022-making it the most reliable energy source in America. That's about 1.5 to 2 times more reliable as natural gas (56.7%) and coal (47.8%) plants, and roughly 2.5 to 3.5 times more reliable than wind (36.1%) and solar (24.8%) plants.

Nuclear power plants are designed to run 24 hours a day, 7 days a week because they require less maintenance and can operate for longer stretches before refueling (typically every 1.5 or 2 years).

4. Nuclear helps power 28 U.S. states

There are currently 93 commercial reactors helping to power homes and businesses in 28 U.S. states. Illinois has 11 reactors-the most of any state-and joins South Carolina and New Hampshire in receiving more than 50% of its power from nuclear.

Plant Vogtle Unit 3 in Waynesboro, GA became the nation's newest reactor when it entered into commercial service in the summer of 2023.

5. Nuclear fuel is extremely dense

Because of this, the amount of used nuclear fuel is not as big as you think.

All of the used nuclear fuel produced by the U.S. nuclear energy industry over the last 60 years could fit on a football field at a depth of less than 10 yards.

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Get up to speed on nuclear energy with these 5 fast facts.

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The world is in a very different place to where it was six years ago when it committed to the goal of ending hunger, food insecurity and all forms of malnutrition by 2030.

At the time, we were optimistic that with transformative approaches, past progress could be accelerated, at scale, to put us on track to achieve that goal.

Yet, the past four editions of The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World (SOFI) revealed a humbling reality.

The world has not been generally progressing either towards ensuring access to safe, nutritious and sufficient food for all people all year round (SDG Target 2.1), or to eradicating all forms of malnutrition (SDG Target 2.2).

Conflict, climate variability and extremes, and economic slowdowns and downturns are the major drivers slowing down progress, particularly where inequality is high. The COVID-19 pandemic made the pathway towards SDG2 even steeper.

So, if the world is at a critical juncture, where do we stand now? And what can be done to help us build forward better and put us on track to achieving Zero Hunger?

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The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021

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The world is in a very different place to where it was six years ago when it committed to the goal of ending hunger, food insecurity and all forms of malnutrition by 2030. At the time, we were optimistic that with transformative approaches, past progress could be accelerated, at scale, to put us on track to achieve that goal.

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The power of water

Water connects every aspect of life. Access to safe water and sanitation can quickly turn problems into potential - empowering people with time for school and work, and contributing to improved health for women, children, and families around the world.

Today, 2.2 billion people - 1 in 4 - lack access to safe water and 3.5 billion people - 2 in 5 - lack access to a safe toilet. These are the people we empower.
Learn more about the global water crisis > Learn more about the global sanitation crisis >

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The Water Crisis: Shortage, Problems & Solutions | Water.org

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Explore the global water crisis, water shortage, and lack of water affecting billions. Learn how Water.org is tackling these water problems to transform lives.

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Girls and boys see gender inequality in their homes and communities every day - in textbooks, in the media and among the adults who care for them.

Parents may assume unequal responsibility for household work, with mothers bearing the brunt of caregiving and chores. The majority of low-skilled and underpaid community health workers who attend to children are also women, with limited opportunity for professional growth.

And in schools, many girls receive less support than boys to pursue the studies they choose. This happens for a variety of reasons: The safety, hygiene and sanitation needs of girls may be neglected, barring them from regularly attending class. Discriminatory teaching practices and education materials also produce gender gaps in learning and skills development. As a result, nearly 1 in 4 girls between the ages of 15 and 19 are neither employed nor in education or training - compared to 1 in 10 boys.

Worldwide, nearly 1 in 4 girls between the ages of 15 and 19 are neither employed nor in education or training - compared to 1 in 10 boys.

Yet, in early childhood, gender disparities start out small. Girls have higher survival rates at birth, are more likely to be developmentally on track, and are just as likely to participate in preschool. Among those who reach secondary school, girls tend to outperform boys in reading across every country where data are available.

But the onset of adolescence can bring significant barriers to girls' well-being. Gender norms and discrimination heighten their risk of unwanted pregnancy, HIV and AIDS, and malnutrition. Especially in emergency settings and in places where menstruation remains taboo, girls are cut off from the information and supplies they need to stay healthy and safe.

In its most insidious form, gender inequality turns violent. Some 1 in 20 girls between the ages of 15 and 19 - around 13 million - have experienced forced sex. In times of both peace and conflict, adolescent girls face the highest risk of gender-based violence. Hundreds of millions of girls worldwide are still subjected to child marriage and female genital mutilation - even though both have been internationally recognized as human rights violations. And violence can occur at birth, like in places where female infanticide is known to persist.

Some 1 in 20 girls between the ages of 15 and 19 - around 13 million globally - have experienced forced sex in their lifetimes.

Harmful gender norms are perpetuated at the highest levels. In some countries, they become entrenched in laws and policies that fail to uphold - or that even violate - girls' rights, like laws that restrict women from inheriting property. Boys also suffer from gender norms: Social conceptions of masculinity can fuel child labour, gang violence, disengagement from school, and recruitment into armed groups.

Despite major hurdles that still deny them equal rights, girls refuse to limit their ambitions. Since the signing of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action in 1995 - the most comprehensive policy agenda for gender equality - the world has seen uneven progress.

More and more girls are attending and completing school, and fewer are getting married or becoming mothers while still children themselves. But discrimination and limiting stereotypes remain rife. Technological change and humanitarian emergencies are also confronting girls with new challenges, while old ones - violence, institutionalized biases, poor learning and life opportunities - persist.

That's why girls from all walks of life are boldly raising their voices against inequality. Girl-led movements are stopping child marriage and female genital mutilation, demanding action on climate change, and trail-blazing in the fields of science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) - asserting their power as global change-makers.

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Equal rights and opportunities for girls and boys help all children fulfil their potential.

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The tempest began at 7 o'clock one morning this past June. It hadn't rained for days, and by late afternoon, the forest floor had been drenched with 70,000 gallons of precipitation. Floods of salt water from the nearby Rhode River soaked the roots of the maples, beeches and tulip poplars. In this part of Maryland, near the Chesapeake Bay, downpours of such magnitude happen just once every ten years.

But this tempest was no natural disaster. Like the deluge in Shakespeare's play, conjured by the duke-turned-magician Prospero, it was a human creation. In this case, TEMPEST stood for Terrestrial Ecosystem Manipulation to Probe the Effects of Storm Treatments, and the magician was Patrick Megonigal, a laid-back 62-year-old wetland ecologist in a flannel shirt, baseball cap and hiking boots.

That early summer storm was part of an extraordinary series of experiments that Megonigal is overseeing at the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center. He and his colleagues are simulating the conditions that will soon prevail along the world's marshy shorelines: warmer temperatures, higher sea levels and elevated levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. They're creating the future so the rest of us know what to expect.

Everyone who studies forests knows trees have been dying in massive numbers, especially out west. At higher elevations, the main culprits are rising temperatures, drought and infestation. But in low-lying coastal places, there's another problem: Sea level rise is saturating the soil, and storm surges are pushing salt water farther inland.

The idea for TEMPEST came from a colleague of Megonigal's at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory who'd been touring research projects on the marsh. "Do you think we can flood this forest?" he asked. Megonigal thought, "Why not?" So the scientists came up with a plan. They would flood two plots of forest, one with fresh water and one with salt water from the Rhode River, a tidal waterway emptying into the bay. Most flooding studies are limited to a square meter or so of land. TEMPEST would flood two areas, each encompassing 2,000 square meters (roughly half an acre).

Unleashing a tempest without the help of supernatural beings proved to be a major undertaking, so the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory sent a postdoctoral researcher, Anya Hopple, to help lead the project. Trees were outfitted with gas-collecting devices. Sensors were installed in the soil. LED lights were arranged so the scientists could find their way around in the dark. A company called Global Aquatic Research helped with the logistics, setting up giant tanks that could hold 160,000 gallons of water and connecting them to sprinkler systems through an intricate network of pipes.

The morning after the flood, Megonigal walked along boards through the wet forest, stopping to check in with various colleagues. They hailed from all over the world, some from as far away as China, Nigeria and Brazil. One group was studying the movement of the groundwater through a patch of now-salty soil. A few feet away, someone was pumping up liquid through a PVC pipe. Still others were measuring the gases coming out of the trunks of trees. There was a sense of excitement: Ecologists usually have to do their research on land that doesn't belong to them, carrying solar-powered equipment in and out of the field. It's rare to have the run of an entire forest, with devices connected to an electrical grid, and the chance to come back and gather new data from the same trees again and again.

In the lab at the nearby research station, James Taylor tunes played in the background as a group huddled around a tabletop pressure chamber. One by one, someone would insert a leaf to measure what was happening inside. "If you suck on a straw, there's tension in the straw pulling the water up," explained Nate McDowell from the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. "That's how water moves up a tree."

Salt, like drought, forces trees to pull harder to get water. To see how much stress the trees were under after their first exposure to salt, scientists were measuring the tension inside each leaf, in units called megapascals. (Each megapascal equals about 145 pounds of pressure per square inch.) Studies show that at around -3 to -5 megapascals, air bubbles get into the stem and it can't transport liquids anymore. Without water, the plant's cells won't be able to perform photosynthesis and the tree will die.

What the scientists are trying to do with TEMPEST, essentially, is to make the trees suffer. Over the course of a decade, they'll unleash more floods and study the trees' response. If that sounds harsh, the fact is that forests along the Chesapeake Bay are already dying and scientists are showing up too late to understand every step in the process.

A few weeks after the TEMPEST experiment, I visited one of those ghost forests along Maryland's Eastern Shore. As I drove south toward the Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, the scenery alternated between loblolly pines and glittering expanses of water that rose all the way up to the road, lapping at the edges of the asphalt.

Suddenly, around a bend, it came into view-a long row of dead trees. Their trunks were eerily gray and lifeless, standing erect with no branches. It looked as though a traveling band of giants had decided to leave their walking sticks in the ground and wander away.

Our planet is changing. That in itself is nothing new-seasons come and go, and so do larger cycles. The Earth's orbit changes in ways that bring on ice ages or warming spells that last tens of thousands of years. Right now, though, something extra is happening, something that can't be explained by the tilt or wobble of the Earth. This time, Megonigal says, "We, the people, are the wobble."

One of the first scientists to see this coming was the Swedish physicist Svante Arrhenius. In 1896, he predicted that rising carbon levels in the atmosphere were going to make the Earth warmer. Arrhenius knew about the greenhouse effect, which had been discovered earlier in the century: Certain gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat. This is generally a good thing-it keeps our planet warm enough to sustain life-and Arrhenius thought turning up the heat even more would be an improvement. "By the influence of the increasing percentage of carbonic acid in the atmosphere," Arrhenius wrote, "we may hope to enjoy ages with more equable and better climates, especially as regards the colder regions of the earth." (After all, the man did come from Scandinavia.)

Arrhenius expected the climate to change slowly, over the course of three millennia. In his day, the carbon cycle stayed mostly in balance. Whatever went up into the atmosphere from fires or volcanoes, for example, came back down again where it dissolved into the ocean, or trees pulled it in for photosynthesis. Carbon up, carbon down.

But the Industrial Revolution kicked the carbon-up part of the cycle into high gear. Suddenly, people were burning more fossil fuels than ever before, releasing carbon that had been stored underground for millions of years. In the late 1950s, when scientists started recording the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, it was about 315 parts per million. In 2019, it passed 410 parts per million. That same year, humans added around 43 billion U.S. tons of carbon to the atmosphere. The pandemic put a dent in fossil fuel use, but we still sent up more than 35 billion U.S. tons of carbon each year in 2020 and 2021.

The effects can be seen most dramatically in the Arctic, which is warming almost four times as quickly as the planet as a whole. That's because melting glaciers and ice sheets launch a heat spiral: When there's less ice, there's less white surface to bounce away the sun's rays. The dark ground and water left behind absorb heat, which melts the remaining ice even faster. All that melting ice is contributing to rising sea levels and shifting the currents in the ocean. An uptick in fires in places as far apart as England and Australia, thawing permafrost in Alaska, deadly heat waves in India, a higher proportion of intense storms-all of these are signs of global climate-control systems losing their equilibrium.

Global warming was already a hot topic half a century ago when Bert Drake, a retired plant researcher, was starting his career. Drake, who is now 87, remembers his colleagues talking excitedly about the changes: "Plant physiologists had a very simplistic way of dealing with rising CO2: 'No problem, plants love it! The more CO2 you'll give them, the more they'll grow.'"

This was true for crops in carefully regulated greenhouses. But, Drake wondered, what would extra carbon dioxide do to plants that were just out in the field growing, with no one adjusting the temperature and humidity to help them thrive? He'd recently started working at the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, and he was especially interested in the hardy grasses and sedges growing by the Chesapeake Bay. So he pulled together funding, and in 1987, he launched what would become the world's longest-running study of wetlands and rising carbon dioxide.

It didn't take long for Drake to see results: The plants that had extra carbon dioxide pumped into their hexagon-shaped chambers indeed grew much better than control plants nearby-they had more shoots and foliage and survived longer into the fall than their counterparts did. Drake also discovered something his colleagues hadn't anticipated: The extra carbon dioxide made the plants more efficient in how they used nitrogen, managed water and respired oxygen.

At a congressional hearing in 1992, Drake spoke so glowingly about his experiment that Al Gore, then a senator from Tennessee, became slightly alarmed. "He said, 'Well, this place doesn't represent the tropical rain forest-does it, Dr. Drake?'"

Drake good-naturedly let it go. "I didn't want to get into a long dialogue with Al Gore about things that we know or barely know in front of all my colleagues," he told me. But his real answer would've been more nuanced. The study at the Chesapeake marsh did in fact represent all plants. If trees in the rainforest were exposed to higher levels of carbon dioxide, they too would absorb more carbon.

Yet Drake knew what Gore was getting at. Rising levels of CO2 are going to make the planet hotter, and the extra heat in the already steamy tropics will more than cancel out whatever plants might gain from all the extra carbon dioxide.

It's not just that heat can cause drought. Even in wet areas, high temperatures can stifle photosynthesis. This has been well documented, Drake said: "Once the temperature gets above about 30 degrees"-Celsius, that is, or around 86 degrees Fahrenheit-"crop production begins to drop precipitously." From there, the plants' productivity goes down about 10 percent with each additional degree Celsius, or two degrees Fahrenheit. "Now that's startling," Drake said. "To see that in massive amounts of data collected over many, many years for these crops all over the United States-I mean that's a remarkable finding."

Drake's study is still up and running today, but 12 years ago, Drake retired and handed it over to Megonigal. By that time, the plants that were getting extra carbon dioxide weren't thriving as much anymore, and the benefits are continuing to diminish. Earlier this year, Megonigal and his colleagues published a paper suggesting that as the sea level rises more and more quickly, the resulting floods are stressing the plants, which offsets the advantages they were getting from the extra CO2. The marsh is now known as the Global Change Research Wetland, and Drake's study has been joined by a host of other experiments that preview other aspects of our climate future.

One morning in early May, I drove an hour east from Washington, D.C. for a visit. The road cut between farms and horse pastures and then wound through a dense forest until I reached the little green research station at the water's edge.

The surrounding grasses and sedges used to be dead and brown at the beginning of May when the scientists resumed their research for the year. But when Megonigal greeted me, he pointed out that some of the marsh grass was already green. He gestured toward a shrub called Iva frutescens or high-tide bush. "It's been expanding, and I am convinced that that's another global warming signal," he said. "Because really bitter-cold winters kill it. And we haven't been getting many of those."

The area where we were standing had once been open water. Then, about 4,000 to 6,000 years ago, the sea level rise from the last ice age started slowing down and plants along the coastlines were finally able to put down roots. Those plants trapped sediment and formed spongy ground that lifted them up above the waterline. The sedges and grasses growing in wetlands today live on peat built up by their predecessors. This is the genius of wetlands: "They engineer themselves out of drowning," Megonigal says.

This knack for trapping sediment is also why peatlands are exceptionally good at keeping carbon in solid form. The dead plant matter in the water stays underwater, where it doesn't decompose the way it would on dry land. Bogs, marshes and tropical swamps built on peat store twice as much carbon as all the world's forests combined, even though peatlands cover only 3 percent of the land on Earth while forests cover more than 30 percent.

At most wetland research sites, scientists (and any visiting journalists) have to put on waders and chart a course through the muck. But the Global Change Research Wetland has a long, many-branched plastic boardwalk connecting all of its different experiments. Along that path, I found Genevieve Noyce, a 35-year-old researcher in a purple Patagonia fleece. She was standing next to a study she's been overseeing since 2016. Known as SMARTX (short for Salt Marsh Accretion Response to Temperature eXperiment), it's the first simulation of warming trends in coastal wetlands. A series of infrared lamps and cables in the ground are heating patches of the marsh to different temperatures-about 3, 6 and 9 degrees Fahrenheit above their natural surroundings.

The patch of marsh that's being heated just a few degrees is flourishing. The roots are growing better, keeping more carbon in the ground and adding land elevation. This seems to line up with what's been happening in real life-the slight rise in local temperatures that's making the marsh come alive earlier each spring. I mentioned this to Noyce and she agreed that the marsh appeared healthy: "You look around and you see green, happy plants."

The problem is that temperatures are only going to keep rising. Data from SMARTX shows that the patch of marsh being heated 9 degrees isn't doing well at all. This has to do with the invisible creatures that live in the soil. Communities of microbes-bacteria, protozoa, archaea, fungi and microscopic worms-generally help the marsh by breaking down minerals so plants can use them as nutrients. But as the temperature increases, the microbes become more active. In the warmest patches of SMARTX, they're so active that they're breaking up the soil itself, leaving holes. Pins in the ground indicate that the marsh has stopped gaining ground. In real-world terms, this means that once temperatures get high enough, the microbes will start destroying the soil faster than the plants can engineer themselves above the rising sea level. The marsh will drown.

Near SMARTX was a series of round chambers with colored bands at the tops-red, yellow, sky blue and lime green. The whole thing looked like a modern art installation, but it was part of a study called GENX (Greenhouse gas Emissions NeXus) that Noyce launched last year. The ground inside those color-coded chambers is also heated to different temperatures. But here, Noyce is getting a precise read on the microbes. When the microbes get more active, they generate more methane, a molecule of carbon and hydrogen that's an even more potent greenhouse gas than CO2. They also break up compounds in the soil, releasing solid carbon back into the atmosphere. Every ten minutes, a robotic lid on each of those chambers clamps down and sends gas measurements to Noyce's computer.

Farther out on the boardwalk, I joined Gary Peresta, a 64-year-old engineer who oversees the equipment at the research marsh. With his bushy beard and twinkling eyes, he resembles Jerry Garcia, the late frontman of the Grateful Dead. Peresta started working at the marsh in 1990, after studying the effects of carbon dioxide on cotton crops for five years at the Department of Agriculture. "I've been measuring CO2 myself, with my own two hands, for the last 37 years," Peresta told me. "In 1985, it was less than 340 parts per million. It's over 410 parts per million now." He paused for emphasis. "The amount of carbon in the atmosphere has gone up 20 percent just in the course of my career."

We stopped at the edge of the Rhode River, one of the many waterways feeding the Chesapeake Bay, the largest estuary in North America. By the time the first English colonists arrived in the early 1600s, humans had already been living by the bay for at least 11,500 years, taking advantage of the rich soil and the abundant clams, crabs, oysters and other shellfish. These days, overfishing, water pollution and development have taken a heavy toll on Chesapeake Bay wildlife, but fishing and recreation still bring in billions of dollars each year. Runoff from the marshlands, which cover more than 700 square miles, plays a vital role for all the creatures that live in the bay.

Peresta kneeled by the water and showed me instruments that measure what scientists call blue carbon-that is, organic carbon that's stored by marine ecosystems-as it washes into the bay. (The carbon isn't actually blue; the color is meant to evoke the watery places where it's found.) He pointed out small containers of grass, the setup for another study that's monitoring how plants fare at different water levels.

It's not easy for Peresta to keep all this equipment running in the wild. He's had to use trial and error to stop large plant chambers from blowing away, and meddling muskrats present their own challenges. But he loves the way nature makes its presence felt everywhere. When a lizard with a blue tail rushed in front of our feet, he told me it was a skink. When we opened a wooden equipment cabinet, he warned me, "There are snakes living in there." Sure enough, there was a snake, coiled above a box of industrial-sized staples.

Back at the research station, Peresta showed me a closet filled with his guitars; he performs with local bands on the weekends. I asked him to play me a song and, in keeping with his appearance, he strummed the opening chords to a Grateful Dead tune. I listened to him sing as the grasses and reeds stretched out in the distance behind him: "Come hear Uncle John's band by the riverside / Got some things to talk about, here beside the rising tide..."

Imagine a desktop globe that worked almost like a crystal ball. You could zoom in on any region and find out what the climate would be like there in the year 2035, say, or 2071. This is, figuratively, what scientists around the world are hoping to create-a detailed worldwide predictive model encompassing earth, water and air.

So far, most climate models have focused on either land or ocean, leaving out the wetlands in between. That missing information is crucial, says Daniel Stover, the acting director of the U.S. Department of Energy's Earth and Environmental Systems Sciences Division. The slender strips where land meets water are filled with dynamic processes that influence the whole planet. "In coastal areas you have this weird hodgepodge where everything comes together," Stover told me. His department has been investing in the Global Change Research Wetland since the 1980s.

Until recently, modeling technology was only able to represent areas of about 100 square kilometers, roughly the size of the Bronx. That's not precise enough for narrow, complex areas like wetlands-it would be like trying to represent a single face as part of a low-resolution photo of a large crowd. The newer models are much higher resolution: The hope is that it will soon be possible to zero in on a single square kilometer, about the size of the Bronx Zoo rather than the entire borough. As Stover put it, "now you can really represent all these fine-scale processes"-the difference, for instance, between the soil salinity in a ghost forest and in a healthy stand of pines in the next cell over.

In 2020, Stover's office launched a new program called COMPASS-short for Coastal Observations, Mechanisms, and Predictions Across Systems and Scales. Most of its contributors come from big national labs; the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory is the lead institution. Megonigal is the chief scientist for the program's field studies. (The TEMPEST experiments are part of the larger COMPASS program.) "Everybody in the world knows who Megonigal is, if you study wetlands," Stover said. "So he brings a lot of credibility to the study."

So far, COMPASS is focusing on places where land meets especially large bodies of water: saltwater sites along the Chesapeake Bay and freshwater sites along the Great Lakes. But there are wetlands in all 50 states, even seasonal wetlands in the arid deserts of Nevada and Arizona. Once scientists gather enough information, their models will be able to make predictions for different kinds of wetland, from bogs in Alaska to swamps in Mississippi.

"As scientists, we've not done a good job communicating this term 'climate change,'" said Kennedy Doro, a COMPASS contributor at the University of Toledo. Doro grew up in Nigeria, where the changing climate is difficult to ignore: People are dying from both extremes of drought and flooding. There's also a range of other issues that come from poor environmental management. Doro got interested in groundwater because he'd spent so much of his childhood getting sick. "Every three months, I was back in the hospital, even as a teenager, because of diarrhea and cholera," he said. Now Doro is a hydrogeophysicist who studies how water moves through the soil.

Whenever skeptics tell Doro that natural processes are responsible for global warming, he says, "Correct. I agree. I'm not debating that. What I'm telling you is, we are trying to understand these connected processes, both human-induced and climate-induced. Because it's now happening at an intensity and a rate that we just can't handle." The problem of climate change, as Doro defines it, "is about having more change than we can manage at the time."

For those living near the Chesapeake Bay, a preview of some of these challenges is available about a thousand miles down the coast, in South Florida. Sea levels along those sparkling beaches have been rising over the past century at ever-increasing rates. On Virginia Key, an island just across the bridge from mainland Miami, sea level has risen eight inches since 1950, and it's rising faster and faster-the rate is currently up to one inch every three years.

At the same time, more and more of the region's storms are reaching Category 3 to 5 strength, as currents in the warm, humid air down south brew more rain-laden clouds and push them up the coast. In September, Hurricane Ian killed more than 100 Floridians and left more than 1.7 million without power. Homes in the state have been so pummeled by the elements that many private insurers have raised their rates or pulled out of the state entirely. In 2002, the Florida legislature established an insurer of last resort, Citizens Property Insurance Corporation, but it doesn't cover flood damage. More than half the private homeowner insurance companies still in the state now have ratings too low to comply with federal mortgage loans.

So far, ideas for protecting Miami have been a tough sell. In 2020, the Army Corps of Engineers unveiled a plan for a wall that would block views of Biscayne Bay. Not surprisingly, the proposal was unpopular. Miami City Commissioner Ken Russell complained to the New York Times: "The $40 billion in assets you're trying to protect will be diminished if you build a wall around downtown because you're going to affect market values and quality of life."

If scientists had more data on everything that's happening to the land, water and air, we might be able to craft solutions that would be better tailored to specific places. Those solutions will most likely include a mix of technical and natural approaches.

"Wetlands are amazing," said Fernando Bretos, a marine scientist from Miami who works as a program officer at the Ocean Foundation. "When a storm wave comes, they slow down the impact and absorb all that energy." And unlike concrete walls, beachfront plants can adapt to waves, building themselves up and expanding as they absorb more material from the ocean.

In 2013, Bretos started a dune restoration project on Virginia Key. Working with the city and volunteers, Bretos cleaned up the area and planted 37,000 native plants. "They looked like hair plugs," he said. Most of the seedlings were sea oats, a hardy species that can be found all the way up the coast to New Jersey. As the plugs matured, their exceptionally long roots pushed down deep, anchoring the dunes. When Hurricane Irma whipped through the area in 2017, the plants protected the shoreline from the pounding waves. "In fact, the dune trapped more sand and became bigger," Bretos said. "Whenever I fly out of Miami, I see that site from the plane. I get goose bumps every time."

The full force of climate change may not have hit the Chesapeake region yet, but the signs are becoming more pronounced. Homeowners complain of heavier rains, which can bring more flooding-the Northeast U.S. now gets about 70 percent more rainfall during the heaviest storms than it did back in the 1950s. Sea levels in the area are a foot higher than they were a hundred years ago, and they're projected to rise as much as five more feet in the next century.

But Bretos has seen communities combat similar problems by restoring wetlands along the coasts of Florida, Mexico and Central America. Some of the projects have received funding from big corporations like FedEx and Wells Fargo, along with governments and nonprofit organizations. "We can slow this down if we really commit," he said. "Climate change is a human-driven problem. It has human-driven solutions. Remember the ozone hole-we fixed it in ten years. Why? Because we flipped the script and we did something about it, right?"

At the endof Shakespeare's Tempest, Prospero vows to give up his powers and let nature regain its balance: "I'll break my staff, / Bury it certain fathoms in the earth, / And deeper than did ever plummet sound / I'll drown my book."

We can't make that kind of promise. Even if we stopped burning fossil fuels today, it would take decades for global temperatures to stabilize. And as the leading journal Science reported in September, if our planet's average temperature warms to more than 2.7 degrees Fahrenheit above what it was before the Industrial Revolution, it could trigger irreversible changes around the globe. An analysis published in 2021 showed that Greenland's ice sheet could soon lose enough mass to set it on an irreversible path of accelerated melting. Another study last year reported signs that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation-a crucial ocean system that brings warm water up north and cool water down to the tropics-is heading toward collapse. And in March, research based on satellite data indicated that three-quarters of the Amazon rainforest could turn into dry savanna within the next few decades.

Given such dire predictions, I was often surprised by the cheerfulness of the wetland ecologists I met during the many hours I spent talking to them over Zoom or standing beside them in mucky swamps. They told me they feel depressed when they see clear signs of demise, like the way extra carbon is acidifying the ocean and destroying coral reefs in Belize. But they wouldn't be able to do the research they're doing if they were paralyzed by despair. They have to be realists but they can't afford to be Cassandras.

Their line of work also attracts people who enjoy waking up before dawn and spending time outdoors. As postdoctoral fellow Stephanie Wilson told me with a smile, while we were ankle-deep in mud at the ghost forest, "We love being out here. We stop for every little turtle."

But there's something else behind their cheerfulness-a spirit of exploration. I saw it on Megonigal's face as he called out a record-breaking methanogen reading to his colleagues, or when someone told him that a rainfall had pushed salty water deeper into a tree's roots. The data itself might have been foreboding, but it was still data, and the process of gathering it was still exhilarating. And more knowledge ultimately means more power to make large-scale changes.

On my last visit to the research wetland at the end of July, I brought along my 11-year-old son. He grew fascinated by the work of Adam Langley, a Villanova University professor who set up a nitrogen-oriented experiment at the marsh in 2005 and still comes back frequently to check on it. Langley has kids of his own and he was indulgent as my oldest child bombarded him with questions: What does nitrogen do, and how is sea level measured in the middle of all those tides and waves, and why hasn't anyone invented magnetic cars yet? When Langley described the mangroves he studies in Central and South America-floating islands with tangled roots tethering them to the ocean floor-my son asked whether they looked like the trees on Yoda's planet in Star Wars. The 46-year-old professor gave a boyish laugh and replied, "Yeah, exactly!"

Humans are born scientists-we come into the world that way. All the innovations that launched the Industrial Revolution, all the machines that have made our lives so much better, came from the minds of people who were once curious kids. So did the high-tech instruments that scientists are now using to collect data and predict the future. If anything can save our species, it will be this irrepressible drive to investigate and discover, to create and collaborate-and maybe, for the sake of our own curious children, to leave the world better off than we found it.

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Why Marshlands Are the Perfect Lab for Studying Climate Change

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The tempest began at 7 o'clock one morning this past June. It hadn't rained for days, and by late afternoon, the forest floor had been drenched with 70,000 gallons of precipitation. Floods of salt water from the nearby Rhode River soaked the roots of the maples, beeches and tulip poplars.

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Despite a decline in the number of conflicts worldwide, they continue to have a deep and harrowing impact on the communities caught up in them. SIPRI's work on conflict and peace studies the different kinds of armed conflict that occur, how they unfold and what their consequences are. It also examines peacekeeping missions, working to improve their efficiency and cooperation.

Our research takes both a general and specific focus. The SIPRI Multilateral Peace Operations Database collects data on global peace operations from 2000 onwards and analyses overall trends in peace operations. We also look at specific regions of the world, such as Afghanistan, Mali and the Arctic, where we examine local challenges and solutions to resolving violent conflicts.

SIPRI's work in the area of conflict, peace and security includes hosting the Stockholm Security Conference, which was held for the first time in 2016.

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SIPRI looks at the most important consequences of insecurity and efforts to minimize them.

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Summary of the Atomic Energy Act | US EPA

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The Atomic Energy Act established the Atomic Energy Commission, whose authority to issue environmental radiation standards was later transferred to EPA.

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The global food system can be defined as the "production, processing, and distribution of food throughout the world."[1] Food security for an individual within this global food system is characterized by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) as having the following four dimensions: availability of food, economic and physical access to food, food utilization to reach a state of nutritional well-being, and the stability of the previous three dimensions over time.[2] However, our current food system is rife with inequalities and issues that prevent adequate food security for all, and have consequences for individuals as well as our global environment. Here are the top five problems with the global food system.
1. Increased Biofuel Production
Biofuels are fuels derived from organic matter, such as plant and animal materials, as opposed to fossil fuels. These biofuels can be crop-based, and can be made from corn, palm oil, sugarcane, and soybeans. Thought to be a valuable alternative to fossil fuels, many farm subsidies have been put into place to promote the production of these crops. Yet not only have biofuels proven to be more harmful to the environment than expected, they can also be potentially devastating to the food system. Increased devotion of agricultural land to produce food-based biofuels has resulted in global displacement of people and rise in food prices. Incentives to produce biofuels have raised the global competition for land, and have made it harder for smaller farmers to compete or maintain control of their property. Currently, fewer than five corporations control about 47% of all ethanol production in the U.S.[3] As more land is concentrated on food-based biofuel production, less is devoted to the growing of crops for consumption. The World Resources Institute (WRI) reports that "producing 10% of all transport fuels from biofuels by 2050, as planned by some governments, would require 32% of global crop production but produce only 2% of global energy," while also increasing the "food gap to roughly 100%."[4] On the other hand, "eliminating the use of crop-based biofuels for transportation would close the food gap by roughly 14%."[5] Nationally and globally, we need to address and reform the subsidies and policy incentives that drive biofuel production.
2. Limited Food Access
The inability to access sufficient amounts of food is an issue that plagues populations globally. Worldwide, about 795 million people suffer from chronic undernourishment, and about 15% of households in the U.S. lack food to some degree.[6] More than 29 million Americans live in "food deserts", which means that they do not have a supermarket "within a mile of their home if they live in an urban area, or within 10 miles of their home if they live in a rural area."[7] On top of the absence of these markets, limited mobility, economic barriers, and a lack of fresh food options prevent certain low-income communities from obtaining healthy and affordable food.[8] This problem has only been exacerbated by the farm policy incentives that drive an excess production of sweets, fats, and meats, and producers choosing to cut costs through extensive food processing and use of high fructose corn syrup and hydrogenated soy oil to increase product self-life and convenience.[9]

Globally, consumers and farmers alike are unable to access the market or afford the costs of consumption or production. In developing countries, about 16% of the rural population lacks convenient access to the market, and, at most, only 40% of any crop is marketed with only one-third of farmers selling to the market.[11] International efforts must be made to develop local and regional markets, improve infrastructure to ease transportation, and increase agricultural investment in smallholder farmers.
3. Unsustainable Agricultural Practices
According to the FAO, agricultural production is a huge driver of climate change, producing one-fifth of total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.[12] Intensive farming methods use fertilizers and pesticides that contaminate streams and rivers that can create downstream "dead zones," and deforestation for agricultural use accounts for an estimated 10-11% of global GHG emissions.[13] Big agribusinesses utilize poor agricultural practices to cut production costs, and, due to these practices, 5-10 million hectares of arable farmland become unusable every year, with an additional 0.3-1.5 million becoming unproductive as a result of salinization and water logging.[15] To protect our environment, our health, and our food, we must implement climate-sensitive production methods such as reduced tillage, crop rotations, soil enrichment, the encouragement of natural pest predators, and the incorporation of agroforestry.[16] Agriculture can be shifted to degraded lands, rather than clearing new lands, with a focus on practices that boost productivity and enhance resilience.[18] Furthermore, there is a global need to support more small-scale, less mechanically intensive, and more organic practices in order to preserve our productive agricultural land and prevent climate change.
4. Lack of Farmer and Workers' Rights
According to the International Food Policy Research Institute's Global Food Policy Report (GFPR), smallholder farmers that farm less than 2 hectares of land make up the majority of agricultural producers for the world, but also make up half of the world's poor and hungry population.[19] These smaller farmers are increasingly unable to compete in an agricultural market dominated by big agribusinesses. Smallholders have a lack of access to the proper assets, such as tractors and fertilizers, and small farmers that are able to stay in business earn less due to the immense surpluses produced by industrial agricultural companies or are subject to these companies' control. For example, being forced to buy Monsanto's patented "transgenic seeds" in order to stay competitive. Therefore, only about 10-20% of the agricultural product value is returned to the farmer and the farmer's rural community.[20]

Female and youth farmers face similar constraints in terms of asset and market access. The United Nations estimates that approximately 43% of farmers in developing countries are women, but they do not perform as well due to a lack of the proper inputs, services, and productive resources.[21] However, the GFPR states that closing the agricultural production gender gap could decrease the number of undernourished people by 12-17%.[22]

Additionally, food workers in the U.S. are the lowest paid and least protected workers in the nation, often facing low wages and substandard working conditions.[23] Immigrants especially face routine mistreatment, violations of their compensation claims, and interference with union formation.[24]

Worldwide, policies must be put in place to increase equal access to agricultural inputs and financial services, establish land rights for women, provide a livable wage, institute healthy working conditions, create fair pricing mechanisms, ensure benefits and employment security, and empower immigrant workers.
5. Food Waste
Food waste is an issue at both ends: production and consumption. Over one-third of food produced around the world is lost or wasted, equating to about 1.3 billion tons per year.[25] Halving this rate could close the global food gap by 20% by 2050.[26] Furthermore, food waste is a climate change concern, as methane (a greenhouse gas) emitted by rotting food is 23 times more potent than carbon dioxide.[27] Production food loss in developing countries is often due to harvesting and storage technique issues or destruction by pests, while food waste on the consumer end takes place when food is discarded because of quality or safety concerns.[28] To correct this problem, initiatives will need to be implemented around low-cost storage methods close to farms, improved redistribution and transportation processes, as well as enhancements in the agricultural infrastructure. Moreover, clarification of "sell-by" and "best-before" labels and education on proper storage methods can reduce consumer food waste.[29]

The FAO's Rome Declaration on World Food Security states that, "Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life."[30] However, 800 million people go hungry every day, with another 2 billion people suffering from micronutrient deficiencies, and still another 2.1 billion people are categorized as overweight.[31] Attempts to increase food output through intensive farming practices have diminished our natural resources, degraded the soil, polluted our water, and driven deforestation.[32] Worldwide, we must end programs and incentives for biofuel use expansion, promote smallholder farming and sustainable agricultural practices, localize the food system, demand full rights for food workers at all points in the food system, and employ techniques to diminish food waste. Ultimately, change can only take place once there is a social pressure to democratize the food system, and return the control to individuals and communities. The first step for you to join the movement is to be educated about the food system globally and recognize the issues in your own community!

[1] "The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of the Global Food System," The Regis, accessed August 5, 2016, http://www.theregis.ca/politics/the-good-the-bad-and-the-ugly-of-the-global-food-system/.

[2] "An Introduction to the Basic Concepts of Food Security," Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, accessed August 5, 2016, http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/al936e/al936e00.pdf.

[3] Eric Holt-Giménez, "The World Food Crisis: What is Behind It and What We Can Do," World Hunger Education Service, October 23, 2008, accessed August 5, 2016, http://www.worldhunger.org/holt-gimenez/.

[4] Janet Ranganathan, "The Global Food Challenge Explained in 18 Graphics," World Resources Institute, December 3, 2013, accessed August 5, 2016, http://www.wri.org/blog/2013/12/global-food-challenge-explained-18-graphics.

[5] Ranganathan, "The Global Food Challenge Explained in 18 Graphics"

[6] Michael R. Taylor and Howard R. Sklamberg, "Internationalizing Food Safety: FDA's Role in the Global Food System," Harvard International Review, July 11, 2016, accessed August 5, 2016, http://hir.harvard.edu/internationalizing-food-safety-fdas-role-global-food-system/.

[7] "Food Insecurity, Food Deserts and Healthy Weight," The State of Obesity, accessed August 5, 2016, http://stateofobesity.org/food-insecurity/.

[8] "Toward a Healthy Sustainable Food System," American Public Health Association, accessed August 5, 2016, https://www.apha.org/policies-and-advocacy/public-health-policy-statements/policy-database/2014/07/29/12/34/toward-a-healthy-sustainable-food-system.

[9] "Toward a Healthy Sustainable Food System," APHA.

[10] "The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of the Global Food System," The Regis.

[11] "Inadequate Food Distribution Systems," Mission 2014: Feeding the World, accessed August 5, 2016, http://12.000.scripts.mit.edu/mission2014/problems/inadequate-food-distribution-systems.

[12] Sara Gustafson, "Global Food Policy Report calls for improved global food system," International Food Policy Research Institute, April 12, 2016, accessed August 5, 2016, http://www.ifpri.org/blog/global-food-policy-report-calls-improved-global-food-system.

[13] "Toward a Healthy Sustainable Food System," APHA.

[14] "Climate is changing. Food and agriculture must too." Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, accessed August 5, 2016, http://www.fao.org/world-food-day/2016/theme/en/.

[15] "The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of the Global Food System," The Regis.

[16] Gustafson, "Global Food Policy Report calls for improved global food system."

[17] "Sustainable Agriculture Techniques," Union of Concerned Scientists, accessed August 5, 2016, http://www.ucsusa.org/food_and_agriculture/solutions/advance-sustainable-agriculture/sustainable-agriculture.html#.V6UXNZMrL6Y.

[18] Ranganathan, "The Global Food Challenge Explained in 18 Graphics."

[19] Gustafson, "Global Food Policy Report calls for improved global food system."

[20] "The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of the Global Food System," The Regis.

[21] "Water and food security," United Nations, accessed August 5, 2016, http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/food_security.shtml.

[22] Gustafson, "Global Food Policy Report calls for improved global food system."

[23] Annie Shattuck, Eric Holt-Giménez, and Zoe Brent, "Food Workers Food Justice: Linking Food, Labor and Immigrant Rights," Food First, July 1, 2010, accessed August 5, 2016, https://foodfirst.org/publication/food-workers-food-justice-linking-food-labor-and-immigrant-rights/.

[24] "Toward a Healthy Sustainable Food System," APHA.

[25] "Climate is changing. Food and agriculture must too." FAO.

[26] Ranganathan, "The Global Food Challenge Explained in 18 Graphics."

[27] "Climate is changing. Food and agriculture must too." FAO.

[28] Gustafson, "Global Food Policy Report calls for improved global food system."

[29] Brian Lipinski, "10 Ways to Cut Global Food Loss and Waste," World Resources Institute, June 6, 2013, accessed August 5, 2016, http://www.wri.org/blog/2013/06/10-ways-cut-global-food-loss-and-waste.

[30] "Rome Declaration on World Food Security and World Food Summit Plan of Action," Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, accessed August 5, 2016, http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/w3613e/w3613e00.HTM.

[31] Jomo Kwame Sundaram, "Build Healthy, Sustainable Food System to Fight Malnutrition," Global Issues, March 22, 2016, accessed August 5, 2016, http://www.globalissues.org/news/2016/03/22/21944.

[32] Sundaram, "Build Healthy, Sustainable Food System to Fight Malnutrition."

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The Top 5 Problems with the Global Food System - AMP Global Youth

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The global food system can be defined as the "production, processing, and distribution of food throughout the world."[1] Food security for an individual within this global food system is characterized by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) as having the following four dimensions: availability of food, economic and physical access to...

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https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/global/wash_statistics.html

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Education and information about global water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), including fast facts and interesting information related to global water.

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Why choose SAS for AI solutions?

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AI has been an integral part of SAS software for years. Today we help customers in every industry capitalize on advancements in AI, and we'll continue embedding AI technologies like machine learning and deep learning in solutions across the SAS portfolio. Jim Goodnight CEO SAS

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AI solutions company SAS uses machine learning, computer vision, natural language processing and forecasting to help you unlock new possibilities.

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What are the psychological effects of gender inequality?

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The psychological effects of gender inequality include low self-esteem, negative body image, exposure to chronic stress, and trauma.

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Key points

The greenhouse effect traps the Sun's energy at the Earth's surface. It is essential for life on Earth.

The enhanced greenhouse effect is where extra greenhouse gases in our atmosphere trap too much of the Sun's energy. This causes a warming effect, which some people call global warming.

Measurements and models show clearly that the warming is mostly being caused by greenhouse gases produced by humans.

The warming is changing our climate. It is changing our weather patterns, causing sea level rise and ocean acidification. These combined effects are called climate change.

The greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth's surface and makes life on Earth possible.

Greenhouse gases are types of gases which change how much heat is absorbed by Earth's atmosphere. Greenhouse gases in our atmosphere act like the glass in a greenhouse, letting light through but stopping heat from escaping. Energy from the Sun reaching Earth's atmosphere passes through the air and clouds to the surface, where it is absorbed and then radiated upward in the form of infrared heat. About 90% of this heat is then absorbed by the greenhouse gases and radiated back toward the surface.

This natural greenhouse effect means that Earth has an average temperature of 15°C. Without it, Earth's average temperature would be about −18°C (well below the freezing point of water).

Important greenhouse gases in our atmosphere include:

The enhanced greenhouse effect

Human activity has rapidly increased the emission of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. Since the start of the Industrial Revolution, in about 1750, human activities such as burning fossil fuels, including coal and oil, have increased greenhouse gas concentrations in our atmosphere.

For example, average atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased from 280 parts per million to 410 parts per million in the last 150 years. As a result, the amount of heat being lost from the Earth has slowed.

This process is called the 'enhanced' greenhouse effect', and it is warming our planet. In fact, Earth's average surface temperature rose about 1.18 °C from the late 1800s to 2020.

Climate change is sometimes called 'global warming', but it is not just the temperature that is changing. The warming of our planet is changing our climate. Our weather systems are being affected - patterns of rain and wind are changing and extreme weather events are increasing in frequency and intensity.

In addition, the global ice caps and glaciers are melting and our sea levels are rising. Some of the excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is being absorbed by our oceans, making them more acidic.

How do we know it's humans?

Our climate has varied in the past. So how do we know that the climate change we are experiencing now is caused by humans?

The main influences on our temperatures over the last 100 years include:

increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases

changes to land cover (replacement of darker forests with paler croplands and grasslands)

solar fluctuations (small effect caused by changes in the brightness of the Sun)

volcanic eruptions (tend to have a cooling effect that lasts a few years).

Scientists have developed computer models which recreate the Earth's natural rate of climate change. These models use real-world data and allow us to compare the modelled (natural) rate of climate change to the climate we are experiencing today. When we compare these climates, we see that today's rate of climate change is higher than the natural rate. This is one of the ways we know that human activities are causing the climate changes we are seeing.

From these models we know that the extra greenhouse gases have had the largest effect, followed by changes to land cover. From measurements of the Sun and volcanoes, we also know that changes to the Sun's energy output and emissions from volcanic eruptions have had a small or short lived effect.

Finally, we know that the extra greenhouse gases have come from humans, not other sources. Carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels carries a different chemical fingerprint from that released by natural sources such as respiration and volcanoes.

In its Sixth Assessment Report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded it is unequivocal that human influence has warmed the atmosphere, ocean and land. The IPCC Working Group 1 report released in 2021 involved over 500 independent scientific experts from countries all over the world under the auspices of the United Nations.

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The greenhouse effect traps the Sun's energy at the Earth's surface. It is essential for life on Earth. The enhanced greenhouse effect is where extra greenhouse gases in our atmosphere trap too much of the Sun's energy. This causes a warming effect, which some people call global warming.

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https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-63619240

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Nuclear energy is the energy in the nucleus, or core, of an atom. Nuclear energy can be used to create electricity, but it must first be released from the atom.

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9 World hunger solutions to get us to 2030

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A combination of conflict, the climate crisis, and the ripple effects of COVID-19 have left the world losing progress in the fight for Zero Hunger. But that doesn't mean that all hope is lost. Some are relatively simple, short-term solutions. Others are more complex, requiring lasting change and commitment at the international level. But it's a cause worth fighting for. Here are nine world hunger solutions that are guiding Concern's work in 24 countries around the globe.

1. Embrace Climate Smart Agriculture

More frequent and longer-lasting periods of extreme temperatures, flood events, and dry spells leave many families - especially those who work in agriculture - unable to put food on the table. Climate change and hunger exist in a vicious cycle. Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is a broad term that encompasses a number of practices. But all of these solutions allow farmers to adapt and become more resilient against an unpredictable climate.

These practices include diversifying crop varieties, conservation agriculture, and low-water sack gardens. Time and again, we've seen families benefit both nutritionally and financially from these solutions.

2. Respond to the refugee crisis

Forced migration is a key cause of hunger, and we are currently in the middle of an unprecedented global refugee crisis. This is also true for other forms of displacement. Refugees and IDPs are some of the most vulnerable groups when it comes to hunger. So are their host communities, whose resources are often very thinly spread.

Much of the work to stop conflict needs to take place on a government and policy level, but one way Concern can help is through programs that facilitate new ways to generate income. For example, Syrian refugee women and their Lebanese neighbors have learned to make staples like cheese and yogurt, as well as how to sell them at market for a profit. For those who wish to return home to Syria, this will also be an essential skill to have when the country eventually rebuilds its infrastructure.

3. Advocate for gender equality

is another key solution to world hunger, especially in two key areas: agriculture and Gender equality maternal and child health.

Women make up approximately half of the agricultural workforce in many of the countries where Concern works, and data from the Food and Agriculture Organization suggest that giving female farmers equal access to resources as their male counterparts could increase production on their farms by 20-30%. This could in turn reduce the number of hungry people in the world by up to 150 million.

Hunger affects maternal health, making female nutrition essential to ending hunger. According to the World Food Programme, women are more likely than men to go hungry in nearly two-thirds of the world's countries. By prioritizing women's health and nutrition, we can prevent not only health complications for them if and when they have children, but also for the children they bear. This begins with puberty and continues through pregnancy, breastfeeding, and on through healthy habits that children can maintain for the rest of their lives.

4. Reduce food waste

Currently, one-third of all food produced is wasted - that's over 1.3 billion tons. Producing this wasted food also wastes other natural resources. It requires an amount of water equal to the annual flow of Russia's Volga River, and creates 3.3 billion tons of greenhouse gases.

Ending food waste would be a radical shift, but it's one that you can be a part of by simply reducing your own food waste. It's especially important in countries like the United States (which contribute more to climate change but feel the effects less than more vulnerable countries) to take these steps towards . You can also ask your representatives to commit to policies that reduce waste and better the whole climate justice food system.

5. Invest in disaster risk reduction

Investing in disaster risk reduction - especially in vulnerable communities - mitigates potential losses in the wake of disasters for those who stand to lose the most. Most of the people with whom we work are involved in subsistence agriculture, meaning that they grow what they eat. For many, their harvests are never enough, and the prospect of losing what they do grow is the very definition of disaster. Simple techniques to protect and diversify crops can be very effective. Protecting the homestead and livestock is important too; losing vital shelter and assets can quickly lead to hunger.

6. Support hygiene and sanitation

Sometimes, people (especially children) eat enough. But if they live in an area with insufficient sanitation or poor hygiene practices, they may be susceptible to diarrhea or other waterborne illnesses that prevent them from absorbing those nutrients. Making sure that drinking and washing water are uncontaminated can save a life - in more ways than one.

7. Control infestations and crop infections

It's not just drought and flood that we have to worry about. Crops may also be decimated by pest or fungus invasions. When we entered this decade, eastern Africa (including Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia, and South Sudan) faced an unprecedented locust crisis, the effects of which are still being felt. Some locust swarms were as large as 25 miles in diameter and moved on to invade central Africa and even parts of West Asia including Yemen, Iraq, and Iran. Over 13 million people were estimated to have gone hungry as a result.

In these extreme cases, aerial spray is the only way to effectively curb swarms. But other agricultural practices can confront smaller-scale invasions or deadly funguses that can also destroy crops and raise food prices. Disaster preparedness goes a long way here, too, as cash transfers, new seeds, and supplies can offset these losses.

8. Enhance crops with biofortification

With limited resources (including land, labor, and finances), the poorest farmers tend to focus on growing a limited number of crops such as maize, rice, pearl millet, beans, and sweet potatoes. This means that they often lose out on food rich in micronutrients like Vitamin A and iron. This can lead to significant micronutrient deficiencies that can leave lifelong impacts on young children.

Though Concern works with farming communities and households to diversify their crop production, we also promote the use of biofortified crops, including iron-enriched beans and pearl millet, as well as sweet potatoes (which are higher in Vitamin A). All of the biofortified crops that Concern promotes are the result of conventional breeding in the countries where they are being promoted. These crops allow families to greatly increase their intake of those critical micronutrients in the short-term. They can also be saved by farmers for subsequent replanting without loss of the biofortified traits.

9. Improving Food Storage Systems

What if you have plenty of food, but lack the storage solutions to make it last? This is another problem that, when solved, can make a big difference in closing the hunger gap. Sometimes this requires big interventions, like building or rehabilitating grain stores. Other times, this is a change that can happen at the household level.

One innovation Concern has introduced into women's self-help groups around the world are solar dryers. Sun-drying vegetables, a traditional practice, preserves micronutrients and prolongs shelf lives. Solar dryers, which operate by (you guessed it) exposure to sunlight are eco-friendly devices that accelerate this process, while also reducing contamination and minimizing nutrient loss.

How to solve world hunger: Concern's approach

The majority of people Concern works with are involved in some way with farming and food production. Many of these communities are also on the frontlines of climate change. We work with rural communities to promote Climate Smart Agriculture , an approach that helps families adapt to better crops, growing techniques, and soil improvement practices in response to the changing - and often unpredictable - environment. We also work to strengthen links with the private sector to facilitate access to supplies and equipment.

We combine this with our award-winning and standard-setting program, Community Management of Acute Malnutrition (CMAM) , which has saved millions of lives over the past 20 years. We've continued to work with partners and communities to find more tailored approaches to community-based treatment of childhood malnutrition, which has led to CMAM Surge: a way of proactively responding to malnutrition during seasonal "surge" periods throughout the year. Two CMAM Surge pilot tests in Kenya in 2012 saw that the model managed peaks, without undermining other health and nutrition efforts.

Supporting Concern means that $0.93 of every dollar donated goes to our life-saving work in 24 countries around the world. Last year, we were able to reach over 11.4 million people with our health and nutrition initiatives.

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9 World hunger solutions to get us to 2030

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A combination of conflict, the climate crisis, and the ripple effects of COVID-19 have left the world losing progress in the fight for Zero Hunger. But that doesn't mean that all hope is lost. Some are relatively simple, short-term solutions. Others are more complex, requiring lasting change and commitment at the international level.

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https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water

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WHO fact sheet on water: key facts, access to water, water and health

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This is how ai might be changing the world

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This is how ai might be changing the world

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Research

Most people are not very familiar with the concept of artificial intelligence (AI). As an illustration, when 1,500 senior business leaders in the United States in 2017 were asked about AI, only 17 percent said they were familiar with it. ¹ A number of them were not sure what it was or how it would affect their particular companies. They understood there was considerable potential for altering business processes, but were not clear how AI could be deployed within their own organizations.

Despite its widespread lack of familiarity, AI is a technology that is transforming every walk of life. It is a wide-ranging tool that enables people to rethink how we integrate information, analyze data, and use the resulting insights to improve decisionmaking. Our hope through this comprehensive overview is to explain AI to an audience of policymakers, opinion leaders, and interested observers, and demonstrate how AI already is altering the world and raising important questions for society, the economy, and governance.

In this paper, we discuss novel applications in finance, national security, health care, criminal justice, transportation, and smart cities, and address issues such as data access problems, algorithmic bias, AI ethics and transparency, and legal liability for AI decisions. We contrast the regulatory approaches of the U.S. and European Union, and close by making a number of recommendations for getting the most out of AI while still protecting important human values. ²

In order to maximize AI benefits, we recommend nine steps for going forward:

Encourage greater data access for researchers without compromising users' personal privacy,

invest more government funding in unclassified AI research,

promote new models of digital education and AI workforce development so employees have the skills needed in the 21st-century economy,

create a federal AI advisory committee to make policy recommendations,

engage with state and local officials so they enact effective policies,

regulate broad AI principles rather than specific algorithms,

take bias complaints seriously so AI does not replicate historic injustice, unfairness, or discrimination in data or algorithms,

maintain mechanisms for human oversight and control, and

penalize malicious AI behavior and promote cybersecurity.

Intentionality

Artificial intelligence algorithms are designed to make decisions, often using real-time data. They are unlike passive machines that are capable only of mechanical or predetermined responses. Using sensors, digital data, or remote inputs, they combine information from a variety of different sources, analyze the material instantly, and act on the insights derived from those data. With massive improvements in storage systems, processing speeds, and analytic techniques, they are capable of tremendous sophistication in analysis and decisionmaking.

Artificial intelligence is already altering the world and raising important questions for society, the economy, and governance.

Intelligence

AI generally is undertaken in conjunction with machine learning and data analytics. ⁵ Machine learning takes data and looks for underlying trends. If it spots something that is relevant for a practical problem, software designers can take that knowledge and use it to analyze specific issues. All that is required are data that are sufficiently robust that algorithms can discern useful patterns. Data can come in the form of digital information, satellite imagery, visual information, text, or unstructured data.

Adaptability

AI systems have the ability to learn and adapt as they make decisions. In the transportation area, for example, semi-autonomous vehicles have tools that let drivers and vehicles know about upcoming congestion, potholes, highway construction, or other possible traffic impediments. Vehicles can take advantage of the experience of other vehicles on the road, without human involvement, and the entire corpus of their achieved "experience" is immediately and fully transferable to other similarly configured vehicles. Their advanced algorithms, sensors, and cameras incorporate experience in current operations, and use dashboards and visual displays to present information in real time so human drivers are able to make sense of ongoing traffic and vehicular conditions. And in the case of fully autonomous vehicles, advanced systems can completely control the car or truck, and make all the navigational decisions.

AI is not a futuristic vision, but rather something that is here today and being integrated with and deployed into a variety of sectors. This includes fields such as finance, national security, health care, criminal justice, transportation, and smart cities. There are numerous examples where AI already is making an impact on the world and augmenting human capabilities in significant ways. ⁶

One of the reasons for the growing role of AI is the tremendous opportunities for economic development that it presents. A project undertaken by PriceWaterhouseCoopers estimated that "artificial intelligence technologies could increase global GDP by $15.7 trillion, a full 14%, by 2030." ⁷ That includes advances of $7 trillion in China, $3.7 trillion in North America, $1.8 trillion in Northern Europe, $1.2 trillion for Africa and Oceania, $0.9 trillion in the rest of Asia outside of China, $0.7 trillion in Southern Europe, and $0.5 trillion in Latin America. China is making rapid strides because it has set a national goal of investing $150 billion in AI and becoming the global leader in this area by 2030.

Meanwhile, a McKinsey Global Institute study of China found that "AI-led automation can give the Chinese economy a productivity injection that would add 0.8 to 1.4 percentage points to GDP growth annually, depending on the speed of adoption." ⁸ Although its authors found that China currently lags the United States and the United Kingdom in AI deployment, the sheer size of its AI market gives that country tremendous opportunities for pilot testing and future development.

Finance

Investments in financial AI in the United States tripled between 2013 and 2014 to a total of $12.2 billion.⁹ According to observers in that sector, "Decisions about loans are now being made by software that can take into account a variety of finely parsed data about a borrower, rather than just a credit score and a background check."¹⁰ In addition, there are so-called robo-advisers that "create personalized investment portfolios, obviating the need for stockbrokers and financial advisers."¹¹ These advances are designed to take the emotion out of investing and undertake decisions based on analytical considerations, and make these choices in a matter of minutes.

Fraud detection represents another way AI is helpful in financial systems. It sometimes is difficult to discern fraudulent activities in large organizations, but AI can identify abnormalities, outliers, or deviant cases requiring additional investigation. That helps managers find problems early in the cycle, before they reach dangerous levels. ¹⁴

National security

Artificial intelligence will accelerate the traditional process of warfare so rapidly that a new term has been coined: hyperwar.

The big data analytics associated with AI will profoundly affect intelligence analysis, as massive amounts of data are sifted in near real time-if not eventually in real time-thereby providing commanders and their staffs a level of intelligence analysis and productivity heretofore unseen. Command and control will similarly be affected as human commanders delegate certain routine, and in special circumstances, key decisions to AI platforms, reducing dramatically the time associated with the decision and subsequent action. In the end, warfare is a time competitive process, where the side able to decide the fastest and move most quickly to execution will generally prevail. Indeed, artificially intelligent intelligence systems, tied to AI-assisted command and control systems, can move decision support and decisionmaking to a speed vastly superior to the speeds of the traditional means of waging war. So fast will be this process, especially if coupled to automatic decisions to launch artificially intelligent autonomous weapons systems capable of lethal outcomes, that a new term has been coined specifically to embrace the speed at which war will be waged: hyperwar.

While the ethical and legal debate is raging over whether America will ever wage war with artificially intelligent autonomous lethal systems, the Chinese and Russians are not nearly so mired in this debate, and we should anticipate our need to defend against these systems operating at hyperwar speeds. The challenge in the West of where to position "humans in the loop" in a hyperwar scenario will ultimately dictate the West's capacity to be competitive in this new form of conflict. ¹⁷

Just as AI will profoundly affect the speed of warfare, the proliferation of zero day or zero second cyber threats as well as polymorphic malware will challenge even the most sophisticated signature-based cyber protection. This forces significant improvement to existing cyber defenses. Increasingly, vulnerable systems are migrating, and will need to shift to a layered approach to cybersecurity with cloud-based, cognitive AI platforms. This approach moves the community toward a "thinking" defensive capability that can defend networks through constant training on known threats. This capability includes DNA-level analysis of heretofore unknown code, with the possibility of recognizing and stopping inbound malicious code by recognizing a string component of the file. This is how certain key U.S.-based systems stopped the debilitating "WannaCry" and "Petya" viruses.

Preparing for hyperwar and defending critical cyber networks must become a high priority because China, Russia, North Korea, and other countries are putting substantial resources into AI. In 2017, China's State Council issued a plan for the country to "build a domestic industry worth almost $150 billion" by 2030.¹⁸ As an example of the possibilities, the Chinese search firm Baidu has pioneered a facial recognition application that finds missing people. In addition, cities such as Shenzhen are providing up to $1 million to support AI labs. That country hopes AI will provide security, combat terrorism, and improve speech recognition programs.¹⁹ The dual-use nature of many AI algorithms will mean AI research focused on one sector of society can be rapidly modified for use in the security sector as well.²⁰

Health care

AI tools are helping designers improve computational sophistication in health care. For example, Merantix is a German company that applies deep learning to medical issues. It has an application in medical imaging that "detects lymph nodes in the human body in Computer Tomography (CT) images." ²¹ According to its developers, the key is labeling the nodes and identifying small lesions or growths that could be problematic. Humans can do this, but radiologists charge $100 per hour and may be able to carefully read only four images an hour. If there were 10,000 images, the cost of this process would be $250,000, which is prohibitively expensive if done by humans.

What deep learning can do in this situation is train computers on data sets to learn what a normal-looking versus an irregular-appearing lymph node is. After doing that through imaging exercises and honing the accuracy of the labeling, radiological imaging specialists can apply this knowledge to actual patients and determine the extent to which someone is at risk of cancerous lymph nodes. Since only a few are likely to test positive, it is a matter of identifying the unhealthy versus healthy node.

AI has been applied to congestive heart failure as well, an illness that afflicts 10 percent of senior citizens and costs $35 billion each year in the United States. AI tools are helpful because they "predict in advance potential challenges ahead and allocate resources to patient education, sensing, and proactive interventions that keep patients out of the hospital." ²²

Criminal justice

AI is being deployed in the criminal justice area. The city of Chicago has developed an AI-driven "Strategic Subject List" that analyzes people who have been arrested for their risk of becoming future perpetrators. It ranks 400,000 people on a scale of 0 to 500, using items such as age, criminal activity, victimization, drug arrest records, and gang affiliation. In looking at the data, analysts found that youth is a strong predictor of violence, being a shooting victim is associated with becoming a future perpetrator, gang affiliation has little predictive value, and drug arrests are not significantly associated with future criminal activity. ²³

Judicial experts claim AI programs reduce human bias in law enforcement and leads to a fairer sentencing system. R Street Institute Associate Caleb Watney writes:

Empirically grounded questions of predictive risk analysis play to the strengths of machine learning, automated reasoning and other forms of AI. One machine-learning policy simulation concluded that such programs could be used to cut crime up to 24.8 percent with no change in jailing rates, or reduce jail populations by up to 42 percent with no increase in crime rates. ²⁴

However, critics worry that AI algorithms represent "a secret system to punish citizens for crimes they haven't yet committed. The risk scores have been used numerous times to guide large-scale roundups." ²⁵ The fear is that such tools target people of color unfairly and have not helped Chicago reduce the murder wave that has plagued it in recent years.

Transportation

Transportation represents an area where AI and machine learning are producing major innovations. Research by Cameron Kerry and Jack Karsten of the Brookings Institution has found that over $80 billion was invested in autonomous vehicle technology between August 2014 and June 2017. Those investments include applications both for autonomous driving and the core technologies vital to that sector. ²⁸

Autonomous vehicles-cars, trucks, buses, and drone delivery systems-use advanced technological capabilities. Those features include automated vehicle guidance and braking, lane-changing systems, the use of cameras and sensors for collision avoidance, the use of AI to analyze information in real time, and the use of high-performance computing and deep learning systems to adapt to new circumstances through detailed maps. ²⁹

Light detection and ranging systems (LIDARs) and AI are key to navigation and collision avoidance. LIDAR systems combine light and radar instruments. They are mounted on the top of vehicles that use imaging in a 360-degree environment from a radar and light beams to measure the speed and distance of surrounding objects. Along with sensors placed on the front, sides, and back of the vehicle, these instruments provide information that keeps fast-moving cars and trucks in their own lane, helps them avoid other vehicles, applies brakes and steering when needed, and does so instantly so as to avoid accidents.

Advanced software enables cars to learn from the experiences of other vehicles on the road and adjust their guidance systems as weather, driving, or road conditions change. This means that software is the key-not the physical car or truck itself.

Ride-sharing companies are very interested in autonomous vehicles. They see advantages in terms of customer service and labor productivity. All of the major ride-sharing companies are exploring driverless cars. The surge of car-sharing and taxi services-such as Uber and Lyft in the United States, Daimler's Mytaxi and Hailo service in Great Britain, and Didi Chuxing in China-demonstrate the opportunities of this transportation option. Uber recently signed an agreement to purchase 24,000 autonomous cars from Volvo for its ride-sharing service. ³²

However, the ride-sharing firm suffered a setback in March 2018 when one of its autonomous vehicles in Arizona hit and killed a pedestrian. Uber and several auto manufacturers immediately suspended testing and launched investigations into what went wrong and how the fatality could have occurred. ³³ Both industry and consumers want reassurance that the technology is safe and able to deliver on its stated promises. Unless there are persuasive answers, this accident could slow AI advancements in the transportation sector.

Smart cities

Metropolitan governments are using AI to improve urban service delivery. For example, according to Kevin Desouza, Rashmi Krishnamurthy, and Gregory Dawson:

The Cincinnati Fire Department is using data analytics to optimize medical emergency responses. The new analytics system recommends to the dispatcher an appropriate response to a medical emergency call-whether a patient can be treated on-site or needs to be taken to the hospital-by taking into account several factors, such as the type of call, location, weather, and similar calls. ³⁴

Since it fields 80,000 requests each year, Cincinnati officials are deploying this technology to prioritize responses and determine the best ways to handle emergencies. They see AI as a way to deal with large volumes of data and figure out efficient ways of responding to public requests. Rather than address service issues in an ad hoc manner, authorities are trying to be proactive in how they provide urban services.

Cincinnati is not alone. A number of metropolitan areas are adopting smart city applications that use AI to improve service delivery, environmental planning, resource management, energy utilization, and crime prevention, among other things. For its smart cities index, the magazine Fast Company ranked American locales and found Seattle, Boston, San Francisco, Washington, D.C., and New York City as the top adopters. Seattle, for example, has embraced sustainability and is using AI to manage energy usage and resource management. Boston has launched a "City Hall To Go" that makes sure underserved communities receive needed public services. It also has deployed "cameras and inductive loops to manage traffic and acoustic sensors to identify gun shots." San Francisco has certified 203 buildings as meeting LEED sustainability standards. ³⁵

Through these and other means, metropolitan areas are leading the country in the deployment of AI solutions. Indeed, according to a National League of Cities report, 66 percent of American cities are investing in smart city technology. Among the top applications noted in the report are "smart meters for utilities, intelligent traffic signals, e-governance applications, Wi-Fi kiosks, and radio frequency identification sensors in pavement." ³⁶

These examples from a variety of sectors demonstrate how AI is transforming many walks of human existence. The increasing penetration of AI and autonomous devices into many aspects of life is altering basic operations and decisionmaking within organizations, and improving efficiency and response times.

At the same time, though, these developments raise important policy, regulatory, and ethical issues. For example, how should we promote data access? How do we guard against biased or unfair data used in algorithms? What types of ethical principles are introduced through software programming, and how transparent should designers be about their choices? What about questions of legal liability in cases where algorithms cause harm? ³⁷

The increasing penetration of AI into many aspects of life is altering decisionmaking within organizations and improving efficiency. At the same time, though, these developments raise important policy, regulatory, and ethical issues.

Data access problems

The key to getting the most out of AI is having a "data-friendly ecosystem with unified standards and cross-platform sharing." AI depends on data that can be analyzed in real time and brought to bear on concrete problems. Having data that are "accessible for exploration" in the research community is a prerequisite for successful AI development. ³⁸

According to a McKinsey Global Institute study, nations that promote open data sources and data sharing are the ones most likely to see AI advances. In this regard, the United States has a substantial advantage over China. Global ratings on data openness show that U.S. ranks eighth overall in the world, compared to 93 for China. ³⁹

But right now, the United States does not have a coherent national data strategy. There are few protocols for promoting research access or platforms that make it possible to gain new insights from proprietary data. It is not always clear who owns data or how much belongs in the public sphere. These uncertainties limit the innovation economy and act as a drag on academic research. In the following section, we outline ways to improve data access for researchers.

Biases in data and algorithms

Racial issues also come up with facial recognition software. Most such systems operate by comparing a person's face to a range of faces in a large database. As pointed out by Joy Buolamwini of the Algorithmic Justice League, "If your facial recognition data contains mostly Caucasian faces, that's what your program will learn to recognize." ⁴² Unless the databases have access to diverse data, these programs perform poorly when attempting to recognize African-American or Asian-American features.

Many historical data sets reflect traditional values, which may or may not represent the preferences wanted in a current system. As Buolamwini notes, such an approach risks repeating inequities of the past:

The rise of automation and the increased reliance on algorithms for high-stakes decisions such as whether someone get insurance or not, your likelihood to default on a loan or somebody's risk of recidivism means this is something that needs to be addressed. Even admissions decisions are increasingly automated-what school our children go to and what opportunities they have. We don't have to bring the structural inequalities of the past into the future we create. ⁴³

AI ethics and transparency

Algorithms embed ethical considerations and value choices into program decisions. As such, these systems raise questions concerning the criteria used in automated decisionmaking. Some people want to have a better understanding of how algorithms function and what choices are being made. ⁴⁴

In the United States, many urban schools use algorithms for enrollment decisions based on a variety of considerations, such as parent preferences, neighborhood qualities, income level, and demographic background. According to Brookings researcher Jon Valant, the New Orleans-based Bricolage Academy "gives priority to economically disadvantaged applicants for up to 33 percent of available seats. In practice, though, most cities have opted for categories that prioritize siblings of current students, children of school employees, and families that live in school's broad geographic area." ⁴⁵ Enrollment choices can be expected to be very different when considerations of this sort come into play.

Depending on how AI systems are set up, they can facilitate the redlining of mortgage applications, help people discriminate against individuals they don't like, or help screen or build rosters of individuals based on unfair criteria. The types of considerations that go into programming decisions matter a lot in terms of how the systems operate and how they affect customers. ⁴⁶

For these reasons, the EU is implementing the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in May 2018. The rules specify that people have "the right to opt out of personally tailored ads" and "can contest 'legal or similarly significant' decisions made by algorithms and appeal for human intervention" in the form of an explanation of how the algorithm generated a particular outcome. Each guideline is designed to ensure the protection of personal data and provide individuals with information on how the "black box" operates. ⁴⁷

Legal liability

There are questions concerning the legal liability of AI systems. If there are harms or infractions (or fatalities in the case of driverless cars), the operators of the algorithm likely will fall under product liability rules. A body of case law has shown that the situation's facts and circumstances determine liability and influence the kind of penalties that are imposed. Those can range from civil fines to imprisonment for major harms. ⁴⁸ The Uber-related fatality in Arizona will be an important test case for legal liability. The state actively recruited Uber to test its autonomous vehicles and gave the company considerable latitude in terms of road testing. It remains to be seen if there will be lawsuits in this case and who is sued: the human backup driver, the state of Arizona, the Phoenix suburb where the accident took place, Uber, software developers, or the auto manufacturer. Given the multiple people and organizations involved in the road testing, there are many legal questions to be resolved.

In non-transportation areas, digital platforms often have limited liability for what happens on their sites. For example, in the case of Airbnb, the firm "requires that people agree to waive their right to sue, or to join in any class-action lawsuit or class-action arbitration, to use the service." By demanding that its users sacrifice basic rights, the company limits consumer protections and therefore curtails the ability of people to fight discrimination arising from unfair algorithms. ⁴⁹ But whether the principle of neutral networks holds up in many sectors is yet to be determined on a widespread basis.

In order to balance innovation with basic human values, we propose a number of recommendations for moving forward with AI. This includes improving data access, increasing government investment in AI, promoting AI workforce development, creating a federal advisory committee, engaging with state and local officials to ensure they enact effective policies, regulating broad objectives as opposed to specific algorithms, taking bias seriously as an AI issue, maintaining mechanisms for human control and oversight, and penalizing malicious behavior and promoting cybersecurity.

Improving data access

The United States should develop a data strategy that promotes innovation and consumer protection. Right now, there are no uniform standards in terms of data access, data sharing, or data protection. Almost all the data are proprietary in nature and not shared very broadly with the research community, and this limits innovation and system design. AI requires data to test and improve its learning capacity. ⁵⁰ Without structured and unstructured data sets, it will be nearly impossible to gain the full benefits of artificial intelligence.

In general, the research community needs better access to government and business data, although with appropriate safeguards to make sure researchers do not misuse data in the way Cambridge Analytica did with Facebook information. There is a variety of ways researchers could gain data access. One is through voluntary agreements with companies holding proprietary data. Facebook, for example, recently announced a partnership with Stanford economist Raj Chetty to use its social media data to explore inequality. ⁵¹ As part of the arrangement, researchers were required to undergo background checks and could only access data from secured sites in order to protect user privacy and security.

In the U.S., there are no uniform standards in terms of data access, data sharing, or data protection. Almost all the data are proprietary in nature and not shared very broadly with the research community, and this limits innovation and system design.

Google long has made available search results in aggregated form for researchers and the general public. Through its "Trends" site, scholars can analyze topics such as interest in Trump, views about democracy, and perspectives on the overall economy. ⁵² That helps people track movements in public interest and identify topics that galvanize the general public.

Twitter makes much of its tweets available to researchers through application programming interfaces, commonly referred to as APIs. These tools help people outside the company build application software and make use of data from its social media platform. They can study patterns of social media communications and see how people are commenting on or reacting to current events.

In some sectors where there is a discernible public benefit, governments can facilitate collaboration by building infrastructure that shares data. For example, the National Cancer Institute has pioneered a data-sharing protocol where certified researchers can query health data it has using de-identified information drawn from clinical data, claims information, and drug therapies. That enables researchers to evaluate efficacy and effectiveness, and make recommendations regarding the best medical approaches, without compromising the privacy of individual patients.

There could be public-private data partnerships that combine government and business data sets to improve system performance. For example, cities could integrate information from ride-sharing services with its own material on social service locations, bus lines, mass transit, and highway congestion to improve transportation. That would help metropolitan areas deal with traffic tie-ups and assist in highway and mass transit planning.

Increase government investment in AI

Promote digital education and workforce development

As AI applications accelerate across many sectors, it is vital that we reimagine our educational institutions for a world where AI will be ubiquitous and students need a different kind of training than they currently receive. Right now, many students do not receive instruction in the kinds of skills that will be needed in an AI-dominated landscape. For example, there currently are shortages of data scientists, computer scientists, engineers, coders, and platform developers. These are skills that are in short supply; unless our educational system generates more people with these capabilities, it will limit AI development.

For these reasons, both state and federal governments have been investing in AI human capital. For example, in 2017, the National Science Foundation funded over 6,500 graduate students in computer-related fields and has launched several new initiatives designed to encourage data and computer science at all levels from pre-K to higher and continuing education. ⁵⁷ The goal is to build a larger pipeline of AI and data analytic personnel so that the United States can reap the full advantages of the knowledge revolution.

But there also needs to be substantial changes in the process of learning itself. It is not just technical skills that are needed in an AI world but skills of critical reasoning, collaboration, design, visual display of information, and independent thinking, among others. AI will reconfigure how society and the economy operate, and there needs to be "big picture" thinking on what this will mean for ethics, governance, and societal impact. People will need the ability to think broadly about many questions and integrate knowledge from a number of different areas.

One example of new ways to prepare students for a digital future is IBM's Teacher Advisor program, utilizing Watson's free online tools to help teachers bring the latest knowledge into the classroom. They enable instructors to develop new lesson plans in STEM and non-STEM fields, find relevant instructional videos, and help students get the most out of the classroom. ⁵⁸ As such, they are precursors of new educational environments that need to be created.

Create a federal AI advisory committee

Federal officials need to think about how they deal with artificial intelligence. As noted previously, there are many issues ranging from the need for improved data access to addressing issues of bias and discrimination. It is vital that these and other concerns be considered so we gain the full benefits of this emerging technology.

In order to move forward in this area, several members of Congress have introduced the "Future of Artificial Intelligence Act," a bill designed to establish broad policy and legal principles for AI. It proposes the secretary of commerce create a federal advisory committee on the development and implementation of artificial intelligence. The legislation provides a mechanism for the federal government to get advice on ways to promote a "climate of investment and innovation to ensure the global competitiveness of the United States," "optimize the development of artificial intelligence to address the potential growth, restructuring, or other changes in the United States workforce," "support the unbiased development and application of artificial intelligence," and "protect the privacy rights of individuals." ⁵⁹

Among the specific questions the committee is asked to address include the following: competitiveness, workforce impact, education, ethics training, data sharing, international cooperation, accountability, machine learning bias, rural impact, government efficiency, investment climate, job impact, bias, and consumer impact. The committee is directed to submit a report to Congress and the administration 540 days after enactment regarding any legislative or administrative action needed on AI.

This legislation is a step in the right direction, although the field is moving so rapidly that we would recommend shortening the reporting timeline from 540 days to 180 days. Waiting nearly two years for a committee report will certainly result in missed opportunities and a lack of action on important issues. Given rapid advances in the field, having a much quicker turnaround time on the committee analysis would be quite beneficial.

Engage with state and local officials

According to the legislation's developers, city officials want to know how these algorithms work and make sure there is sufficient AI transparency and accountability. In addition, there is concern regarding the fairness and biases of AI algorithms, so the taskforce has been directed to analyze these issues and make recommendations regarding future usage. It is scheduled to report back to the mayor on a range of AI policy, legal, and regulatory issues by late 2019.

Some observers already are worrying that the taskforce won't go far enough in holding algorithms accountable. For example, Julia Powles of Cornell Tech and New York University argues that the bill originally required companies to make the AI source code available to the public for inspection, and that there be simulations of its decisionmaking using actual data. After criticism of those provisions, however, former Councilman James Vacca dropped the requirements in favor of a task force studying these issues. He and other city officials were concerned that publication of proprietary information on algorithms would slow innovation and make it difficult to find AI vendors who would work with the city. ⁶² It remains to be seen how this local task force will balance issues of innovation, privacy, and transparency.

Regulate broad objectives more than specific algorithms

The GDPR being implemented in Europe place severe restrictions on the use of artificial intelligence and machine learning. According to published guidelines, "Regulations prohibit any automated decision that 'significantly affects' EU citizens. This includes techniques that evaluates a person's 'performance at work, economic situation, health, personal preferences, interests, reliability, behavior, location, or movements.'" ⁶⁵ In addition, these new rules give citizens the right to review how digital services made specific algorithmic choices affecting people.

By taking a restrictive stance on issues of data collection and analysis, the European Union is putting its manufacturers and software designers at a significant disadvantage to the rest of the world.

If interpreted stringently, these rules will make it difficult for European software designers (and American designers who work with European counterparts) to incorporate artificial intelligence and high-definition mapping in autonomous vehicles. Central to navigation in these cars and trucks is tracking location and movements. Without high-definition maps containing geo-coded data and the deep learning that makes use of this information, fully autonomous driving will stagnate in Europe. Through this and other data protection actions, the European Union is putting its manufacturers and software designers at a significant disadvantage to the rest of the world.

It makes more sense to think about the broad objectives desired in AI and enact policies that advance them, as opposed to governments trying to crack open the "black boxes" and see exactly how specific algorithms operate. Regulating individual algorithms will limit innovation and make it difficult for companies to make use of artificial intelligence.

Take biases seriously

Bias and discrimination are serious issues for AI. There already have been a number of cases of unfair treatment linked to historic data, and steps need to be undertaken to make sure that does not become prevalent in artificial intelligence. Existing statutes governing discrimination in the physical economy need to be extended to digital platforms. That will help protect consumers and build confidence in these systems as a whole.

For these advances to be widely adopted, more transparency is needed in how AI systems operate. Andrew Burt of Immuta argues, "The key problem confronting predictive analytics is really transparency. We're in a world where data science operations are taking on increasingly important tasks, and the only thing holding them back is going to be how well the data scientists who train the models can explain what it is their models are doing." ⁶⁶

Maintaining mechanisms for human oversight and control

Some individuals have argued that there needs to be avenues for humans to exercise oversight and control of AI systems. For example, Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence CEO Oren Etzioni argues there should be rules for regulating these systems. First, he says, AI must be governed by all the laws that already have been developed for human behavior, including regulations concerning "cyberbullying, stock manipulation or terrorist threats," as well as "entrap[ping] people into committing crimes." Second, he believes that these systems should disclose they are automated systems and not human beings. Third, he states, "An A.I. system cannot retain or disclose confidential information without explicit approval from the source of that information." ⁶⁷ His rationale is that these tools store so much data that people have to be cognizant of the privacy risks posed by AI.

In the same vein, the IEEE Global Initiative has ethical guidelines for AI and autonomous systems. Its experts suggest that these models be programmed with consideration for widely accepted human norms and rules for behavior. AI algorithms need to take into effect the importance of these norms, how norm conflict can be resolved, and ways these systems can be transparent about norm resolution. Software designs should be programmed for "nondeception" and "honesty," according to ethics experts. When failures occur, there must be mitigation mechanisms to deal with the consequences. In particular, AI must be sensitive to problems such as bias, discrimination, and fairness. ⁶⁸

A group of machine learning experts claim it is possible to automate ethical decisionmaking. Using the trolley problem as a moral dilemma, they ask the following question: If an autonomous car goes out of control, should it be programmed to kill its own passengers or the pedestrians who are crossing the street? They devised a "voting-based system" that asked 1.3 million people to assess alternative scenarios, summarized the overall choices, and applied the overall perspective of these individuals to a range of vehicular possibilities. That allowed them to automate ethical decisionmaking in AI algorithms, taking public preferences into account. ⁶⁹ This procedure, of course, does not reduce the tragedy involved in any kind of fatality, such as seen in the Uber case, but it provides a mechanism to help AI developers incorporate ethical considerations in their planning.

Penalize malicious behavior and promote cybersecurity

To summarize, the world is on the cusp of revolutionizing many sectors through artificial intelligence and data analytics. There already are significant deployments in finance, national security, health care, criminal justice, transportation, and smart cities that have altered decisionmaking, business models, risk mitigation, and system performance. These developments are generating substantial economic and social benefits.

The world is on the cusp of revolutionizing many sectors through artificial intelligence, but the way AI systems are developed need to be better understood due to the major implications these technologies will have for society as a whole.

Yet the manner in which AI systems unfold has major implications for society as a whole. It matters how policy issues are addressed, ethical conflicts are reconciled, legal realities are resolved, and how much transparency is required in AI and data analytic solutions. ⁷⁴ Human choices about software development affect the way in which decisions are made and the manner in which they are integrated into organizational routines. Exactly how these processes are executed need to be better understood because they will have substantial impact on the general public soon, and for the foreseeable future. AI may well be a revolution in human affairs, and become the single most influential human innovation in history.
Note: We appreciate the research assistance of Grace Gilberg, Jack Karsten, Hillary Schaub, and Kristjan Tomasson on this project. The Brookings Institution is a nonprofit organization devoted to independent research and policy solutions. Its mission is to conduct high-quality, independent research and, based on that research, to provide innovative, practical recommendations for policymakers and the public. The conclusions and recommendations of any Brookings publication are solely those of its author(s), and do not reflect the views of the Institution, its management, or its other scholars. Support for this publication was generously provided by Amazon. Brookings recognizes that the value it provides is in its absolute commitment to quality, independence, and impact. Activities supported by its donors reflect this commitment. John R. Allen is a member of the Board of Advisors of Amida Technology and on the Board of Directors of Spark Cognition. Both companies work in fields discussed in this piece.

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How artificial intelligence is transforming the world | Brookings

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Darrell West and John Allen examine the societal and political aspects of developing artificial intelligence technologies.

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Effects of Climate Change | Threats | WWF

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Sea levels are rising and oceans are becoming warmer. Longer, more intense droughts threaten crops, wildlife and freshwater supplies. From polar bears in the Arctic to marine turtles off the coast of Africa, our planet’s diversity of life is at risk from the changing climate.
Climate change poses a…

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https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-56720589

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"Mankind is drawn to the heavens for the same reason we were once drawn into unknown lands and across the open sea. We choose to explore space because doing so improves our lives, and lifts our national spirit."
- President George W. Bush, January 14, 2004
America is heading back to space.

On December 11, 2017, in the Roosevelt Room of the White House, representatives of the commercial space sector, NASA officials, Apollo 17 astronaut Harrison "Jack" Schmitt and other astronauts, and members of the administration witnessed President Donald J. Trump signing the Space Policy Directive 1, a directive intended to return American astronauts to the moon and to initiate long-term human space exploration.

This signing ceremony took place exactly 45 years after astronaut Jack Schmitt and Apollo 17 commander Gene Cernan left the last human footprint on the moon in 1972.

We have learned that humans can survive living on the ISS station in low Earth orbit (LEO), or spend time exploring the moon, but to colonize the moon or other worlds presents unique challenges.

Earth has all the ingredients to protect and sustain life. Exploration missions that leave the Earth's protective sphere, however, will have to overcome many challenges, from conditions in space such as cosmic radiation and hazardous environments to human-specific conditions such as space adaptation syndrome (motion sickness), spatial memory, visual motor performance, bone loss, and the physiological and psychological impacts of living in cramped quarters in zero or low gravity.

Space exploration is more than seeing what is beyond the horizon-exploration also helps us to understand more about our planet, our solar system, our universe, and ourselves. At the very core of human space exploration is the desire to explore the unknown and extend human presence deeper into the solar system.

As our forebears braved the unknown, sailing the seas to discover new worlds, space pioneers will sail the cosmos to find other worlds in our universe, seeking to blaze the trail for the next generation and beyond.

NASA is charting the course for long-term human space exploration. This webpage covers resources on the challenges of long-term human space exploration as we venture deeper into space to find other worlds. All items are available at the Headquarters Library, except as noted. NASA Headquarters employees and contractors: Call x0168 or email ( library@hq.nasa.gov) for information on borrowing or in-library use of any of these items. Members of the public: Contact your local library ( https://publiclibraries.com/) for the availability of these items. NASA Headquarters employees can request additional materials or research on this topic.

The Library welcomes your comments or suggestions about this webpage.

NASA POLICIES AND STANDARDS

The following standards, policies, and procedural requirements can be accessed by anyone through the NASA Online Directives Information Systems or through the NASA Standards website

BOOKS

Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. Health Standards for Long Duration and Exploration Spaceflight Ethic Principles, Responsibilities, and Decision Framework. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press, 2014. ISBN: 978-0-309-29657-1.
RC 1151 .S64 .I5 2014 BOOKSTACKS
Available Free to All
DOI: https://doi.org/10.17226/18576

Longnecker, David E. A Risk Reduction Strategy for Human Space Exploration of Space, A Review of NASA's Bioastronautics Roadmap (2006). Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2006. ISBN: 978-0-309-09948-6.
RC 1135 .R57 2006 BOOKSTACKS
Available Free to All
DOI: https://doi.org/10.17226/11467

National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on the Evaluation of Radiation Shielding for Space Exploration. Managing Space Radiation Risk in the New Era of Space Exploration. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2008. ISBN: 978-0-309-11383-0.
QB 461 .N375 2008 BOOKSTACKS
Available Free to All
DOI: https://doi.org/10.17226/12045

National Research Council (U.S.). Committee for Evaluation of Space Radiation Cancer Risk Model. Technical Evaluation of the NASA Model for Cancer Risk to Astronauts Due to Space Radiation. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2012. ISBN: 978-0-309-25305-5.
RC 1151 .R33 N385 2012 BOOKSTACKS
Available Free to All
DOI: https://doi.org/10.17226/13343

Nicogossian, Arnauld E., Williams, Richard S., et al. Space Physiology and Medicine: From Evidence to Practice, 4 th ed. New York, NY: Springer Science & Business Media, 2016. ISBN: 978-1-493-96650-9.
RC 1150 .S63 2016 BOOKSTACKS

National Aeronautics and Space Administration and Vakoch, Douglas A. (Edited by). Psychology of Space Exploration, Contemporary Research in Historical Perspective. Washington, D.C.: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2011. ISBN: 978-0-160-88558-3.
Available Free to All

REPORTS AND ARTICLES

Boddy, Jessica. (2006). From shrinking spines to space fungus: The top five dangers of space travel. Science. Retrieved from, https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/12/shrinking-spines-space-fungus-top-five-dangers-space-travel
DOI: 10.1126/science.aal0451

Lloro, V., Giovannoni, L.M., Lozano-de Luaces, Lloro, I. and Manzanares, M.C. (2020). Is oral health affected in long period space missions only by micogravity? A systematic review. Acta Astronautica, 167, pp. 343-350. Retrieved from:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576519313943?via%3Dihub
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2019.11.015

Romero, Elkin., Francisco, David. (2020). The NASA human system risk mitigation process for space exploration. Acta Astronautica, 175, pp. 606-615. Retrieved from: https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0094576520302617?token=3CA029364F3818319B49A03E2040EB325EA5A6BFD459DAF2305F62B78142E23F7A18EB567440A0EAAE9DAA569C673E8A
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2020.04.046

Angeloni Debora., Demontis, Gian Carol. Endocrine adaptations across physical and psychological stressors in long-term space flights. (2020). Endocrine and Metabolic Research, 11, pp. 21-26. Retrieved from:
https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S245196501930105X?token=61688CBEF0F63F4433A257D13D066EAF561EE343BD209A15C8A59C98889B3CB511014D342BDC90BA4F8EFDCDE017878E
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coemr.2019.12.005

Lewis, Cathleen. (2017). Studying Long-Duration Human Spaceflight. Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum Space History, https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/studying-long-duration-human-spaceflight

Parks, Jake. (2018). How does space change the human body? Astronomy. Retrieved from: https://astronomy.com/news/2018/02/how-does-space-change-the-human-body

NASA PROGRAMS

NASA's Human Research Program
https://www.nasa.gov/hrp
https://humanresearchroadmap.nasa.gov/

NEEMO - NASA Extreme Environment Mission Operations Project
https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/NEEMO/index.html

Explore Moon to MARS
https://www.nasa.gov/topics/moon-to-mars/preparing-to-go

NASA VIDEOS AND ANALOGS

What happens to an astronaut's body in space
https://www.businessinsider.com/space-antigravity-radiation-affect-human-body-2019-9

NASA 360, The Future of Human Space Exploration
https://www3.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/nasa_360_-_fohse.mp4

What is One of the Greatest Challenges for an Astronaut on the Journey to Mars?
https://www3.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/video/lrc_20171010_journey-to-mars_ne1111.mp4

NEEMO Video Gallery
https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/NEEMO/videos

NASA Analogs Missions
https://www.nasa.gov/analogs/nsrl

What are the Next Generation Spacesuits?
https://www.nasa.gov/feature/what-are-the-next-generation-spacesuits

SLIDE PRESENTATIONS

Antonsen, Erik. L. (2019). Human System Risk in Spaceflight. Retrieved from NTRS (ntrs.nasa.gov), 20190032988.

Easter, Benjamin. (2019). Medical Risks and Capabilities for Human Exploration Spaceflight. Retrieved from NTRS (ntrs.nasa.gov), 20190025249.

OTHER WEBSITES

Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum
https://airandspace.si.edu/

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Long-Term Challenges to Human Space Exploration - NASA

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"Mankind is drawn to the heavens for the same reason we were once drawn into unknown lands and across the open sea. We choose to explore space because doing

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Manual for Human Rights Education with Young people

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Democracy - Manual for Human Rights Education with Young people - www.coe.int

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Why You Should Care About the Hunger Crisis

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* The United Nations Foundation lays out five reasons we should care about the state of the hunger crisis in the world and offers some alarming statistics intended to spur action.

* How can UN agencies utilize partnerships in order to address world hunger? What can international aid organizations do to build more sustainable solutions?

* Read about the app in Nigeria that reduces food waste and fights hunger.

We live in a world in which one in nine people are undernourished. That's about 11% of the world's population or 795 million people.

Malnourishment can compromise immune systems, delay cognitive development, stunt growth, cause pregnancy complications, and so much more. The good news is we have solutions to help people around the world get the nourishment they need to survive and thrive.

Here are five reasons why you should care about this work:

Malnutrition is a leading cause of death for young children. The World Food Program (WFP) states that almost half (45%) of deaths of children under 5 are caused by malnutrition - that's 3.1 million children per year who don't live to celebrate their 5th birthday.

It prevents children from learning and harms future earning potential. According to the United Nations, 66 million primary-school aged children attend class hungry.

The first 1,000 days is vital to children's futures. According to UNICEF, "Poor nutrition in the first 1,000 days of a child's life can lead to stunted growth, which is irreversible and associated with impaired cognitive ability and reduced school and work performance."

It is possible to end world hunger. The United Nations estimates that we need an additional $267 billion per year on average to end world hunger. This number may sound overwhelming, but to put it in context, consumers spend about $270 billion annually on sportswear such as sneakers and yoga pants.

We are making progress against malnourishment. According to the Food and Agriculture of the UN (FAO), the prevalence of undernourishment in developing regions declined from 18.6% in 1990-92 to 10.9% in 2014-16.

The UN and its agencies are working to help end hunger and provide proper nourishment to all people, from promoting economic opportunities, to support small farmers, to providing emergency food aid.
Read the full article about why we should care about hunger by Niki Rubin at United Nations Foundation.

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Why You Should Care About the Hunger Crisis

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The United Nations Foundation lays out five reasons we should care about the state of the hunger crisis in the world and offers some alarming statistics intended to spur action. How can UN agencies utilize partnerships in order to address world h

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The UK government revealed a "world first agreement" on Wednesday to help protect us from certain kinds of artificial intelligence or AI.

This agreement, known as the Bletchley Declaration, was signed by 28 countries, including the United States, China and the European Union, at the UK's Artificial Intelligence Safety Summit.

Around 100 government and technology leaders from across the world came together to discuss important issues and developments in the world of AI at the two-day conference in Buckinghamshire.

But what exactly is artificial intelligence? And why is it something that we might need protecting from?

What is artificial intelligence?

Artificial intelligence, or AI, is where a computer is able to carry out a task in a way that can be considered human-like.

The term "artificial intelligence" was first used in 1956.

In the 1960s scientists were teaching computers how to mimic - or copy - human decision-making.

This developed into research around "machine learning", where robots were taught to learn for themselves and to remember their mistakes, instead of simply copying behaviour. Algorithms play a big part in machine learning as they help computers and robots to know what to do.

How does it work?

Computers can be "taught" how to do things in a number of different ways.

One way is through algorithms - which is a fancy term for a set of rules that a computer must follow.

Another way is through experience.

For example, a computer might learn how to play chess by being taught the rules of the game before playing millions of matches, and then gaining an understanding of chess with every win and every loss.

A computer should be able to spot patterns in the information it receives, which helps it to make decisions, predictions and even take real-world action.

If you cannot see this image, click here.

You can find artificial intelligence being used almost anywhere now - even in your home or at school.

Search engine Google uses AI to rank the webpages that come up when something is searched for, and allows users to search with images and voice commands instead of text.

Artificial intelligence is also used by social media apps like TikTok, Instagram and Snapchat to show you posts and products the apps think are most relevant to you.

Facial recognition has also been made possible due to artificial intelligence, allowing someone to unlock their phone or computer using only their face.

Outside of the home, artificial intelligence has been used to create driverless cars, flight simulators and to predict the weather.

Artificial intelligence is also being used to help detect and diagnose illnesses like cancer.

Generative artificial intelligence is where programs can learn from lots and lots of data to create, or generate, new content that seems human-made.

ChatGPT is an example of generative artificial intelligence. It is a chat bot that is able to talk and respond like a human.

And other programmes like DALL-E can use text instructions to create images that look as if they've been photographed, painted or drawn.

Artificial intelligence is being used in all sorts of ways, but as the technology develops quickly, some people have raised concerns.

In 2019, a US government conducted a study into the facial recognition software of 99 companies.

The technologies struggled to accurately identify African-American and Asian faces compared to white faces.

"When we've been teaching it about people's faces there hasn't been as much focus on people of colour so the data contains more images of white men and women," technology expert Krittika D'Silva said.

Others are worried about the privacy of artificial intelligence.

Vice president of the United States, Kamala Harris, spoke ahead of the UK's Artificial Intelligence Safety Summit on Wednesday about her concerns of "cyberattacks at a scale beyond anything we have seen before".

Some technology experts, such as Tesla and X CEO Elon Musk, say they worry that AI could be a big threat to the world.

But lots of experts say this is too negative a view, with Meta's president of global affairs Nick Clegg saying "speculative, sometimes somewhat futuristic predictions" should not get in the way of immediate issues to do with AI technology.

Others are more concerned about jobs, as it's believed artificial intelligence could replace many careers.

Investment bank Goldman Sachs wrote a report that suggested AI could replace the equivalent of 300 million full-time jobs across the globe.

Prof Gina Neff, who runs an AI centre at the University of Cambridge, said: "We're concerned about what's going to happen to our jobs, what's going to happen to our news, what's going to happen to our ability to communicate with one another."

The summit has brought together world leaders to discuss the future of artificial intelligence, and ways to protect the world from the technology developing in a way that might cause harm.

The Bletchley Declaration shows there is a desire for countries to work together to better understand the benefits and risks of artificial intelligence.

Technology Secretary Michelle Donelan said at the summit: "We have always said that no single country can face down the challenges and risks posed by AI alone, and today's landmark declaration marks the start of a new global effort to build public trust by ensuring the technology's safe development."

China's Vice Minister of Science and Technology, Wu Zhaohui, agreed that the world needed to work together on this issue.

"We call for global collaboration to share knowledge and make AI technologies available to the public," he said.

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What is artificial intelligence and why does it matter to you?

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A major conference hosted in the UK has drawn leaders from across the world to discuss the future of artificial intelligence.

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U.S. Agency for International Development

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Deliberate action is required from all of us to advance gender equality. USAID is committed to being a leading investor, partner, and advocate to achieve this goal across societies.The updated operational and programmatic framework enables USAID to more effectively advance gender equality and women's empowerment across all programming and to meet the Administrator's goal to double USAID's gender work.

To learn more, we invite you to read the Gender Policy and check out the Gender Policy Fact Sheet.

USAID's vision is of a prosperous and peaceful world in which women and girls, men and boys, and gender-diverse individuals, throughout their lives, enjoy equal rights; have the agency to secure better lives for themselves, their families, their communities, and their countries; have equitable access to high-quality education and health care, as well as justice and economic opportunity; accumulate and control their own assets and resources; exercise their own voices; and live free from restrictive gender norms, beliefs, and practices including intimidation, harassment, discrimination, and violence. In this world, power differentials have been transformed to advance the well-being of individuals in all their intersecting identities.

USAID is committed to supporting the Biden-Harris Administration's agenda in uplifting the rights of women and girls around the world. We bring our global leadership, technical expertise, and strategic partnerships to achieve the overarching goal of ensuring equitable access, opportunity, and benefits for all.

Our Global Network

Gender equality and women's empowerment has long been a part of USAID's work. We focus on programming worldwide and work to shape and institutionalize policies that empower women and girls.

USAID has a global network of more than 200 gender advisors and point of contacts, and embedded in Missions and Operating Units throughout the Agency, who work together with other USAID colleagues to integrate gender and advance gender equality objectives in USAID's work worldwide.

For More Information

For more information, please contact: gendevcomms@usaid.gov

Access additional USAID resources on gender equality and women's empowerment by visiting this web page.

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Gender Equality and Women's Empowerment | U.S. Agency for International Development

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Long-term, sustainable development will only be possible when women and men enjoy equal opportunity to rise to their potential. But today, women and girls continue to face disadvantages in every sector in which we work, while in some cases, boys are falling behind. For decades, USAID has been leading global efforts to achieve gender equality.

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Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW)

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Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW)

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Source: NTI

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https://www.who.int/health-topics/climate-change#tab=tab_1

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Climate change is already impacting health in a myriad of ways, including by leading to death and illness from increasingly frequent extreme weather events, such as heatwaves, storms and floods, the disruption of food systems, increases in zoonoses and food-, water- and vector-borne diseases, and mental health issues. Furthermore, climate change is undermining many of the social determinants for good health, such as livelihoods, equality and access to health care and social support structures. These climate-sensitive health risks are disproportionately felt by the most vulnerable and disadvantaged, including women, children, ethnic minorities, poor communities, migrants or displaced persons, older populations and those with underlying health conditions.

In the short to medium term, the health impacts of climate change will be determined mainly by the vulnerability of populations, their resilience to the current rate of climate change and the extent and pace of adaptation. In the longer term, the effects will increasingly depend on the extent to which transformational action is taken now to reduce emissions and avoid the breaching of dangerous temperature thresholds and potential irreversible tipping points.

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The evidence is clear that climate change is already having a serious impact on human lives and health. It threatens the essential ingredients of good health - clean air, safe drinking water, nutritious food supply, and safe shelter - and has the potential to undermine decades of progress in global health.

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https://www.un.org/en/about-us

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Space exploration and economic growth: New issues and horizons

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Space exploration and economic growth: New issues and horizons

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Among the assemblies created in Europe during the Middle Ages, the one that most profoundly influenced the development of representative government was the English Parliament. Less a product of design than an unintended consequence of opportunistic innovations, Parliament grew out of councils that were called by kings for the purpose of redressing grievances and for exercising judicial functions. In time, Parliament began to deal with important matters of state, notably the raising of revenues needed to support the policies and decisions of the monarch. As its judicial functions were increasingly delegated to courts, it gradually evolved into a legislative body. By the end of the 15th century, the English system displayed some of the basic features of modern parliamentary government: for example, the enactment of laws now required the passage of bills by both houses of Parliament and the formal approval of the monarch.

Other important features had yet to be established, however. England's political life was dominated by the monarchy for centuries after the Middle Ages. During the English Civil Wars, led on one side by radical Puritans, the monarchy was abolished and a republic-the Commonwealth -was established (1649), though the monarchy was restored in 1660. By about 1800, significant powers, notably including powers related to the appointment and tenure of the prime minister, had shifted to Parliament. This development was strongly influenced by the emergence of political factions in Parliament during the early years of the 18th century. These factions, known as Whigs and Tories, later became full-fledged parties. To king and Parliament alike it became increasingly apparent that laws could not be passed nor taxes raised without the support of a Whig or Tory leader who could muster a majority of votes in the House of Commons. To gain that support, the monarch was forced to select as prime minister the leader of the majority party in the Commons and to accept the leader's suggestions for the composition of the cabinet. That the monarch should have to yield to Parliament in this area became manifest during a constitutional crisis in 1782, when King George III (reigned 1760-1820) was compelled, much against his will, to accept a Whig prime minister and cabinet-a situation he regarded, according to one scholar, as "a violation of the Constitution, a defeat for his policy, and a personal humiliation." By 1830 the constitutional principle that the choice of prime minister, and thus the cabinet, reposed with the House of Commons had become firmly entrenched in the (unwritten) British Constitution.

Parliamentary government in Britain was not yet a democratic system, however. Mainly because of property requirements, the franchise was held by only about 5 percent of the British population over 20 years of age. The Reform Act of 1832, which is generally viewed as a historic threshold in the development of parliamentary democracy in Britain, extended the suffrage to about 7 percent of the adult population ( see Reform Bill). It would require further acts of Parliament in 1867, 1884, and 1918 to achieve universal male suffrage and one more law, enacted in 1928, to secure the right to vote for all women.

Whereas the feasibility of representative government was demonstrated by the development of Parliament, the possibility of joining representation with democracy first became fully evident in the governments of the British colonies of North America and later in the founding of the United States of America.

Conditions in colonial America favoured the limited development of a system of representation more broadly based than the one in use in Great Britain. These conditions included the vast distance from London, which forced the British government to grant significant autonomy to the colonies; the existence of colonial legislatures in which representatives in at least one house were elected by voters; the expansion of the suffrage, which in some colonies came to include most adult white males; the spread of property ownership, particularly in land; and the strengthening of beliefs in fundamental rights and popular sovereignty, including the belief that the colonists, as British citizens, should not have to pay taxes to a government in which they were not represented ("no taxation without representation").

Until about 1760, most colonists were loyal to the mother country and did not think of themselves as constituting a separate nation of "Americans." After Britain imposed direct taxation on the colonies through the Stamp Act (1765), however, there were public (and sometimes violent) displays of opposition to the new law. In colonial newspapers there was also a sharp increase in the use of the term Americans to refer to the colonial population. Other factors that helped to create a distinct American identity were the outbreak of war with Britain in 1775 and the shared hardships and suffering of the people during many years of fighting, the adoption of the Declaration of Independence in 1776, the flight of many loyalists to Canada and England, and the rapid increase in travel and communication between the newly independent states. The colonists' sense of themselves as a single people, fragile as it may have been, made possible the creation of a loose confederacy of states under the Articles of Confederation in 1781-89 and an even more unified federal government under the Constitution in 1789.

Because of the new country's large population and enormous size, it was obvious to the delegates to the Constitutional Convention (1787) that "the People of the United States," as the opening words of the Constitution referred to them, could govern themselves at the federal level only by electing representatives-a practice with which the delegates were already familiar, given their experience of state government and, more remotely, their dealings with the government in Britain. The new representative government was barely in place, however, when it became evident that the task of organizing members of Congress and the electorate required the existence of political parties, even though such parties had been regarded as pernicious and destructive-"the bane of republics"-by political thinkers and by many delegates to the Constitutional Convention. Eventually, political parties in the United States would provide nominees for local, state, and national offices and compete openly and vigorously in elections ( see below Factions and parties).

It was also obvious that a country as large as the United States would require representative government at lower levels-e.g., territories, states, and municipalities-with correspondingly limited powers. Although the governments of territories and states were necessarily representative, in smaller associations a direct assembly of citizens was both feasible and desirable. In many New England towns, for example, citizens assembled in meetings, Athenian style, to discuss and vote on local matters.

Thus, the citizens of the United States helped to provide new answers to question 1-What is the appropriate unit or association within which a democratic government should be established?-and question 3-How are citizens to govern? Yet, the American answer to question 2-Who should constitute the dēmos?-though radical in its time, was by later standards highly unsatisfactory. Even as the suffrage was broadly extended among adult white males, it continued to exclude large segments of the adult population, such as women, slaves, many freed Blacks, and Native Americans. In time, these exclusions, like those of earlier democracies and republics, would be widely regarded as undemocratic.

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Among the assemblies created in Europe during the Middle Ages, the one that most profoundly influenced the development of representative government was the English Parliament. Less a product of design than an unintended consequence of opportunistic innovations, Parliament grew out of councils that were called by kings for the purpose of redressing grievances and for exercising judicial functions.

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Threat of nuclear catastrophe in Ukraine - 60 Minutes interview with IAEA leader

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Threat of nuclear catastrophe in Ukraine - 60 Minutes interview with IAEA leader

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/ CBS News

Europe's biggest nuclear power plant, Zaporizhzhia, is maybe the most dangerous place in the world right now. The plant is in Russian-occupied Ukraine and has been shelled repeatedly since March.

The situation is carefully monitored by the International Atomic Energy Agency, the U.N.'s nuclear watchdog agency tasked with making sure nuclear facilities are safe and atomic material is only used for peaceful purposes. Its director general, Rafael Mariano Grossi, recently inspected the site.

"Well, it's an unprecedented thing, really, in so many ways," Grossi told Lesley Stahl for this week's 60 Minutes. "This place is at the front line which makes the whole thing so volatile and in need of an urgent action."

Before the war the plant supplied 20% of Ukraine's power. It's now largely idle, but the reactors still need to be constantly cooled down with circulating water. If they over-heat it could lead to nuclear catastrophe within hours.

"The whole system is being cooled by electricity that's coming in from the town, and there's shelling," Stahl said to Grossi. "So what would happen if that electricity went down?"

"What you have in that-- in that situation is emergency systems that kick in. Like, diesel generators that you can have on a private property," Grossi said. "And you don't want the biggest nuclear power plant in Europe, one of the biggest in the world, to be cooled with-- basically an emergency system which is dependent on fuel. Because when your diesels are out of whatever you put in it to make them work, then what happens? Then you have a meltdown. Then you have a big radiological nuclear emergency or an accident, and this is what we are trying to prevent."

"So this situation is totally precarious," Stahl said.

"Totally," Grossi responded. "Until we have this plant protected, the possibility of the nuclear catastrophe is there."

That possible catastrophe could dwarf Chernobyl, a far smaller Ukrainian plant that famously blew up 36 years ago. In late August, after months of negotiating with both sides, Director General Grossi led his agency's first mission into an active warzone to inspect the stability of the Zaporizhzhia site.

"And as we were approaching the last Ukrainian checkpoint, we started hearing shooting, quite heavy shooting. Very close, very close to us. So at that point, even the people at the checkpoint were running for shelter," Grossi said. "I think it was a clear attempt to stop us. To say, 'Go home. This is not your place.'"

But they proceeded. There were soldiers, tanks and armored trucks everywhere. The Russians are actually using the nuclear plant as their military base.

"When you went to visit, to inspect," Stahl asked Grossi, "you could go anywhere?"

"Yes, you know, we are the IAEA," Grossi said. "We are known as the nuclear watchdog."

"Well, there are reports that you weren't allowed into some crisis room there into the control room," Stahl said. "Is that not true?"

"Well, there were areas that-- where we were limited," Grossi said. "But all the things we needed to see we could see."

"You didn't want to see the control room?" Stahl asked.

"Yeah, we did want to see it," Grossi said. "But for us, what is important is to be looking at the essential nuclear operation of the plant. And this we could see."

That included evidence that rockets had come dangerously close to the reactors and other sensitive areas. On a satellite photo, Grossi also pointed out the switchyard where the electricity comes in from the town.

"So this is where the external power comes to cool the reactors down," Grossi said. "And this place was shelled several times, several times, which tells you that people knew exactly what they were doing."

"They were trying to cut off the power source," Stahl said.

"Exactly," Grossi replied.

Shelling also destroyed one of the plant's office buildings. And the workers who stayed behind to maintain the plant are under duress. A plant spokesman who fled Ukraine after working four months under Russian occupation said he felt like a hostage. There have been reports of imprisonments, kidnappings and torture of Ukrainian employees. The head of the plant was detained.

"When you're operating at a nuclear power plant and you're under stress, and you're worried, and you're feeling threatened," Stahl asked Grossi, "doesn't that lead to the possibility of human error?"

"Of course. Yes," Grossi said. "And the shelling goes on. And this is why we have been trying, I have been pushing, for the establishment of a protection zone. Which is basically, 'don't attack the plant.'"

He took his protection zone proposal to both President Zelensky in Kyiv and President Putin, in a one-on-one meeting last month in St. Petersburg.

"Would you say that [Putin] is familiar with what's going on," Stahl asked, "at this nuclear plant?"

Absolutely," Grossi said. "He knows every detail of it, which was surprising to me."

"In my conversation with him, I could see that he had a very detailed knowledge, not only of the layout of the-- of the plant, but also, and very importantly, of the electrical access, the external power source," Grossi said. "It is a facility that he knows-- that he knows very well."

"Is Mr. Putin trying to use this plant as a weapon?" Stahl asked. "Someone said to us the other day, 'You know, this is his dirty bomb, this plant.'"

"Yeah, but if you protect it there's no dirty bomb," Grossi said.

Trending News

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"Unprecedented": IAEA head on the current threat of nuclear catastrophe in Ukraine

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CBS News Europe's biggest nuclear power plant, Zaporizhzhia, is maybe the most dangerous place in the world right now. The plant is in Russian-occupied Ukraine and has been shelled repeatedly since March. The situation is carefully monitored by the International Atomic Energy Agency, the U.N.'s nuclear watchdog agency tasked with making sure nuclear facilities are safe and atomic material is only used for peaceful purposes.

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Causes of Hunger | Action Against Hunger

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Causes of Hunger | Action Against Hunger

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Poverty, inequality, conflict, climate change, gender discrimination, and weak government and health systems all play a role in driving hunger.

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Population growth - Understanding Global Change

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Discover why the climate and environment changes, your place in the Earth system, and paths to a resilient future.

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https://www.unwater.org/water-facts/water-scarcity

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What self driving cars tells us about A.I

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What self driving cars tells us about A.I

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In 2016, just weeks before the Autopilot in his Tesla drove Joshua Brown to his death, I pleaded with the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation to regulate the use of artificial intelligence in vehicles. Neither my pleading nor Brown's death could stir the government to action.

Since then, automotive AI in the United States has been linked to at least 25 confirmed deaths and to hundreds of injuries and instances of property damage.

The lack of technical comprehension across industry and government is appalling. People do not understand that the AI that runs vehicles-both the cars that operate in actual self-driving modes and the much larger number of cars offering advanced driving assistance systems (ADAS)-are based on the same principles as ChatGPT and other large language models (LLMs). These systems control a car's lateral and longitudinal position-to change lanes, brake, and accelerate-without waiting for orders to come from the person sitting behind the wheel.

Both kinds of AI use statistical reasoning to guess what the next word or phrase or steering input should be, heavily weighting the calculation with recently used words or actions. Go to your Google search window and type in "now is the time" and you will get the result "now is the time for all good men." And when your car detects an object on the road ahead, even if it's just a shadow, watch the car's self-driving module suddenly brake.

Neither the AI in LLMs nor the one in autonomous cars can "understand" the situation, the context, or any unobserved factors that a person would consider in a similar situation. The difference is that while a language model may give you nonsense, a self-driving car can kill you.

In late 2021, despite receiving threats to my physical safety for daring to speak truth about the dangers of AI in vehicles, I agreed to work with the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) as the senior safety advisor. What qualified me for the job was a doctorate focused on the design of joint human-automated systems and 20 years of designing and testing unmanned systems, including some that are now used in the military, mining, and medicine.

My time at NHTSA gave me a ringside view of how real-world applications of transportation AI are or are not working. It also showed me the intrinsic problems of regulation, especially in our current divisive political landscape. My deep dive has helped me to formulate five practical insights. I believe they can serve as a guide to industry and to the agencies that regulate them.
Terry Chea/AP
1. Human errors in operation get replaced by human errors in coding

Proponents of autonomous vehicles routinely assert that the sooner we get rid of drivers, the safer we will all be on roads. They cite the NHTSA statistic that 94 percent of accidents are caused by human drivers. But this statistic is taken out of context and inaccurate. As the NHTSA itself noted in that report, the driver's error was "the last event in the crash causal chain.... It is not intended to be interpreted as the cause of the crash." In other words, there were many other possible causes as well, such as poor lighting and bad road design.

Moreover, the claim that autonomous cars will be safer than those driven by humans ignores what anyone who has ever worked in software development knows all too well: that software code is incredibly error-prone, and the problem only grows as the systems become more complex.

While a language model may give you nonsense, a self-driving car can kill you.

Consider these recent crashes in which faulty software was to blame. There was the October 2021 crash of a Pony.ai driverless car into a sign, the April 2022 crash of a TuSimple tractor trailer into a concrete barrier, the June 2022 crash of a Cruise robotaxi that suddenly stopped while making a left turn, and the March 2023 crash of another Cruise car that rear-ended a bus.

These and many other episodes make clear that AI has not ended the role of human error in road accidents. That role has merely shifted from the end of a chain of events to the beginning-to the coding of the AI itself. Because such errors are latent, they are far harder to mitigate. Testing, both in simulation but predominantly in the real world, is the key to reducing the chance of such errors, especially in safety-critical systems. However, without sufficient government regulation and clear industry standards, autonomous-vehicle companies will cut corners in order to get their products to market quickly.

2. AI failure modes are hard to predict

A large language model guesses which words and phrases are coming next by consulting an archive assembled during training from preexisting data. A self-driving module interprets the scene and decides how to get around obstacles by making similar guesses, based on a database of labeled images-this is a car, this is a pedestrian, this is a tree-also provided during training. But not every possibility can be modeled, and so the myriad failure modes are extremely hard to predict. All things being equal, a self-driving car can behave very differently on the same stretch of road at different times of the day, possibly due to varying sun angles. And anyone who has experimented with an LLM and changed just the order of words in a prompt will immediately see a difference in the system's replies.

One failure mode not previously anticipated is phantom braking. For no obvious reason, a self-driving car will suddenly brake hard, perhaps causing a rear-end collision with the vehicle just behind it and other vehicles further back. Phantom braking has been seen in the self-driving cars of many different manufacturers and in ADAS-equipped cars as well.

The cause of such events is still a mystery. Experts initially attributed it to human drivers following the self-driving car too closely (often accompanying their assessments by citing the misleading 94 percent statistic about driver error). However, an increasing number of these crashes have been reported to NHTSA. In May 2022, for instance, the NHTSA sent a letter to Tesla noting that the agency had received 758 complaints about phantom braking in Model 3 and Y cars. This past May, the German publication Handelsblattreported on 1,500 complaints of braking issues with Tesla vehicles, as well as 2,400 complaints of sudden acceleration. It now appears that self-driving cars experience roughly twice the rate of rear-end collisions as do cars driven by people.

Clearly, AI is not performing as it should. Moreover, this is not just one company's problem-all car companies that are leveraging computer vision and AI are susceptible to this problem.

As other kinds of AI begin to infiltrate society, it is imperative for standards bodies and regulators to understand that AI failure modes will not follow a predictable path. They should also be wary of the car companies' propensity to excuse away bad tech behavior and to blame humans for abuse or misuse of the AI.

3. Probabilistic estimates do not approximate judgment under uncertainty

Ten years ago, there was significant hand-wringing over the rise of IBM's AI-based Watson, a precursor to today's LLMs. People feared AI would very soon cause massive job losses, especially in the medical field. Meanwhile, some AI experts said we should stop training radiologists.

These fears didn't materialize. While Watson could be good at making guesses, it had no real knowledge, especially when it came to making judgments under uncertainty and deciding on an action based on imperfect information. Today's LLMs are no different: The underlying models simply cannot cope with a lack of information and do not have the ability to assess whether their estimates are even good enough in this context.

These problems are routinely seen in the self-driving world. The June 2022 accident involving a Cruise robotaxi happened when the car decided to make an aggressive left turn between two cars. As the car safety expert Michael Woon detailed in a report on the accident, the car correctly chose a feasible path, but then halfway through the turn, it slammed on its brakes and stopped in the middle of the intersection. It had guessed that an oncoming car in the right lane was going to turn, even though a turn was not physically possible at the speed the car was traveling. The uncertainty confused the Cruise, and it made the worst possible decision. The oncoming car, a Prius, was not turning, and it plowed into the Cruise, injuring passengers in both cars.

Cruise vehicles have also had many problematic interactions with first responders, who by default operate in areas of significant uncertainty. These encounters have included Cruise cars traveling through active firefighting and rescue scenes and driving over downed power lines. In one incident, a firefighter had to knock the window out of the Cruise car to remove it from the scene. Waymo, Cruise's main rival in the robotaxi business, has experienced similar problems.

These incidents show that even though neural networks may classify a lot of images and propose a set of actions that work in common settings, they nonetheless struggle to perform even basic operations when the world does not match their training data. The same will be true for LLMs and other forms of generative AI. What these systems lack is judgment in the face of uncertainty, a key precursor to real knowledge.

4. Maintaining AI is just as important as creating AI

Because neural networks can only be effective if they are trained on significant amounts of relevant data, the quality of the data is paramount. But such training is not a one-and-done scenario: Models cannot be trained and then sent off to perform well forever after. In dynamic settings like driving, models must be constantly updated to reflect new types of cars, bikes, and scooters, construction zones, traffic patterns, and so on.

In the March 2023 accident, in which a Cruise car hit the back of an articulated bus, experts were surprised, as many believed such accidents were nearly impossible for a system that carries lidar, radar, and computer vision. Cruise attributed the accident to a faulty model that had guessed where the back of the bus would be based on the dimensions of a normal bus; additionally, the model rejected the lidar data that correctly detected the bus.

Software code is incredibly error-prone, and the problem only grows as the systems become more complex.

This example highlights the importance of maintaining the currency of AI models. "Model drift" is a known problem in AI, and it occurs when relationships between input and output data change over time. For example, if a self-driving car fleet operates in one city with one kind of bus, and then the fleet moves to another city with different bus types, the underlying model of bus detection will likely drift, which could lead to serious consequences.

Such drift affects AI working not only in transportation but in any field where new results continually change our understanding of the world. This means that large language models can't learn a new phenomenon until it has lost the edge of its novelty and is appearing often enough to be incorporated into the dataset. Maintaining model currency is just one of many ways that AI requires periodic maintenance, and any discussion of AI regulation in the future must address this critical aspect.

5. AI has system-level implications that can't be ignored

Self-driving cars have been designed to stop cold the moment they can no longer reason and no longer resolve uncertainty. This is an important safety feature. But as Cruise, Tesla, and Waymo have demonstrated, managing such stops poses an unexpected challenge.

A stopped car can block roads and intersections, sometimes for hours, throttling traffic and keeping out first-response vehicles. Companies have instituted remote-monitoring centers and rapid-action teams to mitigate such congestion and confusion, but at least in San Francisco, where hundreds of self-driving cars are on the road, city officials have questioned the quality of their responses.

Self-driving cars rely on wireless connectivity to maintain their road awareness, but what happens when that connectivity drops? One driver found out the hard way when his car became entrapped in a knot of 20 Cruise vehicles that had lost connection to the remote-operations center and caused a massive traffic jam.

Of course, any new technology may be expected to suffer from growing pains, but if these pains become serious enough, they will erode public trust and support. Sentiment towards self-driving cars used to be optimistic in tech-friendly San Francisco, but now it has taken a negative turn due to the sheer volume of problems the city is experiencing. Such sentiments may eventually lead to public rejection of the technology if a stopped autonomous vehicle causes the death of a person who was prevented from getting to the hospital in time.

So what does the experience of self-driving cars say about regulating AI more generally? Companies not only need to ensure they understand the broader systems-level implications of AI, they also need oversight-they should not be left to police themselves. Regulatory agencies must work to define reasonable operating boundaries for systems that use AI and issue permits and regulations accordingly. When the use of AI presents clear safety risks, agencies should not defer to industry for solutions and should be proactive in setting limits.

AI still has a long way to go in cars and trucks. I'm not calling for a ban on autonomous vehicles. There are clear advantages to using AI, and it is irresponsible for people to call on a ban, or even a pause, on AI. But we need more government oversight to prevent the taking of unnecessary risks.

And yet the regulation of AI in vehicles isn't happening yet. That can be blamed in part on industry overclaims and pressure, but also on a lack of capability on the part of regulators. The European Union has been more proactive about regulating artificial intelligence in general and in self-driving cars particularly. In the United States, we simply do not have enough people in federal and state departments of transportation that understand the technology deeply enough to advocate effectively for balanced public policies and regulations. The same is true for other types of AI.

This is not any one administration's problem. Not only does AI cut across party lines, it cuts across all agencies and at all levels of government. The Department of Defense, Department of Homeland Security, and other government bodies all suffer from a workforce that does not have the technical competence needed to effectively oversee advanced technologies, especially rapidly evolving AI.

To engage in effective discussion about the regulation of AI, everyone at the table needs to have technical competence in AI. Right now, these discussions are greatly influenced by industry (which has a clear conflict of interest) or Chicken Littles who claim machines have achieved the ability to outsmart humans. Until government agencies have people with the skills to understand the critical strengths and weaknesses of AI, conversations about regulation will see very little meaningful progress.

Recruiting such people can be easily done. Improve pay and bonus structures, embed government personnel in university labs, reward professors for serving in the government, provide advanced certificate and degree programs in AI for all levels of government personnel, and offer scholarships for undergraduates who agree to serve in the government for a few years after graduation. Moreover, to better educate the public, college classes that teach AI topics should be free.

We need less hysteria and more education so that people can understand the promises but also the realities of AI.

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What Self-Driving Cars Tell Us About AI Risks

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5 conclusions from an automation expert fresh off a stint with the U.S. highway safety agency

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Gender Discrimination Causes Inequality Between Girls and Boys Around the World

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Gender discrimination causes inequality 

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Gender discrimination causes inequality 

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Every girl and boy deserves an equal chance to survive and thrive. As the leading expert on childhood, Save the Children has been championing equal rights for every child for over 100 years - in fact, we invented the concept. Today, we are the leading champion for the human rights of the world's 2.2 billion girls and boys.

Yet, gender discrimination, starting in childhood, continues to rob children of their childhoods and limit their chances - disproportionately affecting the world's girls. A girl is far more likely to be denied her rights, kept from school, forced to marry and subjected to violence - her voice undervalued, if it's heard at all. This assault on childhood also deprives nations of the energy and talent they need to progress.

At the current rate of change, it will take over 200 years[1] to achieve gender equality, and that's just in the U.S. This is unacceptable. Together, we can create a more equal world, right from the start. Make a one-time donation to the Children's Emergency Fund or join Team Tomorrow to connect with the causes you care about - like inequality- through your monthly donation.

**Sources: Unless otherwise noted, gender inequality facts and gender inequality statistics have been sourced from Save the Children's program and monitoring and evaluation experts, as well as published reports, including our gender equality reports.

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Gender Discrimination Causes Inequality Between Girls and Boys Around the World

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Gender discrimination impacts millions of girls and boys around the world, denying them basic human rights like education, income equality, and a life free of violence.

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The only way to completely eliminate nuclear risks is to eliminate nuclear weapons from the planet.

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https://www.cnbc.com/2022/11/04/russia-ukraine-live-updates.html

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3. Neurotechnology

Neurotechnology holds boundless potential to improve many aspects of life. It is already being practically applied in the medical and wellness industries, but also has many future implications for other contexts including education, workplace management, national security, and even sports.

Neurotechnology encompasses all components that are developed to understand the brain, visualise its processes and even control, repair or improve its functions. These components can be computers, electrodes, or any other devices that can be set up to intercept electric pulses that run through the body.

In healthcare, neurotechnology is currently being used in brain imaging, by recording magnetic fields produced by electrical activity within the brain, neurostimulation, stimulating the brain and nervous system to influence brain activity; and in neurodevices, an emerging technology that monitors or regulates brain activity using an implant. Neurodevices are still mostly in the research phase, but it holds major potential for treating brain disorders. An example of this is Neuralink. Pioneered by Elon Musk, Neuralink is developing a device that would be embedded into the human brain, where it would record brain activity and transmit this data wirelessly to a computer. Researchers would then be able to analyse these findings and use them to electrically stimulate brain activity. If successful, it can possibly be used to cure brain diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. Neuralink has been tested on animals so far, but Elon Musk has said the company hopes to start implanting its chips in humans in 2022.

Neurotechnology, while therapeutically very exciting, remains very controversial. It raises questions around rights to data and privacy. All-in-all, its future applications are not entirely mapped out but with the continued rise and identification of neurological disorders and conditions, neurotechnology is expected to experience considerable growth in the worldwide healthcare market in the coming years.

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Technology and medicine have gone hand and hand for many years. Consistent advances in pharmaceuticals and the medical field have saved millions of lives and...

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

Setting the Scene

With the launch of Sputnik in 1957 and the subsequent beginning of the space age, the progression of Space Technologies has, on the one hand, led to the development of hundreds of applications ( Pelton et al., 2017) that use satellite data, including devices for everyday use, from satellite televisions to the Satnav in our cars. On the other, it has underpinned scientific progress in Earth and Atmospheric Sciences as well as in Astronomy and Astrophysics. Just to recall some of the highest public profile contributions from the field, satellite measurements showed the extent of the ozone layer depletion in the atmosphere and the existence of exoplanets and black holes have been confirmed, among many other scientific advances.

The rapid progress made in Space Technology led to extraordinary accomplishments for the whole human race, such as the Moon landing.

At the same time, these space missions have provided powerful iconic imagery for humanity, and photos like the Blue Marble ( Wuebbles, 2012) have become universally recognized symbols of our planet and its extraordinary environment and finite resources.

Although the spectacular progress in Space Technologies slowed down toward the end of the past century, together with that of the whole Aerospace sector, very important achievements continued to be made. These include the development of the International Space Station and the robotic exploration of other planets and celestial bodies, including landing on a comet!

Through the years, space has often been identified as the new frontier, fueling the imagination of writers and film directors, who created visions (more or less plausible) of a future enabled by fantastic developments in Space Technologies.

However, consistent with what history has shown us, is the fact that, after an initial phase of "exploration" of a new environment and consolidation of the relevant technologies, what follows is an explosion of businesses to exploit the new opportunities offered by the new environment. This is where we are today. Sometimes called Space 4.0, we are in a period that has seen a shift of paradigms, with changes of motivations, actors, and, indeed, technologies ( PWC Report, 2019).

New Space and the Need for Appropriate Regulatory Framework

Under the name of "New Space", there is an ongoing "revolution" in the space sector with new players/commercial entrepreneurs/businesses ( Hall, 2020) entering a domain traditionally occupied by institutional players ("Old Space" e.g., space agencies working with large companies) to exploit the new opportunities opening in front of them. These could include new services, offered through applications of space data (from precision navigation/agriculture, surveillance, to Earth environment monitoring, etc.), to more futuristic opportunities, such as space tourism or asteroid mining. Successful entrepreneurs from other sectors, from Richard Branson in the UK to Elon Musk in the US, have entered the "space" arena, taking risks and challenging the conservativism of the established "Old Space" business model.

Here is where we can identify a first challenge and learn a lesson from history, preventing space from becoming a lawless "wild west" where the strongest can take an unfair advantage. This should apply to Low Earth Orbit (LEO), where the current regulatory framework should be further developed and enforced to manage the increasing "space traffic" ( Cukurtepe and Akgun, 2009; Lal et al., 2018) (to prevent interferences or collisions between assets of different operators), as well as to Medium (MEO) or Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) and interplanetary exploration and exploitation. Indeed, new regulations should be implemented respecting established treaties and principles (e.g., "Outer Space Treaty" or the "Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects").

In areas where an appropriate regulatory framework is already in operation and largely followed by all the stakeholders, like the satellite telecommunication sector ( ITU, 2012), the challenge becomes to stay abreast with technology progress and market evolution ( Morozova and Vasyanin, 2019). Together with the challenge, there is an opportunity to develop new regulations that spur further technological progress.

The issue of the overcrowded radio-frequency spectrum, as well as the sustainability of the space environment which is threatened by the growing amount of space debris, have to be tackled. Solutions that are acceptable to the various stakeholders (from commercial organization to political entities) have to be found and, most importantly, implemented.

Activities in space cannot be contained within the boundary of a country's border and have the potential to affect assets or areas of the planet well-beyond the jurisdiction of a launching country or the nation where a satellite operator is registered. Therefore, the international regulatory framework should clearly prevail on national regulations and limit the capability of countries to use less stringent regulations as a means to attract foreign business. At the same time, some consideration also has to be given to how to enforce at an international level the agreed rules and regulations.

Indeed, the development of rules and regulations must be mitigated to avoid unnecessary red tape stifling new enterprises, and space law should preserve the freedom to generate new ideas and implement new applications. Hence the challenge lies in balancing these competing requirements: a regulatory framework which protects stakeholders, countries' interests, and current and future human rights on one side, with the freedom to develop and exploit new technologies on the other.

Technical Challenges

Propulsion Systems

Coming now to the more technical challenges, propulsion systems performance is a significant hurdle to overcome in the space sector ( Turner et al., 2009).

Starting with the launch vehicles, their capabilities (broadly speaking, payload size, and thrust) have essentially plateaued, as only relatively minor incremental progress has been made in the last decades. Indeed, materials have improved with the introduction of composites with mechanical properties far superior to the typical alloys that were used at the beginning of the space age. Design and manufacturing techniques have also improved, with progress in software simulation enabled by the extraordinary growth of computer power, or new manufacturing methods such as additive manufacturing. Guidance and control systems have also improved thanks to advances in electronics and software. However, besides the push toward green propellants ( Gohardani et al., 2014), nothing substantial has changed with the solid or liquid propellants performance and related technologies, which are key to overall launcher capability ( Devezas, 2018). Reusable launchers are being used by a few companies in order to reduce costs or increase launch frequencies, and it is undeniable that costs have slowly come down, although this is largely due to combinations of countries' policies and market forces, but truly economic access to space is yet to be achieved.

On a longer timescale, the challenge is to develop and implement technologies, such as hypersonic air breathing rocket engines, to be used in hybrid launchers to cut the need for large amounts of oxygen that have to be carried by current vehicles. Launch vehicles that could take off and land as aircraft, without the need for extensive and expensive service between missions, should also be developed. Similarly, in-space propulsion offers opportunities for improvement, in particular on Electric propulsion systems, which are also hybrid systems that would utilize different modes of operation ( Levchenko et al., 2020).

Propulsion systems performance are also fundamental to interplanetary missions in terms of enabling faster travel and larger payloads to be delivered where required. Our current limitations in the manned exploration of the solar system are mainly due to the length of travel, which is directly related to the level of performance that is available from existing propulsion systems. Similarly, propulsion systems performance limits our exploration and exploitation capabilities (also for robotic activities) as it is a significant limitation to the mass of payload that can be safely transported to/from other celestial bodies.

Protection of Humans

Strictly related to human exploration are space health and medicine ( Hodkinson et al., 2017), to enable humans to withstand the space environment for long periods, and the creation of artificial habitats in space and on other planets to support a reasonable quality of human life. The challenge here consists in the creation of a whole artificial environment to support people's well-being and physical and mental health, with means protecting against the negative effects of the space environment ( Grimm, 2019). Whether we are considering a man-made vessel for long distance space travel or a space platform for large-scale human inhabitation or a planetary colony, some challenges overlap. These overlapping challenges include the need to create efficient closed loop systems to replenish resources and minimize waste, with the common goal to generate an artificial ecosystem for the long-term support of human life .

Another aspect of our need to protect and preserve human life is the issue of planetary defense ( Simpson, 2015).

Near Earth Objects like asteroids or comets can pose a significant threat. Although smaller objects (such as meteors) hit our planet daily and mostly burn up whilst traveling though the atmosphere, some larger objects can survive and hit the Earth's surface with significant energy. Most of the craters produced by the larger objects that have hit Earth since its formation have been erased by the planets geological processes, but there are dozens of large craters still visible (a great example is the 1 kilometer wide Barringer Meteor Crater in Arizona, which was formed ~50,000 years ago by the impact of a metallic object ~50 m in diameter) that serve as reminders that these impacts can occur. Depending on the size of the object, which could be 100's of meters or kilometers in diameter, and the location of the impact, consequences could range from relatively minor damage, to a major catastrophe that could destroy life on vast regions of the planet, if not all life entirely. Fortunately, the probability of these events is very low, but their consequences are dramatic, hence appropriate mitigation strategies must be developed. All major space organizations (NASA, ESA, etc.) have given some attention to this issue ( Office of Audits, 2014) [ESA Asteroid Impact Mission (AIM) and NASA Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART)], and the United Nations have taken good steps to improve coordination, establishing the International Asteroid Warning Network and the Space Mission Planning Advisory Group (SMPAG). However, as this is a global threat, a greater level of international coordination and integration of the efforts made by single entities is necessary to produce an effective response. Should the threat of catastrophic impact from a large asteroid materialize, the world cannot afford a disorderly and fragmented response, such as that seen with past global crises (e.g., the Covid-19 pandemic). Time will be limited so the plans have to be prepared and agreed upon, ready to be executed in order to produce a timely response and perform the necessary mission.

From a technical perspective, besides the challenges to improve detection capabilities and potential impact predictions, the development and testing of methodologies and technologies to deflect a large object (as this currently seems the most realistic and effective method of intervention) have to progress to the point that it could be deployed with a high level of confidence in its success.

Earth Environment

Following the theme of the protection of the Earth, climate change is a significant threat to our environment with potentially disastrous consequences, and is an area where Satellite Technologies can help in tackling the challenge ( Brünner et al., 2018). On a global scale, satellites provide impartial information to monitor the environment and develop and validate models improving our predictive capabilities. But greater effort has to be placed in producing actionable information related to specific needs and issues, reducing the vast amount of data to simpler interpretations that can inform the political discourse.

Both institutional and private Earth Observation (EO) markets demand very high resolution and coverage, as well as a short revisit time, with the aim to achieve real time Earth Observation. From surveillance to disaster monitoring and management of resources, there are literally hundreds of applications, but still there is a relatively low market adoption. This becomes obvious if we compare satellite EO with satellite telecommunications, as in the latter sector there is an abundance of purely commercial organizations that operate (without institutional support) in a user-driven market, whereas the EO market is still most often enabled by institutional budgets. There is a clear trend toward a more commercial EO sector that is facilitated by smaller sized and cheaper satellites ( Rycroft and Crosby, 2013), and several companies offering cost effective solutions promising technically-acceptable performance at a price that the market can bear. However, there is very high competition in a market that still has too small a number of customers.

Low Cost Space Technologies

This democratization and marketization of space is evident in the growth of the cubsat market ( Davoli et al., 2019). Here, space HW is available at prices so low that it has attracted a growing number of customers (from Space Agencies to institutions like universities and schools), which in turn have enabled the creation of start-ups and spinoffs. However, the performance of these systems are very limited, and often the constraints come from their physical size (e.g., the size of the optics limits the resolution that can be achieved, or the size of the solar panels limits the amount of power that can be collected). This has led to the development of deployable structures to package relevant elements into small (cubesat compatible) volumes and then deploy them in space to achieve the required level of performance. Sometime these act as demonstrations for applications aimed at larger satellites, like drag sails ( Underwood et al., 2019).

There are other technical issues that affect all smaller mass satellites, not just cubesats, and present significant challenges, like the need to achieve high platform stability. This is crucial for all missions supporting highly accurately targeted optical payloads (e.g., high-resolution cameras/telescopes or laser communication systems) or devices that demand stability for inertial types of measurements. The issue lies with the minimization of the micro-vibrations that are produced by essential on-board equipment ( Remedia et al., 2015), and that can, for example, produce unacceptable oscillations of the line of sight. This issue is more severe for smaller craft as there is less mass (inertia), which naturally reduces the vibration level. Ground testing and modeling to predict in-orbit performance are still inaccurate and practical applications rely on the use of large margins rather than accurate models. Active control of micro-vibrations is still very difficult and too expensive to be implemented, in particular at the lower end of the market, where most growth is expected.

In terms of their overall performance, cubesat capabilities are often oversold to an inexperienced public, and there is a general need for higher quality products with the involved hardware that still maintain affordability.

Large Space Structures

At the other end of the spectrum, with respect to cubesats, in terms of size, are Large Space Structures (LSS). These have been considered and studied for decades, but real progress has been slow.

The capability to deploy LSS is another factor that, similarly to advances in propulsion, would enable a range of applications, but they present a series of significant challenges which depend on the specific areas.

On the one hand there are instruments like telescopes, cameras, and antennas that require large (>10 m and possibly an order of magnitude larger) high-precision reflective surfaces. Here the current methodologies (e.g., based on the deployment of precisely machined and polished mirrors whose positions and shape can be adjusted by a series of actuators) are limited by the size and number of segments that can be deployed [e.g., James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)], and the overall staggering cost. Concerning the antennas, a variety of deployable solutions have been proposed, from inflatables to tensegrity structures, but Europe still needs to develop an appropriate commercial solution for current and future applications. Overall, new lighter-weight technologies have to be deployed, to increase packaging efficiency without compromising the quality of the final reflector.

On the other hand, there are future applications like Satellite Solar Power where the sheer size of the structure (square kilometers) is the challenge, rather than the geometrical precision that must be achieved by the assembled structure. Extreme light weight and packaging efficiency have to be achieved, as well as in-orbit deployment and assembly capabilities that are beyond the state of the art.

In-Orbit Servicing and Active Debris Removal

This brings us to the opportunities offered by robotic in-orbit servicing and the development of flexible technologies that can support multipurpose missions. These opportunities include the servicing and potential repairing of current satellites, to active debris removal. These are not new concepts, as in 1984 the Space Shuttle Discovery mission STS-51-A, brought back to Earth two old satellites no longer functioning (probably the first example of Active Debris Removal), and similarly the mission of the shuttle Endeavor in 1993 (and other following missions) provided essential fixes and services to the Hubble Space Telescope. However, the opportunity here is to develop robotic technologies ( Wilde et al., 2019) able to perform these type of missions ( Forshaw et al., 2016) at a fraction of the cost. The non-cooperative nature of the target, which could be tumbling, presents the first challenge to any approaching vehicle that has to rendezvous with this object. Techniques to stabilize the target and devices to safely grasp it have to be developed (and standardized) as well as improvements made in the relative navigation (vision-based navigation), hardware, and software. Some progress has been made and some devices tested in-orbit ( Aglietti et al., 2020), but we are still far from a real capability to perform Active Debris Removal or in-orbit servicing with sufficient confidence and at an affordable price.

This article has described some of the challenges that the space sector is facing, but there are more, and these come with opportunities for new developments (for example, those offered by multifunctional space structures ( Sairajan et al., 2016), or technologies like optical and quantum intersatellite communication Liao et al., 2017). The solutions to the various issues, which in time will be developed, will provide stepping stones for future applications and enterprises that will benefit societies across the world.

Author Contributions

The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Footnotes

References

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Current Challenges and Opportunities for Space Technologies

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Since the beginning of the space age, with the launch of Sputnik in 1957, the progress of Space Technologies has, on the one hand, led to the development of hundreds of applications [1] that use satellite data, including devices for everyday use, from satellite television to the Satnav in our cars, on the other, it has underpinned scientific progress in Earth and Atmospheric Sciences as well as in Astronomy & Astrophysics.

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Global democracy has receded under pressure from authoritarian forces over the past 17 years, according to Freedom in the World. To help turn the tide, democratic governments and the private sector should cultivate opportunities for progress, hold dictators to account for corruption and rights abuses, and strengthen democratic institutions at home.

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Why Don't We Shoot Nuclear Waste Into Space?

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Why Don't We Shoot Nuclear Waste Into Space?

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Why Don't We Shoot Nuclear Waste Into Space?

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Hunger is a problem that most often affects low-income families, because living in poverty means that people are often going without basic needs such as food, clothing, and adequate shelter.

In order for a child to have a chance at a bright future, they need to eat healthy meals every day. When they're hungry, children are more likely to be hospitalized, and they face a higher risk of health conditions because they have weakened immune systems. A brain starved of vital nutrients is one that can't concentrate, setting hungry kids up for failure in school.

Without enough food or proper nutrition, kids face a variety of setbacks that can derail their path out of poverty.

Even if they are consuming an adequate volume of food, children may not be receiving enough of the vitamins and minerals they need to grow up healthy, and are therefore malnourished. Without enough food or proper nutrition, kids face a variety of setbacks that can derail their path out of poverty.

Global child hunger facts

- Every year, 3.1 million children (8,500 children per day) die due to poor nutrition

- Today, there are 815 million people in the world who do not have enough to eat

- Approximately 28% of all children in developing countries are considered to be underweight, or have had their growth stunted as a result of malnutrition

- Worldwide, malnutrition contributes to almost half of the deaths of kids under the age of 5, claiming the lives of over 3 million children per year

National child hunger facts

- In America, 1 in 6 children don't know where they will get their next meal from

- Nearly 13 million kids in the U.S. face hunger

- 5 out of 6 kids who rely on free or reduced-price school meals aren't getting free meals in the summer

- For every 100 school lunch programs, there are only 87 breakfast sites, and just 36 summer food programs

What Children Incorporated does to alleviate hunger for children

Children Incorporated provides basic necessities such as food, clothing, healthcare, and educational support to children living in poverty in the United States and abroad through our child sponsorship program. These essentials are vital to a child's growth and success in school. We also assist feeding programs in the United States and internationally that ensure that children are receiving meals during the week, and that they are provided with food to take home on the weekends. Additionally, we make contributions toward school gardens so that children living in poverty have the opportunity to obtain fresh, nutritious food, which they would likely otherwise go without.

How you can help

You can help a child who faces hunger in a few different ways. One way is by sponsoring a child with us. For $30 a month, you provide basic needs, including food, for a child in need, while also making an investment in their future.

You can also help children in need by donating to either our U.S. Feeding Programs Fund or our International Feeding Programs Fund. Donations supporting our U.S. Feeding Programs Fund support such endeavors such as our Backpack Feeding Program, which gives children in Eastern Kentucky food to take home on the weekends and in the summer when school is out. The purpose of our International Feeding Programs Fund is to feed enrolled children who would otherwise go hungry, so that they can be alert at school and ready to learn. This fund supports programs in the Philippines, Kenya, and Ethiopia to buy grains, meats, vegetables, and cooking supplies to feed children.

References:
http://www.thp.org/knowledge-center/know-your-world-facts-about-hunger-poverty/ http://www.feedingamerica.org/hunger-in-america/child-hunger-facts.html https://www.wfp.org/node/646670 http://www1.wfp.org/zero-hunger https://www.nokidhungry.org/who-we-are/hunger-facts https://www.dosomething.org/facts/11-facts-about-hunger-us
***

HOW DO I SPONSOR A CHILD with Children Incorporated?

You can sponsor a child with Children Incorporated in one of three ways: call our office at 1-800-538-5381 and speak with one of our staff members; email us at sponsorship@children-inc.org; or go online to our donation portal, create an account, and search for a child that is available for sponsorship.

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Facts About Child Hunger and Poverty - Children Incorporated

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Hunger is a problem that most often affects low-income families, because living in poverty means that people are often going without basic needs such as food, clothing, and adequate shelter. In order for a child to have a chance at a bright future, they need to eat healthy meals every day.

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Our population is expected to grow to over 9 billion by 2050, yet the ability of our environment to provide space, food, and energy are limited. Explore population growth from 1 CE to 2050, see how our numbers impact the environment, and learn about the key advances and events allowing our numbers to grow.

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Addressing Africa's extreme water insecurity

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Leo Holtz and Chris Heitzig summarize a World Resources Institute report on Africa's water sector.

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Human rights are much better protected than they were one or two hundred years ago.

In the late 18th century, human rights were poorly protected. In many countries, people's physical integrity and private and political civil liberties were not respected by their governments. The chart shows - based on data from Varieties of Democracy - that countries received an average score of only 0.3, on a scale from 0 to 1 (most rights).

Importantly, this early data does not include many countries that were colonies before 1900. There, human rights were likely protected even less.

During the 19th century, the protection of human rights slowly improved. But in the first half of the 20th century, some of this progress was undone, particularly during the World Wars.

The protection of human rights then improved massively in the second half of the 20th century. However, this progress has not been linear: there have been setbacks in the 1970s and recent years.

Despite these setbacks, human rights remain much more protected than only half a century ago.

The changes over time look broadly similar if we instead look at the extent to which people's human rights are protected by weighing a country's human rights score by its population.¹

There are large differences across countries in the extent to which human rights are protected.

The chart shows the distribution of the latest human rights scores - using data from the Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) project - across the world. Countries with high scores have well-protected human rights. This especially includes countries in Europe and the Americas. But there are some countries across all regions that protect their inhabitants' human rights well.

In countries where human rights are not protected, political violence lingers, people's rights to their property can be tenuous, and their ability to move around the country and abroad, practice their religion, and voice their opinions and organize are limited or outright oppressed. These countries are concentrated in Africa and Asia.

While large differences between countries remain, many now protect human rights well, and almost all protect human rights much more than they did in the past.

Women's rights are much better protected than they were even 50 years ago.

In the late 18th century, women's rights were poorly protected. In most countries, women did not enjoy civil liberties, could not participate in civil society, and were not represented in politics. The chart shows that the global average score for women's political empowerment - based on data from Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) - was just 0.12 on the scale from 0 to 1 (with 1 being the highest).

The protection of women's rights did not change much over the 19th century. It became slightly easier for women to access the justice system, and they could discuss political issues more freely, but strong limits on their civil rights and participation in society and politics remained.³

These rights became much better protected in the 20th century, especially in the second half. Women became freer to move around their countries and abroad and to participate in civil society. They gained the right to vote and seats in parliament in almost all countries, as well as access to senior government offices, up to the chief executive level.

These rights became much better protected in the 20th century, especially in the second half. Women became freer to move around their countries and abroad and to participate in civil society. They gained the right to vote and seats in parliament in almost all countries, as well as access to senior government offices, up to the chief executive level.

This looks similar if we consider the extent to which women's rights are protected by weighing a country's score by its population.¹

But this progress has been uneven and limited. There are large differences in the protection of women's rights across countries.

Even in countries that score highly on this index, women's rights are not protected to the same extent as the rights of men: women are more frequently subjected to sexual violence, receive less pay for the same work, and remain underrepresented in parliaments, ministries, and among chief executives.

The rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and other people outside traditional sexuality and gender categories have become better protected in some countries.

In the early 1990s, few LGBT+ rights were protected. The chart shows - based on data from researcher Kristopher Velasco - that there were very few countries that protected core LGBT+ rights beyond the right to engage in same-sex sexual acts. There were no countries where same-sex partners could marry or adopt. None where a third gender was recognized, and only two where the gender marker could be legally changed with ease.

Over the last few decades, LGBT+ rights have become more protected in many countries. Same-sex sexual acts are now legal in most countries, and same-sex marriage and adoption, third-gender recognition, and gender marker changes are slowly expanding across countries.

Yet, most countries still fail to acknowledge these core rights. Some have even recently implemented policies actively restricting rights, such as explicitly banning same-sex marriages. Even in countries that legally protect these rights, LGBT+ people are still discriminated against in their daily lives, such as by disproportionately being subject to violence or struggling to access adequate healthcare.

The trends and differences between countries look similar if we look at the most recent data for 2023 from Equaldex on same-sex sexual acts, marriage, and gender marker changes.

Bastian Herre, Pablo Arriagada and Max Roser (2016) - "Human Rights" Published online at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from: 'https://ourworldindata.org/human-rights' [Online Resource]

BibTeX citation

@article{owid-human-rights, author = {Bastian Herre and Pablo Arriagada and Max Roser}, title = {Human Rights}, journal = {Our World in Data}, year = {2016}, note = {https://ourworldindata.org/human-rights} }

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How has the protection of human rights changed over time? How does it differ across countries, and between social groups? Explore global data on human rights.

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Artificial intelligence is a hot topic for businesses. AI capabilities are expanding the possibilities for how businesses approach real-time engagement with their customers, manage their operations and ensure business continuity through the pandemic. As the technology advances, companies are finding new ways to innovate and expand. Here are some artificial intelligence statistics to help you understand AI usage in 2023.

The State of AI in Business

Everyone loves to talk about AI and the potential for business growth and enhancement-but what's the general outlook for business use?

35% of companies are using AI and 42% of companies are exploring AI for its implementation in the future, according to a TechJury article

91.5% of leading businesses invest in AI on an ongoing basis

Gartner also tells us that customer satisfaction is expected to grow by 25% by 2023 in organization that use AI

IT analyst firm, Info-Tech Research Group reports that 44% of private sector companies plan to invest in AI systems in 2023

Overall, there is a widespread adoption of AI in business, but most companies aren't using it for world domination, but rather to automate processes, enhance customer service and personalization, increase output, and analyze data. Overall, businesses are trying to obtain a competitive advantage.
Learn common AI terminology.

AI Priorities and Plans

McKinsey reports the following risks and urges companies to prioritize the following when it comes to AI:

Voice Search and Artificial Intelligence Stats

With the prevalence of technologies such as Amazon's Alexa and Apple's Siri, (most frequently used on smartphones) picking up speed, voice search has certainly taken its place in the emerging tech space. According to Tech Jury:

97% of mobile users are using AI-powered voice assistants

More than 4 billion devices already work on AI-powered voice assistants

40% of people use the voice search function at least once every day

Machine Learning and AI Stats

Taking part in machine learning, AI and big data is at the top of the priority list for many organizations. According to a Verta, Inc. survey:

63% of companies surveyed plan to increase or maintain AI and machine learning spending in 2023

When asked to cite the top three drivers behind these budget changes, leading factors included changes in business strategy, cloud migration and modernization, and cost pressures and inflation

The entertainment giant Netflix is also known for its use of machine learning and AI software in content recommendations, which the company reports as saving $1 billion per year.

Impact of AI on Jobs and Employment Market

Many have expressed concern for their job status with the impending growth of AI and machine learning. Semrush revealed that:

38% of employees expect their job to be automated by 2023.

13% expect AI to eliminate positions entirely in their industry.

Despite the negative perceptions:

AI technology is expected to create 12 million more jobs than it is expected to replace

Jobs are anticipated to be in high demand with 97 million specialists needed in the AI industry by 2025

One O'Reilly report broke down usage by industry. They show the following:

Technology: 17%

Financial Services: 15%

Healthcare: 9%

Education: 8%

Government/Public Sector: 6%

Telecomm: 5%

Manufacturing 4%

Retail: 4%

Media: 3%

Energy: 3%

Defense/Security: 3%

Stats About AI in the Retail Industry

Currently, the retail market is embracing the use of AI due to its ability to hyperpersonalize and make recommendations based on product selection.

AI spend in the retail industry is expected to reach $20.05 billion by 2026, a compounded annual growth rate of 39% since 2019.

80% of retail executives expect their companies to adopt AI-powered intelligent automation by 2027.

Juniper Research reports a growth of 230% in machine learning spending between 2019 and 2023.

Chatbots and Artificial Intelligence Facts and Figures

Many companies are embracing AI to support their customer service, most notably when it comes to customer interactions via chatbot. BloggingWizard compiled the following chatbot statistics:

According to Salesforce, 23% of customer service companies are currently using AI

IBM reports that using chatbots can reduce customer service costs by as much as 30%

68% of users enjoy the speed at which chatbots answer, according to UserLike

Despite these gains, chatbots don't come without challenges:

60% of people still prefer to speak to a live customer service representative, according to UserLike

60% of people are also concerned that chatbots cannot accurately understand their queries, according to Business Insider

AI Market Statistics

The AI market is experiencing robust growth.

Precedence Research reports a global market size of $119.78 billion in 2022.

The market is expected to hit $1,597.1 billion by 2030 with a registered CAGR of 38.1% from 2022 to 2030

AI market share in the United States is expected to value $190.61 billion by 2025

Artificial Intelligence Growth

The numbers don't lie. The market size of AI is gaining momentum.

Obstacles to AI Adoption

Despite the snowballing adoption rates of artificial intelligence and advancements in AI technology, there are some barriers that are preventing organizations from implementing AI. CompTIA has identified the top obstacles to AI adoption as being

Lack of skilled individuals and hiring shortages

Unclear ROI metrics

Complexity of AI systems

Lack of governance

Fear of job replacement

Benefits of AI Adoption

Adopting AI can have positive benefits for business, including (but not limited to):

Reduced operational time

Greater business insight

Reduced human error

Automation of rote tasks

Enhanced productivity

Better customer service

Virtual Assistants

Disruptions in the workplace have given virtual assistants a boost as workers find more efficient ways to work in a decentralized environment.

AI in Customer Service

AI certainly has been beneficial in the customer service realm. Semrush reports the following AI statistics:

80% of marketers already had chatbots as part of their customer experience strategy

40% of businesses say that customer experience is their top motivator for using artificial intelligence

85% of customer service interactions were responded to by chatbots

AI in Marketing

There are so many use cases for applying AI when it comes to marketing. Semrush reports that marketing and sales prioritize AI and machine learning more than any other department.

48% of marketing leaders cite AI as making the most significant different in how customers interact with them

51% of e-commerce companies use AI to provide a seamless experience

64% of B2B marketers consider AI to be valuable in their marketing strategy

FAQs

There are some questions about AI and machine learning that pop up frequently. Here are a few FAQs about AI that your customers may ask:

What is AI capable of?

Will AI replace my job?

How is AI being used today?

What should we worry about when it comes to AI?

Is AI safe?

How does AI impact cybersecurity?

What is the difference between AI, machine learning and deep learning?

What Are the Three Types of AI?

There are three types of artificial intelligence:

Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI): The only form of AI on the market now. ANI can solve for a single problem and perform one task to satisfaction, such as suggesting a related product for a shopper.

Artificial General Intelligence (AGI): A form of artificial intelligence that mimics how a human reasons, still only a theoretical concept to-date.

Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI): Also only conceptual in nature, ASI is the stuff of movies involving highly complex and logical artificial intelligence which is capable to reasoning beyond human capabilities and which has the ability to build emotional relationships.

Where is AI Used Today?

AI is being used around the world, with the US taking a significant lead. The O'Reilly report shows usage by country, in descending order.

What is the Future of AI?

AI continues to advance. Companies such as IBM and Google are paving the way for the future of AI. IBM has recently made headway by enhancing natural language processing to enhance their AI platform, Watson. IBM also is anticipating fluid intelligence, a more complex use of AI that will allow technology to combine different forms of knowledge to solve more complex problems. In November 2022, OpenAI launched ChatGPT. ChatGPT is built on top of OpenAI's GPT-3 family of large language models, and is fine-tuned with both supervised and reinforcement learning techniques.

Who Has the Most Advanced AI?

According to Scoop, the most advanced AI system in the world was installed in New Zealand in April of 2021 at the University of Waikato. The installation follows a pledge by the country to become a world leader in AI research and development. This AI system can quickly and efficiently process huge amount of data which allows AI and machine learning intelligence to solve complex problems.

Want even more interesting IT and AI statistics and facts?
Check out CompTIA Quick Stats, a library of data from CompTIA's research team to use in presentations, strategic documents and market research.

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30+ Artificial Intelligence Statistics and Facts for 2023

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Artificial intelligence is a hot topic for businesses. AI capabilities are expanding the possibilities for how businesses approach real-time engagement with their customers, manage their operations and ensure business continuity through the pandemic. As the technology advances, companies are finding new ways to innovate and expand.

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Gender inequality in the workplace: the fight against bias

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Gender inequality in the workplace: the fight against bias

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The Equal Pay Day, a symbolic event created to highlight wage inequity, fell on March 24 this year. This day shows how far into the year - 83 more days in 2021 - women need to work just to be able to earn the same that men earned in the previous year.

Gender inequality in the workplace isn't limited to unequal wages, either. Women, especially black women, LGBTQ+ women, and women of color, continue to face barriers to move into leadership positions and are likely to face microaggressions - offensive statements or insensitive questions - related to race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual identity.

Leaders need to close gender gaps in career advancement and eliminate workplace discrimination. There are concrete ways to achieve this ideal - transparent salaries, flexible work options, training opportunities for women, and a focus on well-being and mental health. Employees, too, can play a part in ensuring gender equity on all fronts by becoming allies, speaking up against instances of discrimination, and giving honest feedback to leaders.

Before we lay down some tactics to combat gender inequality, let's take a look at how and when the first steps were taken.

The fight against gender discrimination started in the 19th century

In 1872, Belva Ann Lockwood, an attorney, persuaded the U.S. Congress to pass a law guaranteeing equal pay for women employed as federal employees. Nearly a century later, the Equal Pay Act was passed in 1963, making it law to pay equal wages to men and women in all workplaces. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 granted equal rights to women in all areas of employment and was amended in 1991 to allow women to sue employers for sexual harassment.

Despite the federal law against gender inequality and discrimination, it creeps into workplaces in insidious ways. While some progress has been made, gender inequality continues to persist even today.

Gender inequality in the workplace: What does it look like today?

Gender inequality in the workplace takes many forms - unequal pay, disparity in promotions, incidents of sexual harassment, and racism. Often, it presents itself in more nuanced ways, like fewer opportunities for women who are mothers and a higher incidence of burnout in women.

Unequal pay

Equal pay for men and women is still not a reality. In 2020, women earned 84% of what men earned for the same job, and Black and Latina women earned even less. This gender pay gap has persisted over the past years, shrinking by just 8 cents in 25 years. There are multiple reasons to blame, including "sticky floors" that result from traditional social norms that keep women from choosing higher-paying roles and male-dominated industries, unequal access to education, and discrimination.

In addition, women, especially those living intersectional realities like transgender and immigrant women, grapple with a fear of negotiating pay and being penalized if they do. One recent study questioned this idea and found that women ask for pay raises just as often as men, but they get it only 15% of the time as compared to 20% when men ask.

Barriers to Promotion

There is a " broken rung" at the manager level: "For every 100 men promoted to manager, only 86 women are promoted." This problem is compounded at higher levels of leadership: fewer women managers means there are fewer candidates to promote to heads of department, directors, and C-suite positions, too. You can see this lack of representation clear as day: 62% of C-suite positions are held by white men, compared with 20% taken up by white women (greater than the 13% occupied by men of color) and a mere 4% by women of color.

Plus, managers frequently identify candidates for employment opportunities by relying on their personal networks for recommendations, which usually consists of "people like them" (same gender, race, identity). This further perpetuates the imbalance in representation.

Bias against mothers

Mothers, and women of child-bearing age, are less likely to receive a callback from hiring managers, even when their résumés are identical to the résumés of male applicants or childless women. This points to gender biases rooted in the "work/family narrative," which views women through the caregiver/mother lens. The (erroneous) conclusion is that their devotion to family and childcare makes them less committed and unable to put in long hours like their male counterparts, especially at high-level jobs.

The pandemic's "gender effect" dealt a further blow, driving nearly 2 million women, especially mothers with young children, to consider downshifting their careers or leaving the workforce.

Higher burnout in women

Research shows that more women than men, especially in higher-up positions, are burned out and dealing with constant stress in the work environment. The pandemic nearly doubled the burnout gap between men and women. This makes women more prone to accepting "accommodations" like part-time work or internal roles that further derail their careers and contribute to gender inequality.

Incidents of sexual harassment

Thirty-five percent of women in the U.S. experience sexual harassment at some point during their careers: a sign that sexism is overlooked in the workplace. Sexual harassment could also be a direct side effect of disparity in pay and promotions.

Following the #MeToo movement that started in October 2017, incidents of sexual coercion and unwanted sexual attention declined. But there has been a sharp increase in hostility towards women - a survey uncovered that gender harassment (sexist remarks and inappropriate stories from male colleagues) spiked to 92% in 2018, from 76% in 2016.

Experiences in racism

Compared to white women, women of color and women with marginalized identities face a higher rate of disrespectful and "othering" microaggressions like being questioned or interrupted. Women of color also do not have active allies at work. White employees think of themselves as allies to women of color, but less than half actually take even basic actions like calling out bias or rallying for new opportunities for women of color. Often, this is because white "allies" and women of color have very different ideas of what's helpful.

Steps managers can take to eliminate gender inequality in organizations

According to the Global Gender Gap Report 2020, none of us will see gender equality during our lifetimes. Before the pandemic, the report estimated it would take us 99.5 years to achieve gender parity. The Covid-19 pandemic set us back by a whole generation - the 2021 report states that the gender gap will not close for 135.6 years because it impacted women (especially mothers, black women, and senior women) harder than men.

However, these predictions are based on the current state of gender inequality. We can start making a meaningful impact now to bridge the gap:

1. Educate employees on unconscious gender bias

Everyone can have unconscious biases and prejudices about people or groups. Offer implicit bias training through the Implicit Association Test (IAT) to managers to make them aware of these hidden biases towards minorities so that they can actively avoid discriminatory behavior and make more informed decisions to promote gender equality.

2. Appoint diverse interviewers and implement longer shortlists to hire more women in top positions

Research shows that an extended shortlist of candidates for open positions creates more gender diversity because it pushes managers to think beyond the gender stereotypes associated with a role. Train Human Resources managers on how to make these types of longer shortlists when hiring, especially for male-dominated roles, so that more women get recruited in top positions.

Take steps to ensure interviewer diversity when reviewing résumés and conducting interviews. Research shows that women are more attracted to roles when they see that the interviewer is a woman.

3. Conduct an audit and make salaries transparent

Conduct a company-wide audit to ensure that men and women in the same roles get paid equally. Use the findings to adjust salaries and close any gender wage gaps. In 2013, Buffer adopted complete transparency and disclosed all salaries. As a result, their job applications rose from 1,263 in the 30 days before the announcement to 2,886 in the next month, expanding the talent pool.

4. Give employees the flexibility to work when and where works for them

The pandemic has proven that remote work is equally, if not more, productive. Provide flexibility in when and where employees can work. For women, this flexibility in work hours can prove to be a "critical enabler" of retention in the workforce because it allows them to maintain a work-life balance. However, if your organization follows a hybrid model, beware of falling prey to presenteeism, where men who choose to go to an office may be more 'visible' at work and therefore disproportionately rewarded.

5. Provide development opportunities to enable women to transition to higher-skilled roles

Provide women with opportunities to learn new skills and become more tech-savvy. Between 40 million and 160 million women globally are estimated to transition to higher-skilled jobs by 2030, which could lead them to more productive and better-paying work. Prioritizing women's advancement has many benefits for organizations, too, including high revenue growth, more innovation, and increased customer satisfaction.

6. Empower women through coaching sessions

Women are disproportionately affected by Covid-19, and coaching empowers them to stay and advance in the workforce. But there is a gender gap in access to coaching, too. Provide women with regular coaching sessions so they can build skills and develop the mindsets they need to thrive, especially in leadership roles. BetterUp Labs coached 440 women across different organizations and found that the coaching sessions helped women achieve giant strides in self-awareness, inclusive leadership, and overall employee experience.

7. Provide resources to improve well-being and mental health

At any given time, 55% of the workforce is languishing. Make mental fitness part of the company culture by modeling empathy and training managers to be more empathetic. Offer personalized support to meet women where they are at and help them grow in their careers.

8. Establish mentor-mentee relationships

Give employees scheduled time to participate in mentoring programs. Mentoring programs benefit the mentor as much as the mentee, according to a recent study. Provide opportunities for women to take up mentoring positions because it helps them see themselves as leaders and role models. There's another benefit when women mentor men - it helps to eliminate gender bias.

9. Offer at least 4 months for paid parental leave

Paid time off to nurture a new child has immense health and career benefits. Establish generous policies for maternity leave, with a minimum of four months. Provide separate parental leave for fathers, like Sweden and Iceland, to encourage men to take time off and share in household responsibilities as well as let women back into the workforce.

Steps employees can take to combat gender inequality

Employees, too, can play an active role in advancing gender equality in their workplaces. Individuals who are proactive at work help in creating a better future and prevent the recurrence of existing problems.

1. Participate in DEIB initiatives at your organization

DEIB initiatives benefit everyone in the workplace. When you participate in DEIB initiatives, you can bring your own experience and use it to promote change. Even if you are not part of an underrepresented group, using your voice to help others who may be facing barriers helps you grow too.

2. Call out instances of gender discrimination or biases

Just like the #MeToo movement started with one instance of speaking out against sexual harassment, taking a stand even if you are alone can bring about lasting change and empower others to speak up.

3. Join or build a women's Employee Resource Group

ERG groups help develop internal leaders, educate employees, and have a positive impact on retention. Join or create an ERG to help build psychologically safe spaces for women, women with disabilities, women of color, and LGBTQ+ women.

4. Become a mentor to women and women of color

Your lived experiences are far more valuable and truthful than any other resources provided to other women in the workforce. Use them to share lessons while mentoring women.

5. Provide honest feedback to leaders on their gender inequality initiatives

Employee feedback on initiatives around advancing gender equality can be a driver of change. Be honest with your employers about what's working and what's not.

We won't achieve true gender equality until it is intersectional

"All inequality is not created equal," Kimberlé Crenshaw said, pointing to the fact that varied and overlapping identities compound experiences of discrimination. Some women experience discrimination based on their gender, while other women may face, in addition to gender, inequalities arising from race, ability, sexual orientation, caste, and class. Even Equal Pay Day is not equal for all women: white women may have had to work until March 24, 2021, to make as much as their male counterparts did in 2020, but Black women would have to work until August 3, 2021, to earn what men did in 2020, and Latina women, until October 21, 2021.

Until workplaces acknowledge these complex layers and make systemic changes, gender equality will remain a distant dream. Learn how BetterUp can help your organization support women and underrepresented groups and help change behavior and culture across the organization.

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Gender Inequality in the Workplace: The Fight Against Bias

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Gender inequality in the workplace is fueled by many factors. This article provides tips to avoid gender inequality for both employees and managers.

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For over 50 years, but especially since the end of the cold war, the United States and the Russian Federation (formerly the Soviet Union) have engaged in a series of bilateral arms control measures that have drastically reduced their strategic nuclear arsenals from a peak of around 60,000. The most recent of those measures, the New START Treaty, limits the number of deployed strategic nuclear weapons to 1,550 per State. New START is scheduled to expire on 5 February 2021; should it expire without a successor or not be extended, it will be the first time that the strategic arsenals of the United States and the Russian Federation have not been constrained since the 1970s.*
* The New START Treaty entered into effect on 5 February 2011 for a period of 10 years. It can be extended for up to five years, unless it is replaced earlier by another agreement.
Source: Federation of American Scientists
Acronyms: SALT I=Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty; INF=Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty; START=Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty; SORT=Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty; New START=Treaty on Measures for the Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms.

Nuclear weapons are the most dangerous weapons on earth. One can destroy a whole city, potentially killing millions, and jeopardizing the natural environment and lives of future generations through its long-term catastrophic effects. The dangers from such weapons arise from their very existence. Although nuclear weapons have only been used twice in warfare-in the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945-about 13,400 reportedly remain in our world today and there have been over 2,000 nuclear tests conducted to date. Disarmament is the best protection against such dangers, but achieving this goal has been a tremendously difficult challenge.

Regional Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones (NWFZ) have been established to strengthen global nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament norms and consolidate international efforts towards peace and security.

The United Nations has sought to eliminate such weapons ever since its establishment. The first resolution adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1946 established a Commission to deal with problems related to the discovery of atomic energy among others. The Commission was to make proposals for, inter alia, the control of atomic energy to the extent necessary to ensure its use only for peaceful purposes. The resolution also decided that the Commission should make proposals for "the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction."

A number of multilateral treaties have since been established with the aim of preventing nuclear proliferation and testing, while promoting progress in nuclear disarmament. These include the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), the Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests In The Atmosphere, In Outer Space And Under Water, also known as the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT), the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), which was signed in 1996 but has yet to enter into force, and the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW) , which will enter into force on 22 January 2021.

A number of bilateral and plurilateral treaties and arrangements seek to reduce or eliminate certain categories of nuclear weapons, to prevent the proliferation of such weapons and their delivery vehicles. These range from several treaties between the United States of America and Russian Federation as well as various other initiatives, to the Nuclear Suppliers Group, the Missile Technology Control Regime, the Hague Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation, and the Wassenaar Arrangement.

The United Nations Secretariat supports efforts aimed at the non-proliferation and total elimination of nuclear weapons. " Securing Our Common Future: An Agenda for Disarmament" considers nuclear weapons in the framework of "disarmament to save humanity." In the agenda, the Secretary-General calls for resuming dialogue and negotiations for nuclear arms control and disarmament. He also supports extending the norms against nuclear weapons, and in that regard appeals to States that possess nuclear weapons to affirm that a nuclear war cannot be won and must never be fought. Finally, the agenda proposes preparing for a world free of nuclear weapons through a number of risk -reduction measures, including transparency in nuclear-weapon programmes, further reductions in all types of nuclear weapons, commitments not to introduce new and destabilizing types of nuclear weapons, including cruise missiles, reciprocal commitments for the non-use of nuclear weapons and reduction of the role of nuclear weapons in security doctrines. To further the agenda, concrete actions are proposed.

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Nuclear weapons are the most dangerous weapons on earth. One can destroy a whole city, potentially killing millions, and jeopardizing the natural environment and lives of future generations through its long-term catastrophic effects. The dangers from such weapons arise from their very existence.

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https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/climate-change-evidence-causes/basics-of-climate-change/

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Greenhouse gases affect Earth's energy balance and climate

The Sun serves as the primary energy source for Earth's climate. Some of the incoming sunlight is reflected directly back into space, especially by bright surfaces such as ice and clouds, and the rest is absorbed by the surface and the atmosphere. Much of this absorbed solar energy is re-emitted as heat (longwave or infrared radiation). The atmosphere in turn absorbs and re-radiates heat, some of which escapes to space. Any disturbance to this balance of incoming and outgoing energy will affect the climate. For example, small changes in the output of energy from the Sun will affect this balance directly.

If all heat energy emitted from the surface passed through the atmosphere directly into space, Earth's average surface temperature would be tens of degrees colder than today. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, including water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, act to make the surface much warmer than this because they absorb and emit heat energy in all directions (including downwards), keeping Earth's surface and lower atmosphere warm [Figure B1]. Without this greenhouse effect, life as we know it could not have evolved on our planet. Adding more greenhouse gases to the atmosphere makes it even more effective at preventing heat from escaping into space. When the energy leaving is less than the energy entering, Earth warms until a new balance is established.

Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities alter Earth's energy balance and thus its climate. Humans also affect climate by changing the nature of the land surfaces (for example by clearing forests for farming) and through the emission of pollutants that affect the amount and type of particles in the atmosphere.

Scientists have determined that, when all human and natural factors are considered, Earth's climate balance has been altered towards warming, with the biggest contributor being increases in CO ₂.

Human activities have added greenhouse gases to the atmosphere

The atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have increased significantly since the Industrial Revolution began. In the case of carbon dioxide, the average concentration measured at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii has risen from 316 parts per million (ppm) in 1959 (the first full year of data available) to more than 411 ppm in 2019 [Figure B2]. The same rates of increase have since been recorded at numerous other stations worldwide. Since preindustrial times, the atmospheric concentration of CO ₂ has increased by over 40%, methane has increased by more than 150%, and nitrous oxide has increased by roughly 20%. More than half of the increase in CO ₂ has occurred since 1970. Increases in all three gases contribute to warming of Earth, with the increase in CO ₂ playing the largest role. See page B3 to learn about the sources of human emitted greenhouse gases. Learn about the sources of human emitted greenhouse gases.

Scientists have examined greenhouse gases in the context of the past. Analysis of air trapped inside ice that has been accumulating over time in Antarctica shows that the CO ₂ concentration began to increase significantly in the 19th century [Figure B3], after staying in the range of 260 to 280 ppm for the previous 10,000 years. Ice core records extending back 800,000 years show that during that time, CO ₂ concentrations remained within the range of 170 to 300 ppm throughout many "ice age" cycles - learn about the ice ages - and no concentration above 300 ppm is seen in ice core records until the past 200 years.

Measurements of the forms (isotopes) of carbon in the modern atmosphere show a clear fingerprint of the addition of "old" carbon (depleted in natural radioactive ¹⁴C) coming from the combustion of fossil fuels (as opposed to "newer" carbon coming from living systems). In addition, it is known that human activities (excluding land use changes) currently emit an estimated 10 billion tonnes of carbon each year, mostly by burning fossil fuels, which is more than enough to explain the observed increase in concentration. These and other lines of evidence point conclusively to the fact that the elevated CO ₂ concentration in our atmosphere is the result of human activities.

Climate records show a warming trend

Estimating global average surface air temperature increase requires careful analysis of millions of measurements from around the world, including from land stations, ships, and satellites. Despite the many complications of synthesising such data, multiple independent teams have concluded separately and unanimously that global average surface air temperature has risen by about 1 °C (1.8 °F) since 1900 [Figure B4]. Although the record shows several pauses and accelerations in the increasing trend, each of the last four decades has been warmer than any other decade in the instrumental record since 1850.

Going further back in time before accurate thermometers were widely available, temperatures can be reconstructed using climate-sensitive indicators "proxies" in materials such as tree rings, ice cores, and marine sediments. Comparisons of the thermometer record with these proxy measurements suggest that the time since the early 1980s has been the warmest 40-year period in at least eight centuries, and that global temperature is rising towards peak temperatures last seen 5,000 to 10,000 years ago in the warmest part of our current interglacial period.

Many other impacts associated with the warming trend have become evident in recent years. Arctic summer sea ice cover has shrunk dramatically. The heat content of the ocean has increased. Global average sea level has risen by approximately 16 cm (6 inches) since 1901, due both to the expansion of warmer ocean water and to the addition of melt waters from glaciers and ice sheets on land. Warming and precipitation changes are altering the geographical ranges of many plant and animal species and the timing of their life cycles. In addition to the effects on climate, some of the excess CO ₂ in the atmosphere is being taken up by the ocean, changing its chemical composition (causing ocean acidification).

Many complex processes shape our climate

Based just on the physics of the amount of energy that CO ₂ absorbs and emits, a doubling of atmospheric CO ₂ concentration from pre-industrial levels (up to about 560 ppm) would by itself cause a global average temperature increase of about 1 °C (1.8 °F). In the overall climate system, however, things are more complex; warming leads to further effects (feedbacks) that either amplify or diminish the initial warming.

The most important feedbacks involve various forms of water. A warmer atmosphere generally contains more water vapour. Water vapour is a potent greenhouse gas, thus causing more warming; its short lifetime in the atmosphere keeps its increase largely in step with warming. Thus, water vapour is treated as an amplifier, and not a driver, of climate change. Higher temperatures in the polar regions melt sea ice and reduce seasonal snow cover, exposing a darker ocean and land surface that can absorb more heat, causing further warming. Another important but uncertain feedback concerns changes in clouds. Warming and increases in water vapour together may cause cloud cover to increase or decrease which can either amplify or dampen temperature change depending on the changes in the horizontal extent, altitude, and properties of clouds. The latest assessment of the science indicates that the overall net global effect of cloud changes is likely to be to amplify warming.

The ocean moderates climate change. The ocean is a huge heat reservoir, but it is difficult to heat its full depth because warm water tends to stay near the surface. The rate at which heat is transferred to the deep ocean is therefore slow; it varies from year to year and from decade to decade, and it helps to determine the pace of warming at the surface. Observations of the sub-surface ocean are limited prior to about 1970, but since then, warming of the upper 700 m (2,300 feet) is readily apparent, and deeper warming is also clearly observed since about 1990.

Surface temperatures and rainfall in most regions vary greatly from the global average because of geographical location, in particular latitude and continental position. Both the average values of temperature, rainfall, and their extremes (which generally have the largest impacts on natural systems and human infrastructure), are also strongly affected by local patterns of winds.

Estimating the effects of feedback processes, the pace of the warming, and regional climate change requires the use of mathematical models of the atmosphere, ocean, land, and ice (the cryosphere) built upon established laws of physics and the latest understanding of the physical, chemical and biological processes affecting climate, and run on powerful computers. Models vary in their projections of how much additional warming to expect (depending on the type of model and on assumptions used in simulating certain climate processes, particularly cloud formation and ocean mixing), but all such models agree that the overall net effect of feedbacks is to amplify warming.

Human activities are changing the climate

Rigorous analysis of all data and lines of evidence shows that most of the observed global warming over the past 50 years or so cannot be explained by natural causes and instead requires a significant role for the influence of human activities.

In order to discern the human influence on climate, scientists must consider many natural variations that affect temperature, precipitation, and other aspects of climate from local to global scale, on timescales from days to decades and longer. One natural variation is the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), an irregular alternation between warming and cooling (lasting about two to seven years) in the equatorial Pacific Ocean that causes significant year-to-year regional and global shifts in temperature and rainfall patterns. Volcanic eruptions also alter climate, in part increasing the amount of small (aerosol) particles in the stratosphere that reflect or absorb sunlight, leading to a short-term surface cooling lasting typically about two to three years. Over hundreds of thousands of years, slow, recurring variations in Earth's orbit around the Sun, which alter the distribution of solar energy received by Earth, have been enough to trigger the ice age cycles of the past 800,000 years.

Fingerprinting is a powerful way of studying the causes of climate change. Different influences on climate lead to different patterns seen in climate records. This becomes obvious when scientists probe beyond changes in the average temperature of the planet and look more closely at geographical and temporal patterns of climate change. For example, an increase in the Sun's energy output will lead to a very different pattern of temperature change (across Earth's surface and vertically in the atmosphere) compared to that induced by an increase in CO ₂ concentration. Observed atmospheric temperature changes show a fingerprint much closer to that of a long-term CO ₂ increase than to that of a fluctuating Sun alone. Scientists routinely test whether purely natural changes in the Sun, volcanic activity, or internal climate variability could plausibly explain the patterns of change they have observed in many different aspects of the climate system. These analyses have shown that the observed climate changes of the past several decades cannot be explained just by natural factors.

How will climate change in the future?

Scientists have made major advances in the observations, theory, and modelling of Earth's climate system, and these advances have enabled them to project future climate change with increasing confidence. Nevertheless, several major issues make it impossible to give precise estimates of how global or regional temperature trends will evolve decade by decade into the future. Firstly, we cannot predict how much CO ₂ human activities will emit, as this depends on factors such as how the global economy develops and how society's production and consumption of energy changes in the coming decades. Secondly, with current understanding of the complexities of how climate feedbacks operate, there is a range of possible outcomes, even for a particular scenario of CO ₂ emissions. Finally, over timescales of a decade or so, natural variability can modulate the effects of an underlying trend in temperature. Taken together, all model projections indicate that Earth will continue to warm considerably more over the next few decades to centuries. If there were no technological or policy changes to reduce emission trends from their current trajectory, then further globally-averaged warming of 2.6 to 4.8 °C (4.7 to 8.6 °F) in addition to that which has already occurred would be expected during the 21st century [Figure B5]. Projecting what those ranges will mean for the climate experienced at any particular location is a challenging scientific problem, but estimates are continuing to improve as regional and local-scale models advance.

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Climate change: evidence and causes | Royal Society

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Supplementary information for the project 'Climate Change: Evidence and causes'.

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During the time that has passed since the launching of the first artificial satellite in 1957, astronauts have traveled to the moon, probes have explored the solar system, and instruments in space have discovered thousands of planets around other stars.

Subjects

Earth Science, Astronomy, Social Studies, U.S. History, World History

Image

Apollo 11 Astronauts on Moon

A less belligerent, but no less competitive, part of the Cold War was the space race. The Soviet Union bested its rival at nearly every turn, until the U.S. beat them to the finish line by landing astronauts on the moon.

NASA photograph

We human beings have been venturing into space since October 4, 1957, when the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) launched Sputnik, the first artificial satellite to orbit Earth. This happened during the period of political hostility between the Soviet Union and the United States known as the Cold War. For several years, the two superpowers had been competing to develop missiles, called intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), to carry nuclear weapons between continents. In the U.S.S.R., the rocket designer Sergei Korolev had developed the first ICBM, a rocket called the R7, which would begin the space race.

This competition came to a head with the launch of Sputnik. Carried atop an R7 rocket, the Sputnik satellite was able to send out beeps from a radio transmitter. After reaching space, Sputnik orbited Earth once every 96 minutes. The radio beeps could be detected on the ground as the satellite passed overhead, so people all around the world knew that it was really in orbit. Realizing that the U.S.S.R. had capabilities that exceeded U.S. technologies that could endanger Americans, the United States grew worried. Then, a month later, on November 3, 1957, the Soviets achieved an even more impressive space venture. This was SputnikII, a satellite that carried a living creature, a dog named Laika.

Prior to the launch of Sputnik, the United States had been working on its own capability to launch a satellite. The United States made two failed attempts to launch a satellite into space before succeeding with a rocket that carried a satellite called Explorer on January 31, 1958. The team that achieved this first U.S. satellite launch consisted largely of German rocket engineers who had once developed ballistic missiles for Nazi Germany. Working for the U.S. Army at the Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama, the German rocket engineers were led by Wernher von Braun and had developed the German V2 rocket into a more powerful rocket, called the Jupiter C, or Juno. Explorer carried several instruments into space for conducting science experiments. One instrument was a Geiger counter for detecting cosmic rays. This was for an experiment operated by researcher James Van Allen, which, together with measurements from later satellites, proved the existence of what are now called the Van Allen radiation belts around Earth.

In 1958, space exploration activities in the United States were consolidated into a new government agency, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). When it began operations in October of 1958, NASA absorbed what had been called the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), and several other research and military facilities, including the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (the Redstone Arsenal) in Huntsville.

The first human in space was the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, who made one orbit around Earth on April 12, 1961, on a flight that lasted 108 minutes. A little more than three weeks later, NASA launched astronaut Alan Shepard into space, not on an orbital flight, but on a suborbital trajectory-a flight that goes into space but does not go all the way around Earth. Shepard's suborbital flight lasted just over 15 minutes. Three weeks later, on May 25, President John F. Kennedy challenged the United States to an ambitious goal, declaring: "I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before the decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to Earth."

In addition to launching the first artificial satellite, the first dog in space, and the first human in space, the Soviet Union achieved other space milestones ahead of the United States. These milestones included Luna 2, which became the first human-made object to hit the Moon in 1959. Soon after that, the U.S.S.R. launched Luna 3. Less than four months after Gagarin's flight in 1961, a second Soviet human mission orbited a cosmonaut around Earth for a full day. The U.S.S.R. also achieved the first spacewalk and launched the Vostok 6 mission, which made Valentina Tereshkova the first woman to travel to space.

During the 1960s, NASA made progress toward President Kennedy's goal of landing a human on the moon with a program called Project Gemini, in which astronauts tested technology needed for future flights to the moon, and tested their own ability to endure many days in spaceflight. Project Gemini was followed by Project Apollo, which took astronauts into orbit around the moon and to the lunar surface between 1968 and 1972. In 1969, on Apollo11, the United States sent the first astronauts to the Moon, and Neil Armstrong became the first human to set foot on its surface. During the landed missions, astronauts collected samples of rocks and lunar dust that scientists still study to learn about the moon. During the 1960s and 1970s, NASA also launched a series of space probes called Mariner, which studied Venus, Mars, and Mercury.

Space stations marked the next phase of space exploration. The first space station in Earth orbit was the Soviet Salyut 1 station, which was launched in 1971. This was followed by NASA's Skylab space station, the first orbital laboratory in which astronauts and scientists studied Earth and the effects of spaceflight on the human body. During the 1970s, NASA also carried out Project Viking in which two probes landed on Mars, took numerous photographs, examined the chemistry of the Martian surface environment, and tested the Martian dirt (called regolith) for the presence of microorganisms.

Since the Apollo lunar program ended in 1972, human space exploration has been limited to low-Earth orbit, where many countries participate and conduct research on the International Space Station. However, unpiloted probes have traveled throughout our solar system. In recent years, probes have made a range of discoveries, including that a moon of Jupiter, called Europa, and a moon of Saturn, called Enceladus, have oceans under their surface ice that scientists think may harbor life. Meanwhile, instruments in space, such as the Kepler Space Telescope, and instruments on the ground have discovered thousands of exoplanets, planets orbiting other stars. This era of exoplanet discovery began in 1995, and advanced technology now allows instruments in space to characterize the atmospheres of some of these exoplanets.

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October 19, 2023

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During the time that has passed since the launching of the first artificial satellite in 1957, astronauts have traveled to the moon, probes have explored the solar system, and instruments in space have discovered thousands of planets around other stars.

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https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/democracy

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There are a number of pervasive myths regarding both radiation and radioactive waste.

Some lead to regulation and actions which are counterproductive to human health and safety.

Over the years, many views and concerns have been expressed in the media, by the public and other interested groups in relation to the nuclear industry and in particular its waste. Questions have been raised about whether nuclear power should continue when the issue of how to deal with its waste has apparently not yet been satisfactorily resolved.

Some of the more commonly expressed views and concerns include:

1. The nuclear industry still has no solution to the 'waste problem'.

2. The transport of this waste poses an unacceptable risk to people and the environment.

3. Plutonium is the most dangerous material in the world.

4. Nuclear waste is hazardous for tens of thousands of years. This clearly is unprecedented and poses a huge threat to our future generations.

5. Even if put into a geological repository, the waste might emerge and threaten future generations.

6. Nobody knows the true costs of waste management. The costs are so high that nuclear power can never be economic.

7. The waste should be disposed of into space.

8. Nuclear waste should be transmuted into harmless materials.

9. There is a potential terrorist threat to the large volumes of radioactive waste currently being stored and the risk that this waste could leak or be dispersed as a result of terrorist action.

10. Man-made radiation differs from natural radiation.

1. The nuclear industry still has no solution to the 'waste problem'

Like all industries, the thermal generation of electricity produces waste. Whatever fuel is used, this waste must be managed in ways which safeguard human health and minimize the impact on the environment.

The nuclear industry has developed - and implemented - most of the necessary technologies required for the final disposal of all of the waste it produces. The remaining issue is one of public acceptance, and not of technological feasibility.

The amount of waste produced by the nuclear power industry is small relative to other industrial activities. 97% of the waste produced is classified as low- or intermediate-level waste (LLW or ILW). Such waste has been widely disposed of in near-surface repositories for many years. In France, where fuel is reprocessed, just 0.2% of all radioactive waste by volume is classified as high-level waste (HLW).

The amount of HLW produced (including used fuel when this is considered as waste) during nuclear production is small; a typical large reactor (1 GWe) produces about 25-30 tonnes of used fuel per year. About 400,000 tonnes of used fuel has been discharged from reactors worldwide, with about one-third having been reprocessed.

Unlike other industrial toxic wastes, the principal hazard associated with HLW - radioactivity - diminishes with time. At present, interim storage facilities provide an appropriate environment to contain and manage existing waste, and the decay of heat and radioactivity over time provides a strong incentive to store HLW for a period before its final disposal. In fact, after 40 years, the radioactivity of used fuel has decreased to about one-thousandth of the level at the point when it was unloaded. Interim storage facilities also allow a country to store its spent fuel until a time when it has generated sufficient quantities to make a repository development economic.

In the long-term, however, appropriate disposal arrangements are required for HLW due to its prolonged radioactivity. The safe, environmentally-sound disposal of HLW is technologically proven, with international scientific consensus on deep geological repositories. Such projects are well advanced in some countries, such as Finland and Sweden. In the USA a deep geological waste repository (the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant) is already in operation for the disposal of transuranic waste (long-lived ILW contaminated with military materials such as plutonium). Countries where plans for deep geological repositories have been advanced demonstrate that efforts to resolve political and public acceptance issues at a community and national level can be successful.

Geological disposal facilities (GDFs) are currently used for the disposal of other toxic wastes, including those containing mercury, cyanide, arsenic and dioxins.

Progress is being made to achieve public acceptance, but it is important that governments follow the lead of countries more advanced in the process of long-term disposal of HLW.

Further information

Radioactive Waste Management
Storage and Disposal of Radioactive Wastes
Treatment and Conditioning of Nuclear Wastes

2. The transport of this waste poses an unacceptable risk to people and the environment

Hazardous waste is produced by most major industrial processes. Of all hazardous material shipped each year in the USA, radioactive waste accounts for just 5% of the total; and of that 5%, less than 10% relates to nuclear power production.

Globally, about 15 million packages of radioactive material are transported each year on public roads, railways, and ships. There has been no instance of radioactive release causing harm to people, property or the environment in many millions of transport miles.

The primary assurance of safety in the transport of nuclear materials is the way in which they are packaged. Packages that store waste during transport are designed to ensure shielding from radiation and containment of waste, even under the most extreme accident conditions. Different packaging standards have been developed by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) according to the characteristics and potential hazard posed by the different types of nuclear material. HLW shipments are made in robust 125-tonne 'Type B' casks. There has never been an accident in which a Type B transport cask containing radioactive materials has been breached or has leaked. A significant accident in the USA in 1971 demonstrated the integrity of a Type B cask, which was later returned to service.

The safety features built into Type B casks are very significant. For the radioactive material in a large Type B package in sea transit to become exposed, the ship's hold (inside double hulls) would need to rupture, the 25cm thick steel cask would need to rupture, and the stainless steel flask or the fuel rods would need to be broken open. Either borosilicate glass (for reprocessed wastes) or ceramic fuel material would then be exposed, but in either case these materials are very insoluble.

Further information
Transport of Radioactive Materials
3. Plutonium is the most dangerous material in the world

Plutonium has been stated to be 'the most toxic substance on earth' and so hazardous that 'a speck can kill'.

Comparisons between toxic substances are not straightforward. The effect of plutonium inhalation would be to increase the probability of a cancer developing in several years time, whilst most other strong toxins lead to more immediate death. Best comparisons indicate that, gram for gram, toxins such as ricin, some snake venoms, cyanide, and even caffeine are significantly more toxic than plutonium.

Nevertheless, plutonium is toxic and therefore must be handled in a responsible manner. Its hazard is principally associated with the ionising radiation it emits. However, it is primarily hazardous if inhaled in small particles.

Further information

4. Nuclear waste is hazardous for tens of thousands of years. This clearly is unprecedented and poses a huge threat to our future generations

Many industries produce hazardous and toxic waste. All toxic waste needs to be dealt with safely, not just radioactive waste.

The radioactivity of nuclear waste naturally decays, and has a finite radiotoxic lifetime. Within a period of 1,000-10,000 years, the radioactivity of HLW decays to that of the originally mined ore. Its hazard then depends on how concentrated it is. By comparison, other industrial wastes ( e.g. heavy metals, such as cadmium and mercury) remain hazardous indefinitely.

Most nuclear waste produced is hazardous, due to its radioactivity, for only a few tens of years and is routinely disposed of in near-surface disposal facilities (see above). Only a small volume of nuclear waste (~3% of the total) is long-lived and highly radioactive and requires isolation from the environment for many thousands of years.

International conventions define what is hazardous in terms of radiation dose, and national regulations limit allowable doses accordingly. Well-developed industry technology ensures that these regulations are met so that any hazardous waste is handled in a way it poses no risk to human health or the environment. Waste is converted into a stable form that is suitable for disposal. In the case of HLW, a multi-barrier approach, combining containment and geological disposal, ensures isolation of the waste from people and the environment for thousands of years.

Further information
Radioactive Waste Management
5. Even if put into a geological repository, the waste might emerge and threaten future generations

Radiation scientists, geologists and engineers have produced detailed plans for safe underground storage of nuclear waste, and some are now operating. Geological repositories for HLW are designed to ensure that harmful radiation would not reach the surface even in the event of severe earthquakes or through the passage of time.

The designs for long-term disposal incorporate multiple layers of protection. Waste is encapsulated in highly engineered casks in stable, vitrified form, and is emplaced at depths well below the biosphere. Such long-term geological storage solutions are designed to prevent any movement of radioactivity for thousands of years.

Whilst the timeframes in question preclude full testing, nature has provided analogous examples of the successful storage of radioactive waste in stable geological formations. About two billion years ago, in what is now Gabon in Africa, a rich natural uranium deposit produced spontaneous, large nuclear reactions which ran for many years. Since then, despite thousands of centuries of tropical rain and subsurface water, the long-lived radioactive 'waste' from those 'reactors' has migrated less than 10 metres.

Further information
Storage and Disposal of Radioactive Waste
6. Nobody knows the true costs of waste management. The costs are so high that nuclear power can never be economic

Because it is widely accepted that producers of radioactive waste should bear the costs of disposal, most countries with nuclear power programmes make estimates of the costs of disposal and update these periodically. International organisations such as the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) have also coordinated exercises to compare these estimates with one another. For LLW the costs are well-known because numerous facilities have been built and have operated for many years around the world. For HLW, cost estimates are becoming increasingly reliable as projects get closer to implementation.

Based on the estimated total costs of managing nuclear waste, many countries require that the operators of nuclear power plants set aside funding to cover all costs. Different mechanisms exist in different countries. Although the sum already deposited in dedicated funds is high, the costs of waste management do not drastically increase the price of electricity. Typically the spent fuel management and disposal costs represent about 10% of the total costs involved in producing electricity from a nuclear power plant. Thus, although the absolute costs of waste management are high, they do not render the nuclear fuel cycle uneconomic, because of the high ratio of revenue earned to waste volumes produced.

Further information
Radioactive Waste National Policies and Funding
7. The waste should be disposed of into space

The option of disposal of waste into space has been examined repeatedly since the 1970s. This option has not been implemented and further studies have not been performed because of the high cost and the safety aspects associated with the risk of launch failure.

Further information
International Nuclear Waste Disposal Concepts
8. Nuclear waste should be transmuted into harmless materials

Transmutation is the process of transforming one radionuclide into another via neutron bombardment in a nuclear reactor or accelerator-driven device. The objective is to change long-lived actinides and fission products into significantly shorter-lived nuclides. The goal is to have waste that becomes radiologically harmless in only a few hundred years.

Transmutation is not feasible for all of the waste produced in the past or to be produced. Transmutation may be able to reduce waste quantities, but it will do so only to a certain extent and therefore not eliminate the need for some means of ultimate disposal.

Research on transmutation is, however, ongoing. One of the technical issues is to isolate each nuclide (partition) so that it can then be irradiated, otherwise the process is likely to create as much waste as it destroys. Cost aside, it is likely that the benefits of transmutation will not compensate the burden of additional required operations for separating and transmuting only part of the nuclides.

Further information

Nuclear Energy Agency's webpage on Partitioning and Transmutation of Minor Actinides and Fission Products

9. There is a potential terrorist threat to the large volumes of radioactive waste currently being stored and the risk that this waste could leak or be dispersed as a result of terrorist action

HLW is kept in secure nuclear facilities with appropriate protection measures. Most HLW produced is held as stable ceramic solids or in vitrified (glass) form, designed to ensure that radioactive isotopes resulting from the nuclear reaction are retained securely in the glass or ceramic. Their structure is such that they would be very difficult to disperse by terrorist action, so that the threat from so-called 'dirty bombs' is not high.

The US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has responded to suggestions that spent fuel is vulnerable to terrorist actions and should be put into dry storage casks after five years: "Nuclear power reactor spent fuel pools are neither easily reached nor easily breached. Instead, they are strong structures constructed of very thick steel-reinforced concrete walls with stainless steel liners. In addition, other design characteristics of these pools... can make them highly resistant to damage and can ease the ability to cope with any damage. Such characteristics can include having the fuel in the pool partially or completely below grade and having the pool shielded by other plant structures."

A report released on 25 June 2002 by the National Academy of Sciences concludes that if a dirty bomb attack were to occur, "the casualty rate would likely be low, and contamination could be detected and removed from the environment, although such cleanup would probably be expensive and time consuming." The disruption caused by such an attack would result from public fear of anything 'nuclear', and thus "the ease of recovery... would depend to a great extent on how the attack was handled by first responders, political leaders, and the news media, all of which would help to shape public opinion and reactions."

The International Atomic Agency (IAEA) has identified medical and industrial radioactive sources as posing considerable concern in terms of potential terrorist threats from their use in dirty bombs. The need for stronger controls to prevent the theft or loss of control of powerful radiological sources and hence ensure their safety and security has been highlighted as of paramount importance.

Further information
Security of Nuclear Facilities and Material
10.Man-made radiation differs from natural radiation

Radiation emitted from man-made radionuclides is exactly the same form as radiation emitted from naturally-occurring radioactive materials (namely alpha, beta, or gamma radiation). As such, the radiation emitted by naturally-occurring materials cannot be distinguished from radiation produced by materials in the nuclear fuel cycle.

Most elements have a radioactive form (radioisotope) and many of these occur naturally. We live our lives surrounded by naturally-radioactive materials, and are constantly bathed in radiation originating from rocks and soil, building materials, the sky (space), food, and one another. A typical background level of exposure is 2-3 millisieverts per year. Regulations limit extra exposure from man-made radiation due to human activities (other than medicine) to 1 mSv/yr for members of the public and an average 20 mSv/yr for occupational exposure. These levels are very seldom exceeded, though no harm has been shown for levels up to 50 mSv/yr. Some people are exposed to lifelong natural background levels which are higher than this.

Further information
Naturally-Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM)
References

a. National Inventory of Radioactive Materials and Waste, Andra (2020). [ Back]

b. Status and Trends in Spent Fuel and Radioactive Waste Management, IAEA Nuclear Energy Series No. NW-T-1.14 (Rev. 1), International Atomic Energy Agency (January 2022). [ Back]

c. Freight Facts and Figures, US Department of Transportation. [ Back]

d. A Historical Review of the Safe Transport of Spent Nuclear Fuel, US Department of Energy (2016). [ Back]

e. Oklo Fossil Fission Reactors, American Nuclear Society. [ Back]

f. NRC Review of Paper on Reducing Hazards From Stored Spent Nuclear Fuel, US NRC Fact Sheet (2003). The Fact Sheet was published in response to the paper Reducing the Hazards from Stored Spent Power-Reactor Fuel. [ Back]

g. Making the Nation Safer: The Role of Science and Technology in Countering Terrorism, The National Academies Press (ISBN: 9780309084819). [ Back]

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Radioactive Wastes - Myths and Realities : World Nuclear Association - World Nuclear Association

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News and information on nuclear power, nuclear energy, nuclear energy for sustainable development, uranium mining, uranium enrichment, nuclear generation of electricity, used fuel management, recycling and disposal, nuclear policies, new nuclear plant, nuclear energy development and climate change mitigation from the World Nuclear Association (WNA), the global nuclear energy trade association and World Nuclear News (WNN) the leading nuclear news site.

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The facts: What you need to know about global hunger

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The hunger cycle has millions of families in its grip. Why don’t they have the food they need — and what effect will COVID-19 have on the crisis?

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U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: United States

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Frequently requested statistics for: United States

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https://news.climate.columbia.edu/2019/09/23/climate-change-impacts-water/

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Climate change impacts the world's water in complex ways. Consider a water cycle diagram, like the one below; global warming is altering nearly every stage in the diagram. These changes will put pressure on drinking water supplies, food production, property values, and more, in the U.S. and all around the world.

In fact, "most of the climate change impacts come down to water," says Upmanu Lall, director of the Columbia Water Center. When people talk about climate change affecting agricultural output, sea level rise, wildfires and extreme weather - "they're all essentially a water story," says Lall.
Evaporation
Warmer air can hold more moisture than cool air. As a result, in a warmer world, the air will suck up more water from oceans, lakes, soil and plants. The drier conditions this air leaves behind could negatively affect drinking water supplies and agriculture.

On the flip side, the warmer, wetter air could also endanger human lives. A study out of Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory found that higher humidity will make future higher temperatures unbearable in some places, by blocking the cooling effects of our sweat.
Precipitation
When all that extra warm, extra wet air cools down, it drops extra rain or snow to the ground. Thus, a warmer world means we get hit with heavier rain and snowstorms. The northeastern U.S. is so far seeing the largest increase in the intensity and frequency of heavy precipitation events. And in the Central U.S., clusters of thunderstorms have been becoming more frequent and dropping more precipitation since 1979.

By changing air temperatures and circulation patterns, climate change will also change where precipitation falls. Some areas - such as the American West, Southwest, and Southeast - are expected to get drier. Meanwhile, the northern parts of the U.S. and the Midwest are expected to get wetter. These precipitation projections are already becoming reality.

The Southwest, southern Great Plains, and Southeast are predicted to see more intense and prolonged droughts, according to the National Climate Assessment. And most of the rest of the country is at risk of experiencing more severe short-term droughts, too. Researchers within the Earth Institute have found that climate change may already have exacerbated past and present droughts, and that drier conditions are making wildfires worse.

"The drought scenario could be mitigated by having more water storage in dams, which nobody's working on," Lall pointed out, "or in groundwater, which is being discussed in some places but is not that easy to do for large quantities of water."

Changes in precipitation patterns will challenge many farmers, as well as natural ecosystems. Scientists at Columbia University's International Research Institute for Climate and Society are creating tools and strategies to help farmers adapt to these challenges. Natural ecosystems, however, may not be able to adapt as quickly.
Surface Runoff and Stream Flow
The heavier bursts of precipitation caused by warmer, wetter air can lead to flooding, which can of course endanger human lives, damage homes, kill crops, and hurt the economy.

The America's Water initiative at the Columbia Water Center has been working to identify the specific causes of catastrophic flooding, in order to more accurately predict them, to save lives and property. The project also made projections about how flooding will change as the world continues to warm. "On the action side, we looked at what structures like dams and levees need to be refurbished, and what zoning changes need to be done so that people are out of harm's way?" said Lall.

Heavier rainstorms will also increase surface runoff - the water that flows over the ground after a storm. This moving water may strip nutrients from the soil and pick up pollutants, dirt, and other undesirables, flushing them into nearby bodies of water. Those contaminants may muck up our water supplies and make it more expensive to clean the water to drinking standards. The National Climate Assessment finds that water quality is already diminishing in many parts of the U.S, "particularly due to increasing sediment and contaminant concentrations after heavy downpours."

In addition, as runoff dumps sediments and other contaminants into lakes and streams, it could harm fish and other wildlife. Fertilizer runoff can cause algae blooms that ultimately end up suffocating aquatic critters and causing a stinky mess. The problem is compounded by warming water, which can't hold as much of the dissolved oxygen that fish need to survive. These conditions could harm fisheries, and make conditions unpleasant for folks who like to use lakes and streams for fishing, swimming, and other recreational activities.

Researchers within the Earth Institute at Columbia University are finding that green infrastructure, such as parks, wetlands, and other green areas, can help to absorb runoff and filter out its contaminants. These work on a small scale with everyday storms, although Lall notes they aren't much help when it comes to floods.
Oceans
Warmer temperatures and increasing acidity are making life difficult for sea creatures. These changes are transforming food chains from the bottom-up. In addition, many fish are moving poleward in search of cooler waters, which has implications for the fishing industry and people who like to eat fish.

Temperature changes also have the potential to alter major ocean currents. Because ocean temperatures drive atmospheric circulation patterns, this could change weather patterns all over the world. Climate scientist Richard Seager from Columbia's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory has found that higher ocean surface temperatures could make rainfall more variable, and thus less predictable, from year to year.

And of course, as ice sheets and mountaintop glaciers melt, they're dumping extra water into the oceans; the resulting sea level rise jeopardizes coastal properties around the world.
Snowpack
Ordinarily, as winter snowpack melts in the springtime, it slowly adds fresh water to rivers and streams and helps to replenish drinking water supplies.

However, as the air warms, many areas are receiving more of their precipitation as rain rather than snow. This means less water is being stored for later as snowpack. In addition, the rain actually accelerates the melting of snow that's already on the ground.

The lack of snowpack can lead to drier conditions later in the year, which can be bad news for regions that rely on snowmelt to refill their drinking water supplies. In California, for example, declines in snowpack have contributed to long-term drought and water shortages. At the same time, as the rains come faster rather than slowly melting from snow, California's ability to control floods is decreasing.

Changes in snowpack can also negatively impact wildlife and income from skiing and winter tourism.
Clouds
A study last year out of Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory found that increasing summer heat is driving off California's morning clouds. This lack of clouds allows more sunlight to strike the ground, raising temperatures further, exacerbating drying and the risk of wildfires.
Changes in Water Demand
In addition to changing the water cycle, climate change could change how we use water and how much we need. Higher temperatures and evaporation rates could increase the demand for water in many areas.

Water Stress

These changes in water supply, demand, and quality will "exacerbate our current problem," says Lall, "which is that we have aging water infrastructure across the country that is failing, and we simply do not have the capacity to deal with even historical variation, let alone what people are projecting for the future."

Climate change will make water shortages more likely in parts of the U.S., particularly the southern U.S. and the Caribbean and Pacific islands.

An estimated 1.6 million Americans already don't have regular access to safe drinking water. A study out of Michigan State University found that, because of climate change, aging infrastructure and other factors, up to 40.9 million American households may not be able to afford water and wastewater services in 2022.

A recent study from Harvard projects that by 2071, nearly half of the 204 fresh water basins in the United States may not be able to meet their monthly water demand. This is due in part to growing populations, but also because of the effects of climate change. Around 50 years from now, the study found, many U.S. regions may see their water supplies reduced by a third of their current size, while demand continues to increase. The authors warn this could pose serious challenges for agriculture.

What Can Be Done

Work from the Columbia Water Center could help municipalities to meet the challenges of the future; the America's Water project has been examining how water can be allocated to prevent shortages, and where more water storage is needed to withstand future droughts.

To make these calculations, the Columbia Water Center teamed up with folks from Lamont-Doherty, using tree ring data to reconstruct droughts and floods from the last 700 years in all the major river basins in the U.S. In the process, they learned that in the 1300s and 1400s, the U.S. experienced droughts far more severe and widespread than anything we've seen in modern times.

"The reason for going back 700 years is that, whether or not people believe in future climate change projections, this is something that has happened, and so we should prepare for it in case it happens again," Lall explained.

Whereas climate models always have some degree of uncertainty, he continued, with historical data, "it's easier to convince people that, for example, if you remove some of the dams on the Colorado River, there's really just no ability to meet even the more modest older droughts."

Lall's team built an open-source optimization model which allows anyone to investigate and explore different scenarios for water supply and demand in their own watershed. This tool can help to identify which crops would grow best under certain water regimes, or how adding renewable energy will affect the water supply.

Increasing water storage, making irrigation systems more efficient, and making sure crops are appropriate for the local climate are a few ways municipalities can help to stave off water stress. Wind and solar power projects can help, too, because they use less water than traditional power plants.

There are also things that the rest of us can do to help conserve water, like fixing leaky plumbing, taking shorter showers, watering the lawn less often, and avoiding foods that require a lot of water. For example, it requires 1,800 gallons of water to produce one pound of beef.

Lall also suggests that people learn more about how climate change is going to affect the water in their own region, and start taking action locally.

"In the process, you discover that your water system is inadequate to meet the challenges of climate change," said Lall. "You will discover that the rivers that you go fishing in and jetskiing and things like that, they're likely to become stinky swamps. Once you go through this discovery process, then it becomes much more tangible to get action at a local level, and start changing things from the bottom-up."

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Climate change disrupts the water cycle in ways that could profoundly alter how we live our lives.

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Learn about fundamental human rights and find examples of human rights violations around the world. Find volunteer opportunities to stop human rights violations...

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To correct this, under the leadership of UNESCO's Director-General Audrey Azoulay, and a clear mandate by our Member States, UNESCO elaborated the world's most comprehensive international framework to shape the development and use of AI technologies. The Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence was adopted by acclamation by 193 Member States at UNESCO's General Conference in November 2021.

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Gender equality is a fundamental human right. In partnership with the UN Global Compact businesses will learn how to empower women in the workplace. Click here to learn more.

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SECRETARY BLINKEN: Mr. President, this council was convened today to discuss the implementation of the Minsk Agreements, a goal that we all share, despite Russia's persistent violations. These agreements, which were negotiated in 2014 and 2015 and signed by Russia, remain the basis for the peace process to resolve the conflict in eastern Ukraine.

This council's primary responsibility - the very reason for its creation - is the preservation of peace and security. As we meet today, the most immediate threat to peace and security is Russia's looming aggression against Ukraine.

The stakes go far beyond Ukraine. This is a moment of peril for the lives and safety of millions of people, as well as for the foundation of the United Nations Charter and the rules-based international order that preserves stability worldwide. This crisis directly affects every member of this council and every country in the world.

Because the basic principles that sustain peace and security - principles that were enshrined in the wake of two world wars and a Cold War - are under threat. The principle that one country cannot change the borders of another by force. The principle that one country cannot dictate another's choices or policies, or with whom it will associate. The principle of national sovereignty.

This is the exact kind of crisis that the United Nations - and specifically this Security Council - was created to prevent.

We must address what Russia is doing right now to Ukraine.

Over the past months, without provocation or justification, Russia has amassed more than 150,000 troops around Ukraine's borders, in Russia, Belarus, occupied Crimea. Russia says it's drawing down those forces. We do not see that happening on the ground. Our information indicates clearly that these forces - including ground troops, aircraft, ships - are preparing to launch an attack against Ukraine in the coming days.

We don't know precisely how things will play out, but here's what the world can expect to see unfold. In fact, it's unfolding right now, today, as Russia takes steps down the path to war and reissued the threat of military action.

First, Russia plans to manufacture a pretext for its attack. This could be a violent event that Russia will blame on Ukraine, or an outrageous accusation that Russia will level against the Ukrainian Government. We don't know exactly the form it will take. It could be a fabricated so-called "terrorist" bombing inside Russia, the invented discovery of a mass grave, a staged drone strike against civilians, or a fake - even a real - attack using chemical weapons. Russia may describe this event as ethnic cleansing or a genocide, making a mockery of a concept that we in this chamber do not take lightly, nor do I do take lightly based on my family history.

In the past few days, Russian media has already begun to spread some of these false alarms and claims, to maximize public outrage, to lay the groundwork for an invented justification for war. Today, that drumbeat has only intensified in Russia's state-controlled media. We've heard some of these baseless allegations from Russian-backed speakers here today.

Second, in response to this manufactured provocation, the highest levels of the Russian Government may theatrically convene emergency meetings to address the so-called crisis. The government will issue proclamations declaring that Russia must respond to defend Russian citizens or ethnic Russians in Ukraine.

Next, the attack is planned to begin. Russian missiles and bombs will drop across Ukraine. Communications will be jammed. Cyberattacks will shut down key Ukrainian institutions.

After that, Russian tanks and soldiers will advance on key targets that have already been identified and mapped out in detailed plans. We believe these targets include Russia's capital -Ukraine's capital, Kyiv, a city of 2.8 million people.

And conventional attacks are not all that Russia plans to inflict upon the people of Ukraine. We have information that indicates Russia will target specific groups of Ukrainians.

We've been warning the Ukrainian Government of all that is coming. And here today, we are laying it out in great detail, with the hope that by sharing what we know with the world, we can influence Russia to abandon the path of war and choose a different path while there's still time.

Now, I am mindful that some have called into question our information, recalling previous instances where intelligence ultimately did not bear out. But let me be clear: I am here today, not to start a war, but to prevent one. The information I've presented here is validated by what we've seen unfolding in plain sight before our eyes for months. And remember that while Russia has repeatedly derided our warnings and alarms as melodrama and nonsense, they have been steadily amassing more than 150,000 troops on Ukraine's borders, as well as the capabilities to conduct a massive military assault.

It isn't just us seeing this: Allies and partners see the same thing. And Russia hasn't only been hearing from us. The international chorus has grown louder and louder.

If Russia doesn't invade Ukraine, then we will be relieved that Russia changed course and proved our predictions wrong. That would be a far better outcome than the course we're currently on. And we will gladly accept any criticism that anyone directs at us.

As President Biden said, this would be a war of choice. And if Russia makes that choice, we've been clear, along with Allies and partners, that our response will be sharp and decisive. President Biden reiterated that forcefully earlier this week.

There is another choice Russia can still make, if there is any truth to its claim that it is committed to diplomacy.

Diplomacy is the only responsible way to resolve this crisis. An essential part of this is through implementation of the Minsk agreements, the subject of our session today.

There are a series of commitments that Russia and Ukraine made under Minsk, with the OSCE and the Normandy Format partners involved as well.

If Russia is prepared to sit with the Ukrainian Government and work through the process of implementing these commitments, our friends in France and Germany stand ready to convene senior-level discussions in the Normandy Format to settle these issues. Ukraine is ready for this. And we stand fully ready to support the parties.

Progress toward resolving the Donbas crisis through the Minsk Agreements can reinforce the broader discussions on security issues that we're prepared to engage in with Russia, in coordination with our Allies and partners.

More than three weeks ago, we provided Russia with a paper that detailed concrete, reciprocal steps that we can take in the near term to address our respective concerns and advance the collective security interests of Russia, the United States, and our European partners and allies. This morning, we received a response, which we are evaluating.

Earlier today, I sent a letter to Russia's Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov proposing that we meet next week in Europe, following on our talks in recent weeks, to discuss the steps that we can take to resolve this crisis without conflict. We are also proposing meetings of the NATO-Russia Council and the OSCE Permanent Council.

These meetings can pave the way for a summit of key leaders, in the context of de-escalation, to reach understandings on our mutual security concerns. As lead diplomats for our nations, we have a responsibility to make every effort for diplomacy to succeed, to leave no diplomatic stone unturned.

If Russia is committed to diplomacy, we are presenting every opportunity for it to demonstrate that commitment.

I have no doubt that the response to my remarks here today will be more dismissals from the Russian Government about the United States stoking hysteria or that it has "no plans" to invade Ukraine.

So let me make this simple. The Russian Government can announce today - with no qualification, equivocation, or deflection - that Russia will not invade Ukraine. State it clearly. State it plainly to the world. And then demonstrate it by sending your troops, your tanks, your planes back to their barracks and hangars and sending your diplomats to the negotiating table.

In the coming days, the world will remember that commitment - or the refusal to make it. I yield the floor.

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Secretary Antony J. Blinken on Russia's Threat to Peace and Security at the UN Security Council - United States Department of State

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SECRETARY BLINKEN: Mr. President, this council was convened today to discuss the implementation of the Minsk Agreements, a goal that we all share, despite Russia's persistent violations. These agreements, which were negotiated in 2014 and 2015 and signed by Russia, remain the basis for the peace process to resolve the conflict in eastern Ukraine.

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Healthcare industry will face higher medication errors, declining patient trust in 2022: Forrester

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As the world enters the third year of the COVID-19 pandemic, the healthcare industry faces a variety of ongoing challenges and shifts in delivery of care, according to a new 2022 predictions report | As the world enters the third year of the COVID-19 pandemic, healthcare faces a variety of ongoing c…