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The First Moroccan crisis, or also known as the Tangier Crisis, was an international crisis between 31st March 1905 and 7th April 1906, over the status of Morocco. Germany wanted to challenge France's growing control over Morocco. The crisis was resolved by the Algeciras Conference of 1906, a conference of mostly European countries that affirmed French control; this worsened relations.

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The Balkan wars were two conflicts that took place in the Balkan states. In the First Balkan War that began on 8th October 1912, the four Balkan states of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria declared war upon the Ottoman Empire and defeated it, The war It finished on 30 May 1913.

In the Second Balkan War, that began on 16th June 1912, Bulgaria fought against the other four combatants of the first war. It also faced an attack from Romania from the north. The Ottoman Empire lost the bulk of its territory in Europe. Although not involved as a combatant. It finished the second war on 10 August 1913.

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Assassination of Archduke F. Ferdinand 28. 06. 1914

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Assassination of Archduke F. Ferdinand 28. 06. 1914

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Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife Sophie are shot to death by a Bosnian Serb nationalist during an official visit to the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo on June 28, 1914.

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Assassination of Archduke F. Ferdinand 28. 06. 1914

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Germany invades Belgium (Schlieffen Plan) August 1914

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Germany invades Belgium (Schlieffen Plan) August 1914

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The German invasion of Belgium was a military campaign that began on 4 August 1914. On 24 July, the Belgian government announced that, in the event of war, it would maintain its neutrality. On 31 July, the Belgian government mobilised its armed forces and a state of high alert was proclaimed. Two days later, the Belgian government rejected German demands and the British government guaranteed military support to Belgium. The German government declared war on Belgium on 4 August, and German troops crossed the border.

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Germany invades Belgium (Schlieffen Plan) August 1914

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The First Battle of the Marne or known in France as the Miracle of the Marne was a World War I battle that took place from 5-12 September 1914. The German army invaded France with a plan to win the war in 40 days by occupying Paris and destroying the French and British armies.

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The Gallipoli Campaign, the Dardanelles Campaign, the Defence of Gallipoli or the Battle of Gallipoli was a military campaign in World War I on the Gallipoli (now Gelibolu) peninsula from 19 February 1915 to 9 January 1916. The Entente powers, Britain, France and the Russian Empire, sought to weaken the Ottoman Empire, one of the Central Powers, by taking control of the Turkish Straits.

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The Armenian Genocide was the systematic destruction of the Armenian people and their identity in the Ottoman Empire during the First World War. Spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), it was implemented mainly through the mass murder of around one million Armenians during death marches into the Syrian desert and the forced Islamisation of others, mainly women and children.

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The battle was the longest of the First World War and took place on the hills north of Verdun. Poor weather delayed the beginning of the attack until 21st  February, but the Germans captured Fort Douaumont in the first three days. The advance then slowed for several days, despite inflicting many French casualties.

By 29th March, French guns on the west bank had begun a constant bombardment of Germans on the east bank, causing many infantry casualties. The German offensive was extended to the west bank of the Meuse to gain observation and eliminate the French artillery firing over the river but, the attacks failed to reach their objectives.

In early May, the Germans changed tactics again and made local attacks and counter-attacks; the French recaptured part of Fort Douaumont but the Germans ejected them and took many prisoners.

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2 April 1917: President Woodrow Wilson asks the US Congress for a declaration of war against Germany, due to the resumption of indiscriminate submarine warfare and the German attempt to form an alliance with Mexico.

4 April 1917: The US Senate approves the declaration of war on Germany.

6 April 1917: The House of Representatives also approves the declaration. The United States officially enters the First World War.

7 December 1917: The United States declares war on the Austro-Hungarian Empire, an ally of Germany.

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Nicholas II is executed and the start of the Russian Revolution October 1917

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Nicholas II is executed and the start of the Russian Revolution October 1917

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The February Revolution, occurring from March 8th to 12th, 1917, marked the first phase of the Russian Revolution.

The revolution was primarily driven by widespread dissatisfaction with Russia's involvement in World War I, which had resulted in significant military losses, economic hardship, and food shortages. Mass protests and strikes erupted in Petrograd (now St. Petersburg), and when the military refused to suppress the uprising, the tsarist regime collapsed.

Tsar Nicholas II was executed on July 17th, 1918, along with his wife Alexandra, their five children, and four loyal attendants.

After the February Revolution of 1917, Nicholas abdicated the throne and was placed under house arrest. The family was initially held at the Alexander Palace and later moved to Tobolsk in Siberia. As the Russian Civil War intensified between the Red (Bolshevik) and White (anti-Bolshevik) forces, the Bolsheviks became increasingly concerned that the Romanovs could be rescued by advancing White troops.

After the execution of Tsar Nicholas II and his family in July 1918, Russia entered a period of intense conflict and transformation.

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Nicholas II is executed and the start of the Russian Revolution October 1917

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The Balfour Declaration was a letter dated 2 November 1917, sent by the British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Arthur James Balfour, to Baron Walter Rothschild, leader of the British Jewish community, for the purpose of transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland.

In the letter, the British government expressed its support for the creation of a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine. This statement reflected the consensus reached by the British cabinet on 31 October 1917, and represented a milestone in the history of Zionism and the future of the Middle East region.

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On 2 April 1917, President Woodrow Wilson asked Congress to enter World War I to ‘make the world safe for democracy’. On 8 January 1918, he presented his Fourteen Points, a plan for peace that proposed, among other things, open diplomacy, free trade, self-determination of peoples and the creation of a League of Nations to guarantee world peace.

Wilson took these principles to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, but had to compromise on several points to get the League of Nations included in the Treaty of Versailles. Despite this, the US Senate rejected the treaty and the US did not join the League.

Although limited and ultimately unable to prevent World War II, the League of Nations was the forerunner of today's United Nations (UNO).

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The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on 3 March 1918 between Russia and the Central Powers, marking Russia's official exit from the First World War. Although it became obsolete before the end of the year, it was crucial for the Bolsheviks, who still faced an internal civil war.

The treaty recognised the independence of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Ukraine. Russia ceded important territories: Poland, Curland and Lithuania to Germany; withdrew troops from Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Ukraine; and handed over Batum, Kars and Ardahan to Turkey. It also agreed to pay heavy compensation. In Poland, the treaty provoked unrest and the withdrawal of support for the Central Powers.

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At the on the 11th day of the 11th month of 1918, the Great War ends. At 5 a.m. that morning, Germany, bereft of manpower and supplies and faced with imminent invasion, signed an armistice agreement with the Allies in a railroad car outside Compiégne, France .

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The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919 at the Palace of Versailles, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. It officially ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied powers, although the ceasefire had been agreed months earlier, on 11 November 1918.

After six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference, in which Germany did not participate, the treaty imposed harsh conditions: German disarmament, surrender of territories, trial of war criminals, recognition of new independent states and the payment of reparations to the victorious powers.

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Treaty of Saint-Germain: with Austria (September 1919)

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Treaty of Saint-Germain: with Austria (September 1919)

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The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye was signed on 10 September 1919 between the victorious Allies of World War I and the Republic of Austria. Like other peace treaties, it included the Covenant of the League of Nations, which is why it was not ratified by the United States, which signed a separate treaty with Austria in 1921.

The treaty recognised Austria's independence and provided for the withdrawal of Allied occupation forces.

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Treaty of Trianon: with Hungary (June 1920)

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Treaty of Trianon: with Hungary (June 1920)

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The Treaty of Trianon often referred to as the Peace Dictate of Trianon or Dictate of Trianon in Hungary, was prepared at the Paris Peace Conference and was signed on the one side by Hungary and, on the other, by the Allied and Associated Powers, in the Grand Trianon château in Versailles on 4th June 1920. But it didn't take effect until July 26th, 1921. It formally terminated the state of war issued from World War I between most of the Allies of World War I and the Kingdom of Hungary. The treaty is mostly famous due to the territorial changes induced on Hungary and recognizing its new international borders after the First World War.

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Treaty of Neuilly: with Bulgary (November 1919)

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Treaty of Neuilly: with Bulgary (November 1919)

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The Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine was a treaty between the victorious Allies of World War I on the one hand, and Bulgaria, one of the defeated Central Powers in World War I, on the other. The treaty required Bulgaria to cede various territories.

The treaty was signed on 27th November 1919, in Neuilly-sur-Seine in the Hauts-de-Seine department, just west of Paris in France. The signing ceremony was held in the Hôtel de Ville (town hall) at Neuilly.

The Treaty of Neuilly was one of the series of treaties after World War I which were intended to diminish the military and political strength of the defeated members of the Central Powers.

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Treaty of Sèvres: with Turkey (August 1920)

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Treaty of Sèvres: with Turkey (August 1920)

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Treaty of Sèvres, August 10th, 1920, post World War I pact between the victorious Allied powers and representatives of the government of Ottoman Turkey.

The treaty abolished the Ottoman Empire and obliged Turkey to renounce all rights over Arab Asia and North Africa. The pact also provided for an independent Armenia, for an autonomous Kurdistan, and for a Greek presence in eastern Thrace and on the Anatolian west coast, as well as Greek control over the Aegean islands commanding the Dardanelles. Rejected by the new Turkish nationalist regime, the Treaty of Sèvres was replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.

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Treatment of non-agression Germany and URSS(Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact)

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Treatment of non-agression Germany and URSS(Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact)

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The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, signed in Moscow on 24 August 1939, was a non-aggression treaty between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. It included a secret protocol dividing Eastern Europe into zones of influence between the two countries, agreeing to the partition of Poland and allocating to the USSR territories such as the Baltic States, Finland and Bessarabia.

The agreement followed the failure of negotiations between the USSR, the UK and France, and committed both sides not to ally with each other's enemies for ten years. The treaty was broken on 22 June 1941, when Germany invaded the USSR in Operation Barbarossa. After the war, Ribbentrop was executed for war crimes, while Molotov died in 1986.

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Treatment of non-agression Germany and URSS

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The Pact of Steel was a military and political alliance signed on 22 May 1939 between Germany and Italy, represented by their foreign ministers, Joachim von Ribbentrop and Galeazzo Ciano. Initially intended as a tripartite alliance with Japan, disagreement over the focus of the pact - against the USSR for Japan, and against the UK and France for Germany and Italy - meant that Japan was left out of the agreement.

The pact consisted of two parts: a public declaration of trust and cooperation between the two nations, and a secret protocol promoting coordination of their military and economic policies. It was one of the cornerstones of the Axis alliance in World War II.

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The Moscow Peace Treaty was signed on 12 March 1940 between Finland and the Soviet Union, ending the Winter War after 105 days of fighting. In it, Finland ceded almost half of the Karelia region and other territories, more than the USSR had demanded before the conflict.

These cessions were not reversed after the dissolution of the USSR, and the so-called ‘Karelian problem’ is still a topic of debate in Finland. The treaty and the war were key factors that led to the outbreak of the Continuation War in 1941.

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The Tripartite Pact, also known as the Berlin Pact, was signed on 27 September 1940 between Germany, Italy and Japan as a defensive military alliance. It was later joined by Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia.

The Pact, along with the Anti-Komintern Pact and the Pact of Steel, formalised the alliance between the Axis Powers. It was directed primarily against the United States and established two spheres of influence: one European and the other Asian, due to the geographical distance between Japan and its European allies.

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The Anglo-Soviet Treaty was signed in London on 26 May 1942 between the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union, establishing a twenty-year military and political alliance. The agreement was bilateral and did not include other Allies such as the United States, Canada or the governments-in-exile of German-occupied countries, despite Soviet interest in influencing the future post-war reconstruction of those nations.

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In the London Protocol signed on 12th September 1944, the Allies of World War II then without France, agreed on dividing Germany into three occupation zones after the war.

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The Weimar Republic was the political regime that existed in Germany from the fall of the Second German Empire on 9 November 1918 until Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933. Marked by political instability, economic crisis and social unrest, it faced parliamentary fragmentation, military resistance to defeat and pressure from paramilitary groups. The harsh conditions imposed by the peace treaties and the Great Depression of 1929 exacerbated poverty, especially among the middle class. It was dissolved in 1933 with the rise of Nazism.

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The ‘Roaring Twenties’ was a decade of economic prosperity and cultural effervescence in the United States and Europe, especially in large cities. Marked by the rise of jazz, the flapper craze, Art Deco style and the advancement of technologies such as the automobile, cinema and radio, this era symbolised a break with the traditions of the past. It was also known as the Jazz Age. Mass consumption was consolidated, commercial aviation grew, and women gained important rights, such as the vote in several countries. The decade ended abruptly with the Wall Street crash of 1929 and the onset of the Great Depression.

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Flappers were a new generation of young women in the West during the 1920s who challenged traditional social norms. They wore short skirts, trousers, short hair, and listened to jazz. They were considered provocative for wearing flashy make-up, drinking alcohol, smoking, talking openly about sex, driving, and publicly mocking established social and sexual norms.

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Founding of the League of Nations (1920)

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Founding of the League of Nations (1920)

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The League of Nations was the first global intergovernmental organisation, founded on 10 January 1920 in the aftermath of World War I, with the primary objective of maintaining peace. It promoted collective security, disarmament and conflict resolution through negotiation and arbitration. It also addressed issues such as labour conditions, global health, drug trafficking, minority rights and fair treatment of colonised peoples. It was dissolved in 1946 and many of its functions passed to the newly created United Nations, serving as a model for modern global governance.

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Founding of the League of Nations (1920)

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Hyperinflation affected the German currency, the Papiermark, between 1921 and 1923, peaking in 1923. Inflation began during World War I due to debt financing of the war effort, exacerbated by war reparations imposed after the Treaty of Versailles. In 1921, the German central bank began buying cash with paper money at any price, which triggered inflation. By November 1923, one US dollar was equivalent to more than four trillion marks. To control the crisis, the Rentenmark was created and the printing of more paper money was banned. In 1924 the currency stabilised and reparation payments were resumed under the Dawes Plan. Hyperinflation caused great political instability in Germany, and the precise causes are still a matter of debate.

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The March on Rome was a mass demonstration in October 1922 that led to the rise to power of Benito Mussolini's National Fascist Party in Italy. On 28 October, Fascists and their paramilitaries, the Blackshirts, approached Rome. Prime Minister Luigi Facta wanted to declare a state of siege, but King Victor Emmanuel III prevented it, fearing violence, and forced Facta's resignation. On 30 October, the king appointed Mussolini prime minister, handing over power without armed conflict. The next day, the Fascists celebrated their victory in Rome and Mussolini formed his government.

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The Ottoman Empire disintegrates and the Republic of Turkey emerges 29. 10. 1923

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The Ottoman Empire disintegrates and the Republic of Turkey emerges 29. 10. 1923

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The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908-1922) began with the Young Turk Revolution, which restored the 1876 constitution and introduced multi-party rule, promoting a unifying Ottoman nationalism. However, the empire suffered military defeats in the Italo-Turkish and Balkan wars, losing much of its territory in Africa and Europe. Between 1912 and 1913, the government of the Committee of Union and Progress became radicalised, leading to genocides against Armenians, Assyrians and Greeks.

After defeat in World War I, the Treaty of Sevres dismembered the empire, leaving only minimal territories and the symbolic title of caliphate. The occupation of Constantinople and Smyrna gave impetus to the Turkish national movement, which won the War of Independence. The sultanate was abolished in November 1922 and the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) officially recognised the borders of Turkey, which was proclaimed a republic on 29 October 1923.

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The Ottoman Empire disintegrates and the Republic of Turkey emerges 29. 10. 1923

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The Beer Hall Putsch, also known as the Munich Putsch, was a failed coup attempt carried out by Adolf Hitler, Erich Ludendorff, and other Nazi leaders on November 8 and 9, 1923, in Munich, Bavaria, during the Weimar Republic. Approximately two thousand Nazis marched toward the Feldherrnhalle in the city center, but were stopped by the police, resulting in the deaths of 15 Nazis, four police officers, and a bystander.

Hitler managed to escape briefly, but was arrested two days later and charged with treason. The ensuing, highly publicized trial gave him a platform to spread his nationalist ideas. He was sentenced to five years in Landsberg Prison, where he wrote Mein Kampf. However, he was released after only nine months, and thereafter changed his strategy to achieve power through legal means, intensifying Nazi propaganda.

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The occupation of the Ruhr was the period between January 11, 1923, and August 25, 1925, when French and Belgian troops occupied this industrial region of the Weimar Republic. The occupation was a response to Germany's repeated failure to pay war reparations established by the Treaty of Versailles. The invaders sought to obtain coal and other resources directly.

With the support of the German government, the local population carried out passive resistance and civil disobedience, paralyzing the regional economy and generating sabotage. During the occupation, 137 civilians died and 600 were injured. The German economic crisis worsened, with the government financing the resistance by printing money, which accelerated hyperinflation.

After monetary stabilization in 1923, and under economic and international pressure, France and Belgium accepted the Dawes Plan in 1924, which reduced and restructured reparations. This led to the withdrawal of troops in 1925.

The occupation of the Ruhr fueled the rise of radical right-wing movements, and was used by Hitler and the Nazi Party to justify the Beer Hall Putsch in November 1923, which marked his public appearance.

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The Dawes Plan, finalized in 1924 under U.S. guidance, aimed to ensure World War I Allied powers (mainly the UK, France, and the U.S.) received their reparations from Germany while stabilizing Germany’s economy and preventing further harm. It was published on April 9, 1924, concluded on August 16, 1924, and took effect on September 1, 1924.

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The Locarno Treaties were a series of agreements in 1925 between Germany, France, Great Britain, Belgium, Italy, Poland, and Czechoslovakia. The main treaty guaranteed the borders between Germany and France and Belgium, and upheld the Rhineland’s demilitarized status. Germany also agreed to peacefully settle disputes with Poland and Czechoslovakia, though its eastern borders were not guaranteed. These treaties improved Western European relations and led to Germany joining the League of Nations in 1926. The agreements effectively ended in 1936 when Nazi Germany remilitarized the Rhineland.

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Mein Kampf is a book written by Adolf Hitler, combining autobiographical elements with an exposition of the political ideology of National Socialism.

The first volume, was published on 28th July 1925, the second volume was published in 1926. Hitler's original title was Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity and Cowardice, but his editor, Max Amann decided it was too complicated and shortened it to simply Mein Kampf.

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What caused the 1929 Stock Crash?

During the 1920s, there was a speculative boom that led millions of Americans to invest heavily in the stock market, often with borrowed money. The continued rise in stock prices created an economic bubble based on the belief that prices would continue to rise. On October 24, 1929 (Black Thursday), a massive panic sell-off began, causing stock values ​​to plummet. Banks that had lent money to buy stocks suffered heavy losses, and many went bankrupt. Businesses lost credit and customers, leading to closures and massive unemployment. This crash worsened an already fragile economy and helped trigger the Great Depression.

There is controversy among economists about how much of an impact the crash itself actually had, compared to subsequent policy responses, such as import tariffs, which also greatly influenced the crisis.

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The term New Deal refers to the set of economic and social reforms implemented under the administration of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt between 1933 and 1938, to combat the effects of the Great Depression. This program was developed with the aim of supporting the poorest sectors of the population, reforming financial markets, and revitalizing an American economy that had been hurt since the crash of 1929 by unemployment and a series of bankruptcies.

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Hitler appointed Chancellor of Germany (1933)

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Hitler appointed Chancellor of Germany (1933)

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German President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler, leader of the Nazi Party, as Chancellor of Germany on January 30, 1933. Hitler did not come to power through a direct election or coup d'état, but was appointed through Germany's legal and constitutional process.

Over the next year and a half, Hitler and the Nazi Party transformed Germany from a democracy to a dictatorship under their control.

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Hitler appointed Chancellor of Germany (1933)

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On February 28, 1933, the day after the German Parliament (Reichstag) was burned to the ground, President Hindenburg issued the Decree for the Protection of the People and the Reich (Reichstag Fire Decree). Although it is unclear who caused the fire, the Nazi government blamed the communists as justification.

This decree suspended individual rights and allowed the arrest and imprisonment of political opponents without charge, the dissolution of political parties, and control of the press. It also gave the central government the power to overrule state laws and dismiss local governments.

It was a decisive step for the Nazis in establishing their dictatorship and turning Germany into a police state dominated by the SS.

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On September 15, 1935, the Nazi regime announced two racial laws known as the Nuremberg Laws: the Reich Citizenship Law and the Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honor, presented at a rally in Nuremberg.

These laws reflected the Nazi ideology that humanity was divided into races, with German “Aryans” as superior and Jews as an inferior race. The Nazis believed the presence of Jews threatened Germany and sought to separate and exclude them.

The Reich Citizenship Law defined citizens as persons “of German or related blood,” excluding Jews from full citizenship and political rights. Thus, the Nuremberg Laws were a key step in the exclusion and isolation of Jews in German society.

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Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) (1938)

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Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) (1938)

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On the night of November 9–10, 1938, the Nazi regime organized a wave of antisemitic violence known as Kristallnacht, or "Night of Broken Glass," named for the broken windows of Jewish shops.

Although it appeared to be a spontaneous outburst of popular hatred, it was a coordinated action approved by Hitler. Nazi paramilitaries attacked Jewish communities: they burned synagogues, destroyed businesses, desecrated cemeteries, and attacked Jewish homes and families, while police and firefighters failed to intervene to stop the violence.

During and after Kristallnacht, hundreds of Jews were killed or seriously injured. In addition, some 30,000 Jewish men were arrested without cause and sent to concentration camps such as Dachau and Buchenwald, where they suffered mistreatment and some died.

This event marked a turning point for the Jewish community in Germany, which saw clearly that they had no future under the Nazi regime.

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Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) (1938)

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The Triple Entente was an alliance between France, Great Britain, and Russia, formed in 1907 out of fear of the power of Germany and Austria-Hungary. It grew out of previous agreements: the Franco-Russian Treaty (1894), the Entente Cordiale between France and Great Britain (1904), and the Anglo-Russian Pact (1907). In 1914, the Entente became a military alliance during World War I against the Central Powers.

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The Triple Alliance was a coalition formed in 1882 between Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Italy, spearheaded by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Its objective was mutual support in the event of conflict. It should not be confused with the Central Powers of World War I, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire.

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Rome-Berlin Axis, Coalition formed in 1936 between Italy and Germany. An agreement formulated by Italy’s foreign minister Galeazzo Ciano informally linking the two fascist countries was reached on 25th October 1936. It was formalized by the Pact of Steel in 1939. The term Axis Powers came to include Japan as well.

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2ND WORLD WAR (TOTALIRISM SYSTEM AND RISE OF IT and crisis of democracies)

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2ND WORLD WAR (TOTALIRISM SYSTEM AND RISE OF IT and crisis of democracies)

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In August 1945, the United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki (August 9), killing an estimated 200,000 people, mostly civilians. This led to Japan's surrender and the end of World War II.

The explosions caused thousands of radiation deaths in the following years. The bombings remain a subject of debate: some consider them necessary to end the war, others view them as crimes. After the war, Japan adopted the "Three Non-Nuclear Principles."

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The Holocaust was the systematic persecution and extermination of six million European Jews by Nazi Germany and its collaborators between 1933 and 1945. Other victims included Roma, people with disabilities, Poles, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, Soviet prisoners, and political opponents.

The word "holocaust" comes from the Greek and means "all burned," referring to total destruction, usually by fire.

Although the term "holocaust" was used to describe earlier massacres, it was only during and after World War II that it became specifically associated with the Nazi genocide.

The world began to receive evidence of genocide beginning in 1942. A key warning was Gerhart Riegner's report on the Nazi plan to exterminate the Jews, which was initially ignored by the American government. Finally, in December 1942, the Allies publicly acknowledged their knowledge of this extermination campaign.

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The Liberation of Paris was a battle during World War II that lasted from August 19 to 25, 1944. Paris had been occupied by the Nazis since June 1940.

The liberation began with an uprising of the French Resistance as the American Third Army, commanded by General Patton, approached.

On August 24, the French 2nd Armored Division entered Paris, and the following day, more Allied troops arrived. The German commander, Dietrich von Choltitz, surrendered, and General Charles de Gaulle took control of the city as head of the French provisional government.

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The Imperial Japanese Army invaded Manchuria, China, on September 18, 1931, following the Mukden Incident, a fake attack prepared by the Japanese military to justify the invasion.

In February 1932, Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo, which lasted until August 1945, when the Soviet Union and Mongolia launched an offensive that ended the occupation.

The League of Nations, through the Lytton Commission, investigated and recommended not recognizing Manchukuo and returning Manchuria to China, prompting Japan to withdraw from the League.

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The Italian invasion of Albania was a brief military campaign in April 1939, lasting only five days (from the 7th to the 12th). It was driven by Mussolini's imperialist policies. Albania was quickly occupied, its king Zog I fled to Greece, and the country became a protectorate of the Italian Empire, united with the Italian crown.

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The Rhineland was key to German industry and formed a natural barrier against France. The Treaty of Versailles prohibited Germany from having troops within a 50-km stretch of the Rhine, leaving Germany vulnerable.

In 1936, Hitler broke this rule and sent 22,000 troops to the Rhineland, risking a backlash from France and Great Britain. However, neither acted, as they were either occupied or believed Germany had a right to recapture the area.

The occupation of the Rhineland removed France's strategic advantage and allowed Hitler to reinforce his troops on the border. This increased his popularity in Germany and strengthened his power.

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On 15th March 1939, German troops marched into Czechoslovakia. They took over Bohemia, and established a protectorate over Slovakia. Hitler's invasion of Czechoslovakia was the end of appeasement for several reasons: it proved that Hitler had been lying at Munich.

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1933: Hitler comes to power and begins implementing the ideology of the Nazi New Order.

1939: Germany invades Poland; territorial expansion and World War II begin.

1941: Invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa) and mass persecution of Jews and other groups.

1942: Wannsee Conference; the "Final Solution" for genocide is planned.

1943–1945: Expansion of Nazi control in Europe with policies of oppression, slavery, and extermination.

1945: Defeat of Germany and end of the Nazi New Order with the liberation of the occupied territories.

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Germany invades ussr= operation barbarossa

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Germany invades ussr= operation barbarossa

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Barbarossa was the invasion of the Soviet Union by Nazi Germany, which began on June 22, 1941. It was the largest military offensive in history, with more than 3.8 million German and Allied troops deployed on a 2,900 km front. The objective was to conquer the Soviet West, eliminate communism, and implement Generalplan Ost, which included genocide, deportations, and German colonization.

Although the Germans achieved initial successes such as taking kyiv and Crimea, they were hampered by Soviet resistance, logistical problems, and winter. They failed to capture Moscow, and on December 5, 1941, the Soviets launched a major counteroffensive.

The operation caused more than 8 million casualties and opened the Eastern Front, the deadliest of the war, with massacres of prisoners and Jews. Its failure was a turning point from which Nazi Germany never recovered.

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Germany invades ussr= operation barbarossa

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On December 7, 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. This attack led to the official entry of the United States into World War II.

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The Battle of Berlin, called the Strategic Operation for Berlin by the Soviet Union and also known as the Fall of Berlin, was one of the last major offensives of World War II in Europe.

After the Vistula–Oder Offensive in January–February 1945, the Red Army halted 60 km east of Berlin. On March 9, Germany prepared the defense of the city with Operation Clausewitz, and on March 20, preparations began under the command of General Gotthard Heinrici.

On April 16, the Soviet offensive resumed: two fronts attacked from the east and south, and a third from the north. After battles at Seelow and Halbe, the Red Army encircled the city. On April 20, Hitler's birthday, Zhukov began bombarding central Berlin from the east and north, while Konev advanced from the south. On April 23, General Helmuth Weidling took command of the forces inside Berlin, composed of exhausted troops, the Volkssturm, and the Hitler Youth.

During the following week, the Soviets captured the city. Hitler committed suicide on April 30, and the garrison surrendered on May 2. However, fighting continued in the surrounding area until the end of the war in Europe on May 8, when some German troops attempted to surrender to the Western Allies instead of the Soviets.

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The war in Europe ended on May 8, 1945, known as Victory in Europe Day (VE Day), when Germany signed its unconditional surrender to the Allies. This effectively ended World War II on the European continent following the fall of Berlin and Hitler's death in April.

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Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945, in the Führerbunker in Berlin, shooting himself in the head, while his wife, Eva Braun, took cyanide poison. According to his instructions, their bodies were removed, doused with gasoline, and burned in the garden of the Reich Chancellery. Their charred remains were recovered by the Soviets, buried in various locations until 1946, then exhumed, cremated in 1970, and their ashes scattered.

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Benito Mussolini, leader of the Republican Fascist Party and Duce of the Italian Social Republic, died on April 28, 1945, when he was summarily executed by an Italian partisan in Giulino di Mezzegra, northern Italy. The most widely accepted version is that he was shot by Walter Audisio, following an order from the Committee for the National Liberation of Northern Italy. Although the CLNAI claimed responsibility, Mussolini's death and the exact identity of his assassin have generated controversy and debate ever since.

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The Nuremberg Trials were organized by the Allies to try key Nazi leaders for the invasions and atrocities committed during World War II. Between 1939 and 1945, Nazi Germany caused millions of deaths in Europe, especially in the Soviet Union. In 1945, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States agreed to hold a joint tribunal in Nuremberg. Between November 1945 and October 1946, 22 Nazi leaders and six organizations were tried. The goal of the trials was to convict the guilty, document Nazi crimes, educate Germans, and weaken the old elite.

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The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a key financial agency of the United Nations, with 191 member countries and headquarters in Washington, D.C. It acts as a lender of last resort to governments and promotes exchange rate stability. Its mission is to foster global monetary cooperation, ensure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote employment and sustainable growth, and reduce poverty.

Created in July 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference, based on ideas of Harry Dexter White and John Maynard Keynes, it began with 29 members and the goal of rebuilding the monetary system after World War II. Initially, it focused on maintaining fixed exchange rates in the developed world. Today, it manages international financial crises and balance of payments problems through a quota system that allows countries to borrow when they face economic difficulties. It also collects economic data and monitors the economies of its members.

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Adolf Hitler was an Austrian politician, the main ideologist and leader of Nazism. He became, democratically elected, Chancellor of Germany, but gradually eliminated the mechanisms of separation of powers within the German state.

BIOGRAPHY:

Born: April 20, 1889, Austria

Died: April 30, 1945

Spouse: Eva Braun

Siblings: Paula Hitler, Otto Hitler, Angela Hitler, Edmund Hitler, Gustav Hitler, Ida Hitler, Alois Hitler Jr.

Parents: Alois Hitler, Klara Pölzl

Height: 1.75 m

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Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini, was the head of the dictatorial government of Italy during the period from 1922 to 1943. He was the creator of an anti-democratic regime called fascism, in which he received the nickname of the Duce.

BIOGRAPHY:

Birth: July 29, 1883, Predappio, Italy

Death: April 28, 1945, Giulino de Mezzegra, Azzano, Italy

Party: Republican Fascist Party

Children: Romano Mussolini, Edda Mussolini, Bruno Mussolini, Benito Albino Mussolini, Vittorio Mussolini, Anna Maria Mussolini

Spouse: Rachele Mussolini

Great-grandchildren: Romano Floriani Mussolini, Caterina Mussolini, Clarissa Mussolini, Marco Santoboni

Greandchild: Alessandra Mussolini, Fabrizio Ciano, Raimonda Ciano

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Francisco Franco Bahamonde was a Galician military man and dictator, self-proclaimed head of state from 1939 to 1975.

BIOGRAPHY:

Birth: December 4, 1892, Ferrol

Death: November 20, 1975, Madrid

Siblings: Ramón Franco y Bahamonde, Nicolás Franco Bahamonde, Pilar Franco Bahamonde, María de la Paz Franco

Children: Maria del Carmen Franco y Polo

Spouse: Carmen Polo

Grandchildren: Carmen Martínez-Bordiú y Franco

Great-grandchildren: Luis Alfonso de Borbón

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Arthur Neville Chamberlain was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1937 to 1940, a period that preceded and marked the beginning of the Second World War in Europe. Despite being the son of an influential liberal politician, Joseph Chamberlain, he was affiliated with the Conservative Party.

BIOGRAPHY:

Born: March 18, 1869, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom

Children: Dorothy Chamberlain, Francis Chamberlain

Party: Conservative Party

Aunt: Louisa Kenrick

Cousins: Arthur Chamberlain, Katherine Chamberlain

Grandparents: Caroline Harben, Timothy Kenrick, Joseph Chamberlain

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Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill was a British politician, soldier and writer, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during World War II from 1940 to 1945, with a second term from 1951 to 1955.

BIOGRAPHY:

Birth: November 30, 1874, Blenheim Palace, United Kingdom

Death: January 24, 1965, Kensington, London, United Kingdom

Children: Randolph Churchill, Mary Soames, Sarah Churchill, Marigold Frances Churchill, Diana Churchill

Spouse: Clementine Churchill

Grandchildren: Nicholas Soames, Emma Soames, Rupert Soames

Previous positions: Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1951–1955).

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Henri Philippe Benoni Omer Joseph Pétain was a French military and politician. He was considered a hero of World War I for his defense of Verdun, but also known for leading the Vichy regime, which collaborated with Nazi Germany during World War II.

BIOGRAPHY:

Born: April 24, 1856, Cauchy-à-la-Tour, France

Died: July 23, 1951, Île d’Yeu, France

Positions: Head of State of the Vichy regime (1940–1944)

Notable events:

– Marshal of France

– Convicted of treason after the war

– Controversial figure for his military and political career

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Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle was a French military leader, politician, and writer. A leader of the French Resistance during World War II, he founded the Fifth Republic and was its first president.

BIOGRAPHY:

Born: November 22, 1890, Lille, France

Death: November 9, 1970, Colombey-les-Deux-Églises, France

Children: Philippe de Gaulle

Spouse: Yvonne de Gaulle

Previous Charges:

– President of the Provisional Government of the French Republic (1944–1946)

– President of France (1959–1969)

Current: Gaullistism

Highlights:

– Leader of Free France during the Second World War

– Reformed French institutions with the creation of the Fifth Republic

– Key figure in French politics of the 20th century

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Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was a Soviet politician and dictator. General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, he ruled the USSR from the mid-1920s until his death. He played a fundamental role in the Allied victory in World War II and in the consolidation of the communist bloc.

BIOGRAPHY:

Birth: December 18, 1878, Gori, Russian Empire (now Georgia)

Died: March 5, 1953, Kutsevo Dacha, near Moscow, USSR

Children: Yakov Dzhugashvili, Vasili Dzhugashvili, Svetlana Alliluyeva

Spouses: Kato Svanidze, Nadezhda Alliluyeva

Previous positions:

– General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1922–1952)

– Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR (1941–1953)

Current: Marxism–Leninism, Stalinism

Notable events:

– Forced industrialization and agricultural collectivization

– Great Purge and regime of political terror

– Decisive role in the defeat of Nazi Germany and the establishment of the Eastern Bloc

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Franklin Delano Roosevelt was an American politician and the 32nd President of the United States. He led the country through the Great Depression and World War II, and is the only American president to be elected four consecutive times (1933–1945).

BIOGRAPHY:

Birth: January 30, 1882, Hyde Park, New York, United States

Died: April 12, 1945, Warm Springs, Georgia, United States

Children: Anna Roosevelt, James Roosevelt, Elliott Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt Jr., John Aspinwall Roosevelt

Spouse: Eleanor Roosevelt

Previous Offices:

– Governor of New York (1929–1932)

– President of the United States (1933–1945)

Political Party: Democratic Party

Notable Events:

– New Deal to address the Great Depression

– Allied leader during World War II

– Creation of Social Security and other social programs

– Key figure in the founding of the United Nations

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Victor Emmanuel III of Savoy was King of Italy from 1900 to 1946, a period that includes World War I, the rise of fascism, and World War II. He was also Emperor of Ethiopia (1936–1941) and King of Albania (1939–1943) after the Italian conquests during fascist imperialism.

BIOGRAPHY:

Birth: 11 November 1869, Naples, Kingdom of Italy

Died: 28 December 1947, Alexandria, Egypt

Spouse: Elena of Montenegro

Children: Humbert II of Italy, Yolanda, Mafalda, Giovanna, Maria Francesca

Titles:

– King of Italy (1900–1946)

– Emperor of Ethiopia (1936–1941)

– King of Albania (1939–1943)

Royal House: House of Savoy

Notable events:

– Accepted Mussolini's fascist regime in 1922

– Signed the racial laws of 1938

– Abdicated in 1946 in favor of his son Humbert II

– With the end of the monarchy, Italy became a republic

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Garbo was the code name used by British intelligence to refer to Juan Pujol García, a Catalan double agent who played a key role during World War II. He deceived the Nazis into believing he was working for them, while in reality he was collaborating with the Allies. He was instrumental in the success of the Normandy landings (D-Day).

BIOGRAPHY:

Real name: Juan Pujol García

Birth: February 14, 1912, Barcelona, ​​Spain

Died: October 10, 1988, Caracas, Venezuela

British code name: Garbo

German code name: Arabel

Nationality: Spanish

Notable facts:

– Created a fictitious network of 27 agents to deceive Nazi Germany

– Passed false information that made the Nazis believe that the Allied landing would be in Calais, not Normandy

– Received decorations from both Britain's MI5 and Nazi Germany

– Faked his own death and took refuge in Venezuela after the war

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Alan Turing was a British mathematician, logician, and cryptographer, considered the father of modern computing. During World War II, he played a key role in deciphering the Nazi codes of the Enigma machine, which decisively helped the Allied victory.

BIOGRAPHY:

Full name: Alan Mathison Turing

Birth: June 23, 1912, London, United Kingdom

Died: June 7, 1954, Wilmslow, England

Profession: Mathematician, cryptographer, theoretical computer scientist

Nationality: British

Notable facts:

– Designed the Turing machine, the theoretical basis of today's computers

– Led a team at Bletchley Park that cracked the German Enigma code

– His work is estimated to have shortened the war by 2–4 years

– Was persecuted for his homosexuality and convicted in 1952

– Died under suspicious circumstances; officially by suicide with cyanide

– In 2013 was posthumously pardoned by the British government

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Robert Capa was a Hungarian war photographer, considered one of the greatest photojournalists of the 20th century. Known for his striking images of armed conflict, he documented five wars, including the Spanish Civil War and World War II.

BIOGRAPHY:

Real name: Endre Ernő Friedmann

Birth: October 22, 1913, Budapest, Hungary

Died: May 25, 1954, Thái Bình, Vietnam

Profession: War photographer, correspondent

Nationality: Hungarian (later American)

Notable facts:

– Co-founder of the photo agency Magnum Photos (1947)

– Famous for his photo “The Fallen Soldier” during the Spanish Civil War

– Covered the Normandy Landings (D-Day) at Omaha Beach

– Died in Vietnam after stepping on a mine while covering the Indochina War

– Was romantically involved with photographer Gerda Taro, also killed in combat

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Gerda Taro, born Gerta Pohorylle, was a war photographer and one of the two people we find under the pseudonym Robert Capa, along with her former romantic partner, Endre Friedmann.

BIOGRAPHY:

Birth: August 1, 1910, Stuttgart, Germany

Died: July 26, 1937, Brunete

Movies: The Mexican Suitcase

Parents: Gisela Pohorylle, Heinrich Pohorylle

Burial Place: Père-Lachaise Cemetery, Paris, France

Field of Work: Photojournalism

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Édouard Daladier (Carpentràs, Vaucluse, 18 June 1884 – Paris, 10 October 1970) was a French politician (Radical Socialist Party). During the 1930s, Daladier was Prime Minister several times, during which he pursued a policy of appeasement towards Nazi Germany.

BIOGRAPHY:

Born: June 18, 1884, Carpentras, France

Died: October 10, 1970, Paris, France

Political party: Radical Party (center-left, French Third Republic)

Notable positions: Prime Minister of France (1933, 1934 and 1938–1940)

Notable events:

- Signed the Munich Agreement (1938) with Hitler, Chamberlain and Mussolini

- Declared war on Germany (September 3, 1939)

- Imprisoned by the Vichy regime; deported to Nazi camps (Buchenwald and Itter)

- Released in 1945 and politically rehabilitated

Burial place: Carpentras Cemetery, France

Field of work: Politics, government, national defense

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Harry Truman Harry S. Truman, was the 33rd President of the United States, serving from 1945 to 1953. A member of the Democratic Party of the United States, he previously served as a United States Senator from Missouri from 1935 to 1945 and briefly as the 34th Vice President in 1945 under Franklin D. Roosevelt.

BIOGRAPHY:

Full name: Harry S. Truman

Birth: May 8, 1884, Lamar, Missouri, United States

Died: December 26, 1972, Kansas City, Missouri, United States

Political party: Democratic Party

Notable positions:

- Vice President of the United States (1945)

- President of the United States (1945–1953)

Notable events:

- Assumed the presidency after the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt (1945)

- Authorized the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

- Start of the Cold War and the Marshall Plan

- Participation in the Korean War

Burial place: Harry S. Truman Library and Museum, Independence, Missouri

Scope of work: Politics, international leadership, U.S. government

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Hirohito was the 124th Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession, reigning from 1926 to 1989. In total, he held the throne for sixty-three years, the longest period in Japanese history. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Akihito.

BIOGRAPHY:

Birth: April 29, 1901, Akasaka Imperial Residence, Tokyo, Japan

Death: January 7, 1989, Fukiage Palace

Children: Akihito, Prince Hitachi, Kazuko Takatsukasa, Shigeko Higashikuni, Sachiko de Hisa, Takako Shimazu, Atsuko Ikeda

Siblings: Takahito de Mikasa, Yasuhito Chichibu, Nobuhito Takamatsu

Nets: Naruhito, Akishino's Fumihito, Sayako Kuroda

Parents: Yoshihito, Empress Teimei

Height: 1.65 m

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Albert Einstein, AFI, was a physicist of German origin, later naturalized Swiss and American. He was the best known and most important scientist of the 20th century.

BIOGRAPHY:

Born: March 14, 1879, Ulm, Germany

Death: April 18, 1955, Princeton, New Jersey, United States

Children: Eduard Einstein, Lieserl Einstein, Hans Albert Einstein

Spouse: Elsa Einstein, Mileva Marić

Awards: Nobel Prize in Physics

Siblings: Maja Einstein

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Francesc Boix i Campo was a Catalan photographer. He went down in history as the photographer of Mauthausen.

BIOGRAPHY:

Birth: August 31, 1920, Barcelona

Death: July 7, 1951, Paris, France

Field of work: Photography and journalism

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Neus Català i Pallejà was a Catalan communist and anti-fascist activist, a member of the Youth of the Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia during the Spanish Civil War. She was the penultimate living Catalan survivor of the Nazi concentration camp of Ravensbrück.

BIOGRAPHY:

Birth: October 6, 1915, Els Guiamets

Died: April 13, 2019, Geriàtric Guiamets, Els Guiamets

Books: A Sky of Lead: The Life of Neus Català, Of Resistance and Deportation: 50 Testimonies of Spanish Women

Siblings: Lluís Català

Parents: Rosa Pallejà, Baltasar Català

Awards: Gold Medal of the Generalitat of Catalonia

Known for: Anti-fascist fighter. Survivor of a Nazi concentration camp

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Heinrich Luitpold Himmler was a politician in Nazi Germany and head of the SS. He was one of the most powerful men in Adolf Hitler's entourage, along with Hermann Göring and Joseph Goebbels. As Reichsführer-SS, he controlled all of the Reich's police and security forces, including the dreaded Gestapo.

BIOGRAPHY:

Born: October 7, 1900, Munich, Germany

Death: May 23, 1945, Lüneburg, Germany

Children: Gudrun Burwitz, Nanette Dorothea Potthast, Helge Potthast

Spouse: Margarete Boden

Books: SS Defender Against Bolshevism, Secret Speeches

Height: 1.74 m

Foundation of the organizations: Einsatzgruppen, Lebensborn

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ARMES o INSTITUCIONS DE GUERRA o Tactiques:

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ARMES o INSTITUCIONS DE GUERRA o Tactiques:

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In March 1938, Germany sent troops into Austria, where there were some Nazi supporters, and annexed it without meeting any resistance and Austria became an additional province of Germany. This was called by Hitler the Anschluss.

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Blitzkrieg was a military tactic used by Nazi Germany during World War II, based on rapid, concentrated attacks with tanks, aircraft, and artillery to break enemy lines and advance rapidly, causing chaos and rapid surrenders. This strategy led to the conquest of much of Europe.

The Wehrmacht was the name of the German armed forces between 1935 and 1945, created after the dissolution of the Reichswehr. It was also the official name of the Swiss Army until 2003, when it was renamed the Swiss Army.

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The Luftwaffe was the air force of Nazi Germany, created in 1935 despite the prohibition of the Treaty of Versailles. It was decisive at the start of World War II, but failed in the Battle of Britain and suffered heavy losses from Allied bombing. Although it used advanced aircraft, it was outmatched by a lack of resources and Allied superiority. It was disbanded in 1946 and also participated in war crimes.

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The Danzig Crisis was a key prelude to World War II, running from March 21 to September 1, 1939. Tensions between Nazi Germany and Poland escalated over control of the German-majority Free City of Danzig (today Gdańsk, Poland), which was under League of Nations supervision but aligned with Poland. Hitler demanded that Danzig return to Germany and that Poland sign the Anti-Comintern Pact, but Poland refused. Germany then planned to invade Poland, believing that Britain and France would not enter the war. The German invasion on September 1, 1939, initiated the war, and Britain and France declared war on Germany. The Danzig Crisis was central to the breakdown of diplomacy and the outbreak of conflict in Europe.

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During World War II, radar gave the Allies an advantage in detecting enemies at long distances, even at night. It used semiconductor crystals to convert reflected signals into images. These crystals frequently failed, so institutions like Purdue, Bell Labs, and MIT researched better materials. Seymour Benzer discovered that germanium was the best semiconductor, which later led to the creation of the first transistor. This research also improved crystal growth and doping techniques, fundamental to the development of modern electronics.

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The guided bomb: had its origins in World War II. Its usage increased after the success of the weapon in the Gulf War. It is a precision-guided munition designed to achieve a smaller circular error probable.

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Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, el Reino Unido inició el primer proyecto de armas nucleares, llamado Tube Alloys, y luego se unió al proyecto Manhattan con EE. UU. y Canadá. En 1945, EE. UU. lanzó bombas atómicas sobre Hiroshima y Nagasaki con aprobación británica, siendo el único uso de estas armas en guerra. Luego, la URSS desarrolló su propia bomba, y más tarde ambos países crearon bombas de hidrógeno. Reino Unido y Francia también desarrollaron armas nucleares en los años 50. Einstein colaboró con estudios iniciales, pero lamentó su uso final.

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The Soviet scorched earth tactic (*táctica de tierra quemada): A premeditated destruction of all assets in a territory before it falls into enemy hands. 263,069 Germans were killed or wounded, and 92,090 were taken prisoner, of whom only 5,000 would survive.

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The Allies then advanced using the "leapfrogging" strategy (*estrategia de saltos): An island was conquered and then a military base was created in order to attack the next island.