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The city walls of Qayrawan were built in the 8th century during the Umayyad Caliphate, the walls were designed to protect the city, which was an important center of Islamic culture and learning in North Africa. Over time, they were expanded and reinforced, especially during the Aghlabid dynasty in the 9th century. The walls are characterized by their massive stone construction, fortified gates, and watchtowers. I selected it due to its symbolic testament to Qayrawan's role as a political, religious, and intellectual hub during the early Islamic period.

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Najd is a central region of the Arabian Peninsula, famed for its vast deserts and as the birthplace of the Saudi state. It played a crucial role in Bedouin culture and Islamic reform movements. The Shammar Mountain Range, located near Ha’il, is known for its rugged peaks and deep valleys. Historically, it provided a natural fortress for the Shammar tribe, who held significant influence in the region.

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Hadramawt, a historic region in southern Arabia (modern-day Yemen), has long been a key player in Islamic and Arabian history. Known for its ancient civilization and as a center of trade, Hadramawt prospered through its strategic position along trade routes connecting Arabia with Africa and the Indian Ocean. Its capital, Shibam, often called the “Manhattan of the Desert,” is famous for its unique mudbrick architecture.

Hadramawt has also been a center of Islamic scholarship, particularly of Sufism, influencing Islamic thought across the Indian Ocean, from East Africa to Southeast Asia. Many Hadrami families emigrated to these regions, spreading their cultural and religious influence, which continues today through their descendants.

In the modern era, Hadramawt’s tribal structure still plays a significant role in Yemen’s internal politics. Though Yemen has faced political instability, the region remains culturally and religiously influential within the broader Islamic world.

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The Zagros Mountains, stretching across Iran, Iraq, and southeastern Turkey, have played a crucial role in Middle Eastern history. Serving as a natural barrier, the range has shaped the region’s political, cultural, and economic development for millennia. Historically, the Zagros formed the boundary between major empires, such as the Persian and Ottoman Empires, and acted as a defensive shield against invasions.

The mountains have also been home to numerous ethnic groups, including the Kurds, Lurs, and Bakhtiari, whose tribal societies have thrived in the rugged terrain. These tribes have often maintained a degree of autonomy, resisting central control and playing significant roles in regional conflicts. In modern times, the Zagros region remains a hotspot for ethnic and political tensions, particularly involving Kurdish autonomy movements.

The region’s natural resources, particularly oil, have made the Zagros economically important, further shaping the political landscape of the Middle East.

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688 Zagros Mountains forest steppe - ninara

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Shatt al-Arab is a river formed by the confluence of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in southern Iraq. Flowing for about 200 kilometers before emptying into the Persian Gulf, the Shatt al-Arab has long been a crucial waterway for trade, agriculture, and transport. It forms the border between Iraq and Iran and has been a source of territorial disputes, particularly during the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988), where control over its vital shipping routes was a major point of contention.

Historically, the river has been a lifeline for local communities, and ferrymen, known as Muharib, have played an essential role in transporting people and goods across the water. These Arab ferrymen operated small boats or mahailas, which were often crafted from local materials like reeds or wood, navigating the river’s currents to connect villages and cities along its banks. The ferrymen were not only vital to local commerce but also helped maintain social and cultural exchanges between the communities of Iraq and southwestern Iran.

Though the Shatt al-Arab remains important today, modern infrastructure such as bridges and industrial shipping has reduced the traditional role of ferrymen. However, in rural areas where road access is limited, they continue to serve as key transport providers, preserving a centuries-old way of life.

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Samarkand, one of Central Asia’s oldest cities, is a historic crossroads of cultures, located in present-day Uzbekistan. Founded around the 7th century BCE, it became a key city on the Silk Road, linking China to the Mediterranean. Renowned for its wealth and cultural significance, Samarkand attracted conquerors throughout history, including Alexander the Great.

In 329 BCE during his campaign to conquer the Persian Empire, as shown in the picture, Alexander reached Samarkand, then known as Marakanda. The city was part of the Achaemenid Empire, and its strategic location made it a valuable prize. Alexander’s conquest of Samarkand was not easy; the city was well-fortified, and the local Sogdian population fiercely resisted his forces. After a series of battles, including a rebellion led by Sogdian nobles, Alexander eventually subdued the city.

Samarkand’s capture solidified Alexander’s control over the region, but unrest continued. The Sogdians, along with other local tribes, mounted a guerrilla resistance from nearby mountain fortresses, most famously led by Spitamenes. This resistance forced Alexander into a prolonged campaign to secure the region. Despite the unrest, Alexander left a lasting legacy in Samarkand by integrating it into his Hellenistic empire, introducing Greek culture and military governance, which blended with the local traditions.

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The Guadalquivir River, called “Wadi al-Kabir” by the Moors, was central to the prosperity of Al-Andalus during Moorish rule from the 8th to 15th centuries. Flowing through key cities like Córdoba and Seville, it supported agriculture, trade, and culture. Córdoba flourished as the Umayyad capital, becoming a center of Islamic learning, while Seville thrived as a major port. The river helped sustain the region’s wealth and cultural development, leaving a lasting Moorish influence even after the Christian Reconquista.

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The Battle of Manzikert (1071) was a pivotal clash between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Turks, near modern-day Malazgirt in Turkey. The Byzantines, led by Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes, faced the forces of Seljuk Sultan Alp Arslan. The Byzantines suffered a crushing defeat, with Romanos being captured.

This battle is significant because it marked the beginning of the decline of Byzantine control in Anatolia. Following the defeat, much of the region fell to the Turks, leading to increased Islamic influence in Anatolia and paving the way for the eventual rise of the Ottoman Empire. Manzikert also exposed internal Byzantine weaknesses, contributing to its long-term decline.

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Aragon, a kingdom in northeastern Spain, played a significant role in the Christian Reconquista and the broader relationship between Spain and Islam. From the 8th to the 15th century, large parts of the Iberian Peninsula, including Aragon, were under Muslim control. However, Aragon emerged as a key player in the Christian reconquest of Muslim-held territories.

By the 12th century, under rulers like Alfonso I, who was educated in the building pictured above, Aragon expanded its influence by capturing key Muslim strongholds such as Zaragoza. The kingdom’s interactions with Islamic culture, particularly in areas like architecture, science, and agriculture, left a lasting legacy on Aragon. The blending of Christian and Islamic influences can still be seen today in Aragon’s cultural and architectural heritage.

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The Kingdom of Hungary was one of medieval Europe’s wealthiest realms, thanks to its vast reserves of gold, silver, and fertile lands. This wealth, shown above through the crown, funded a powerful military, enabling Hungary to play a key role in defending Europe from invasions, including the Ottoman Empire’s Islamic expansion. Despite Hungary’s resistance, the kingdom was partially conquered by the Ottomans after the Battle of Mohács in 1526, leading to centuries of Ottoman influence in southern Hungary.