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The 1896 Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson was a landmark decision that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation laws under the doctrine of "separate but equal." The case arose when Homer Plessy, who was one-eighth Black, sat in a whites-only train car in Louisiana and was arrested for violating segregation laws.

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by Noah Webster was a major development in education. It set spelling and grammatical standards for the English language in America. Known as “Blue-Backed Speller,” it was first published in 1783.

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the United States had racially-segregated schools through the 1960s. In the 1970s, the United States eradicated segregated schooling.

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The plaintiffs, including Oliver Brown, argued that segregated schools were inherently unequal and violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice Earl Warren, unanimously ruled that segregation in public education created a sense of inferiority among Black children and deprived them of equal educational opportunities.

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The act authorized many grants and a formula program for Indian children and adults. It also established the Office of Indian Education and the National Advisory Council on Indian Education.

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The act provided federal funding to enhance education for Native American students in public schools, including support for programs that addressed their unique cultural and educational needs.

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The Indian Education Act was part of a broader movement during the 1970s to recognize and address the rights and needs of Indigenous peoples in the U.S., and it laid the groundwork for subsequent legislation and policies aimed at enhancing educational equity for Native American students.

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The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EAHCA), enacted in 1975, was a landmark piece of legislation in the United States that ensured children with disabilities had the right to a free and appropriate public education (FAPE). This act marked a significant shift in how students with disabilities were treated in the education system.

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The act mandated that schools develop IEPs for each eligible child, outlining specific educational goals and the services necessary to achieve them.

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Highlights

Amendments to the Education of the Handicapped Act to improve educational services in local public schools for children with mental, physical, emotional, and learning handicaps require that free appropriate public education be available for all handicapped children. Schools are required to evaluate a child's special needs, develop an individualized education program for the child, involve the child's parents, and educate the handicapped child along with nonhandicapped children as much as possible. The Bureau of Education for the Handicapped (BEH) has estimated that twice the number of handicapped children needing special education exist as those identified by the States. In trying to get States to increase the number of children identified and reported, BEH has shown little concern for possible mislabeling and overcounting of children. Overcounting children by the States could affect the appropriation and distribution of Federal funds, and erroneously labeling children as handicapped could have a stigmatizing effect. The eligibility criteria for children with only minor impairments, such as speech impediments need to be defined in the law. It is difficult to determine whether a program is a related service or special education under the standards. A speech impairment might not be an impairment which adversely affects a child's educational performance, a criteria for special education. The requirements for individualized education have not been met. Program goals of serving all handicapped children will not be met due to inadequate funding by the States and an inability to find needed special education personnel. Many of the difficulties in adequately and promptly implementing the Act's requirements occurred because of State and Federal management problems. GAO will propose that Congress clarify whether children who are receiving only speech therapy or other related services are eligible for coverage. In view of the difficulties the States are having in funding the programs, Congress may wish to consider providing incentives to stimulate State and local funding or increase Federal funding for the program. A decision to exempt those children from coverage under the Act whose impairments have not adversely affected their educational performance could increase the chances of reaching the law's goals sooner, if funding is not reduced.

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The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975

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Highlights Amendments to the Education of the Handicapped Act to improve educational services in local public schools for children with mental, physical, emotional, and learning handicaps require that free appropriate public education be available for all handicapped children.

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school choice became an option as public charter schools started to grow. The first one was established in Minnesota.

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The 1980s marked a significant period in the development of school choice in the United States, reflecting a growing interest in educational reform and alternatives to traditional public schooling. Key aspects of school choice during this decade include

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The school choice movement sparked significant public debate about educational equity, funding, and the role of government in education. Advocates argued that choice could improve educational outcomes by fostering competition, while critics raised concerns about the potential for increased inequality and the impact on public schools.

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Polly Williams authored the Milwaukee Parental Choice Program in Wisconsin. This was the first modern-day private school choice legislation.

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Polly Williams was a significant figure in the school choice movement, particularly in Wisconsin. Elected to the Wisconsin State Assembly in 1986, she became known for her advocacy of educational reform and was a prominent supporter of school voucher programs.

Williams's work in education reform and her advocacy for the rights of parents to choose their children's schools made her a notable and sometimes controversial figure in discussions about educational policy and equity. Her contributions have had a lasting impact on the national conversation around school choice.

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became the first school to open in the thirteen colonies. It is also considered to be the nation’s oldest public school, according to American Board.

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Public schools in the United States initially focused on values like family, religion, and community. There was not as much of an emphasis on academics like math or reading. At the time, girls were typically taught how to read, but not to write.

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Harvard was the first school for higher education. It was founded in 1636. AllAboutHistory.org shares that the Puritans settled and planned to train people up to spread the gospel. Harvard’s mission was to do just that.

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Originally called "New College," it was renamed Harvard College in 1639 after John Harvard, a young minister who bequeathed his library and half his estate to the institution.

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Public schools were not prevalent in the South during the 1600s and the early 1700s. Children were educated if their families could afford private tutors.

Public School Review notes that public schools continued to grow across the country. Yet, there was no real system for guidance.

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public schools were indeed scarce, and education largely depended on private tutors or wealthy families who could afford to educate their children at home. This lack of public schooling was influenced by various factors, including the agrarian economy and the social structure, which prioritized labor and survival over formal education.

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After the Revolutionary War, Thomas Jefferson believed there should be an education system. He envisioned that it would be supported by taxpayer dollars. However, the government did not enact a formal system of education for nearly a century after his proposal.

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Expectations continue to change for education. In 2001, President George W. Bush reauthorized The Elementary and Secondary Education Act. It was renamed No Child Left Behind, bringing in standards-based testing reforms and penalities for schools that fail to meet adequate yearly progress goals.

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School choice programs became more prevalent. In 2011, 12 states passed legislation that either created school choice programs or expanded already-existing ones.

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President Obama reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act in 2015 as the Every Student Succeeds Act, which provides many measures of assessments for student achievement.

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The National Review shares how President Trump worked to expand school choice through initiatives such as the Educational Freedom Scholarships.

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When President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act in 1965, it was a centerpiece of the War on Poverty. It provided funding that is critical to many of the schools where our members teach. The law was designed to ensure that every school got the resources to teach students, particularly in neighborhoods or districts that were not wealthy.

The current system based on high-stakes testing-driven by No Child Left Behind, Race to the Top and the federal waiver process-is untenable, creating a toxic environment that's robbing our students and teachers.

All signs point to Congress reauthorizing ESEA in 2015. The AFT has identified three priorities for the ESEA authorization process:

A robust accountability system that uses multiple measures, maintaining fiscal equity.

Reducing the fixation on high-stakes tests.

Getting the federal government out of its role as the human resources department for our schools.

Sens. Lamar Alexander (R-Tenn.) and Patty Murray (D-Wash.) have unveiled a bipartisan bill reauthorizing the act. The Alexander-Murray bill goes back to the original intent of the law, to level the playing field for at-risk kids, and largely addresses our priorities.

We still have work to do to achieve our goals, and will continue to push for amendments and set out a clear framework for ensuring that ESEA stays true to its root focus on equity and civil rights; dials back the destructive impact of high-stakes testing; and sets forth big, bold ideas that will help all kids succeed.

See our list of resources at right, and view additional AFT news and press on the reauthorization of ESEA here.

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When President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act in 1965, it was a centerpiece of the War on Poverty. It provided funding that is critical to many of the schools where our members teach.

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Presently, the Biden Administration is working to create education programs that would signify the most federal involvement in almost half a century, reports The Washington Post. His plan involves 17 years of school attendance instead of the traditional 13-year method. Under this proposed plan, pre-kindergarten would be available for three-year-old children, and the first two years of community college would be free. At this date, the Biden Administration has already invested hundreds of billions of taxpayer dollars into the education system.