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Wilam By: Aunty Joy Murphy, Andrew Kelly, Lisa Kennedy (STORY LAB - Read Aloud)

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For information to assist regulatory considerations, refer to Policy Statements and Guidelines, the Conservation Advice, the Listing Advice and/or the Recovery Plan.

EPBC Act Listing Status

Listed as Vulnerable (Date effective 06-Dec-2001)

Approved Conservation Advice

There is no approved Conservation Advice for this species

Listing Advice

Threatened Species Scientific Committee (2001). Commonwealth Listing Advice on Pteropus poliocephalus (Grey-headed Flying-fox). Available from: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/species/p-poliocephalus.html. In effect under the EPBC Act from 06-Dec-2001.

Recovery Plan Decision

Recovery Plan required, included on the Commenced List (1/11/2009).

Adopted/Made Recovery Plans

Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment (2021). National Recovery Plan for the Grey-headed Flying-fox Pteropus poliocephalus. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Available from: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/recovery/grey-headed-flying-fox. In effect under the EPBC Act from 19-Mar-2021.

Adopted/Made Threat Abatement Plans

No Threat Abatement Plan has been identified as being relevant for this species

Policy Statements and Guidelines

Referral guideline for management actions in Grey-headed and Spectacled flying-fox camps (Department of the Environment, 2015) [Admin Guideline].
Survey Guidelines for Australia's Threatened Bats. EPBC Act survey guidelines 6.1 (Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (DEWHA), 2010) [Admin Guideline].

Information Sheets

Flying-foxes and national environmental law (Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities (DSEWPaC), 2012) [Information Sheet].
A review of noise, light and dust impacts on grey-headed flying-fox camps (Ecosure, 2021) [Information Sheet].

Federal Register of Legislative Instruments

State Government
Documents and Websites

State Listing Status

Non-statutory Listing Status

Distribution map

The distribution shown is generalised from the Departments Species of National Environmental Significance dataset. This is an indicative distribution map of the present distribution of the species based on best available knowledge. Some species information is withheld in line with sensitive species polices. See map caveat for more information.

This database is designed to provide statutory, biological and ecological information on species and ecological communities, migratory species, marine species, and species and species products subject to international trade and commercial use protected under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (the EPBC Act). It has been compiled from a range of sources including listing advice, recovery plans, published literature and individual experts. While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure the accuracy of the information, no guarantee is given, nor responsibility taken, by the Commonwealth for its accuracy, currency or completeness. The Commonwealth does not accept any responsibility for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the information contained in this database. The information contained in this database does not necessarily represent the views of the Commonwealth. This database is not intended to be a complete source of information on the matters it deals with. Individuals and organisations should consider all the available information, including that available from other sources, in deciding whether there is a need to make a referral or apply for a permit or exemption under the EPBC Act.

Citation: Department of the Environment (2023). Pteropus poliocephalus in Species Profile and Threats Database, Department of the Environment, Canberra. Available from: https://www.environment.gov.au/sprat. Accessed Wed, 27 Sep 2023 13:53:14 +1000.

Where available the sections below provide a biological profile for the species. Biological profiles vary in age and content across species, some are no longer being updated and are retained as archival content. These profiles are still displayed as they contain valuable information for many species. The Profile Update section below indicates when the biological profile was last updated for some species. For information to assist regulatory considerations, please refer to Conservation Advice, the Recovery Plan, Policy Statements and Guidelines.

Other common name: Grey-headed Fruit-bat

The Grey-headed Flying-Fox is one of the largest bats in the world with a weight of 600-1000 g and a head-body length of 230-289 mm (Eby & Lunney 2002; Tidemann 1998). It is the only Australian flying-fox that has a collar of orange/brown fully encircling its neck (Hall 1987). Thick leg fur extends to the ankle, in contrast to other Pteropus species in which it only reaches the knee (Hall 1987; Tidemann 1998). As its name implies, the head is covered by light grey fur (Hall 1987). The belly fur is grey, often with flecks of white and ginger. The fur on the back shows two morphs which could be related to age, moult or sub-population (Hall & Richards 2000). One morph has dark grey fur and the other has a pronounced silver or frosted appearance (Luckoff undated pers. comm. cited in Hall 1987). Winter fur is darker than summer fur with a pronounced moult occurring in June (Luckoff undated pers. comm. cited in Hall 1987).

Some individuals can be difficult to distinguish from the Black Flying-fox ( Pteropus alecto), with which the Grey-headed Flying-Fox sometimes hybridises (Tidemann 1998).
Current distribution
The species sometimes ranges into South Australia (Hall & Richards 2000) and occasional individuals have been observed on Bass Strait islands (Tidemann 1998) and mainland Tasmania (Kempton 2010). It is infrequently found west of the Great Dividing Range (Tidemann 1998). The species occurs at a higher latitude than any other megachiropteran (megabat) species (Aston 1987; Menkhorst & Dixon 1985; Parry-Jones & Augee 1991).
2012-15 flying-fox monitoring program
The CSIRO has developed a scientifically rigorous monitoring methodology to gather updated information about the status of the national Grey-headed Flying-fox population and population trends (Westcott et al. 2011). On 31 May 2012, the Australian Government announced $1 500 000 in funding for CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences to implement a four-year monitoring program based on their methodology (DSEWPaC 2012g). The program is coordinated by CSIRO and the Commonwealth government and began in late 2012 with the assistance of State government's (DSEWPaC 2012g).

The Department of the Environment maintains records of known flying-fox camps. These locations have been used to produce maps of the modelled distribution for both Grey-headed and Spectacled Flying-foxes ( Pteropus conspicillatus). A list and maps of known and historic Grey-headed Flying-fox camps are available from the department's website (DSEWPaC 2012g). These locations were also used in previous counts (Birt 2005; Eby 2004).

The program will focus primarily on monitoring national Grey-headed and Spectacled Flying-fox populations, however within the range of these two species, counts of Black Flying-fox'es ( Pteropus alecto) and Little Red Flying Fox'es ( Pteropus scapulatus) will also be undertaken. The monitoring program will include four census's per year for the first three years. CSIRO is also contributing resources into the radio tracking component of the program and working on and funding separately the development of a new generation of energy-efficient technologies that can continuously track the position of flying-foxes (DSEWPaC 2012g).
Melbourne - permanent colonies
Since becoming permanently established at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne, in 1981, the colony's numbers have greatly increased. This population reached a total of 20 000 (static count) individuals in February-March 2001 (GFACTF 2001) and peaked, in summer 2003, with around 30 000 individuals (fly-out count) (DSE 2005f; van der Ree et al. 2004). Van der Ree et al. (2004) noted that the number of Grey-headed Flying-foxes within the colony fluctuated seasonally, with a peak in summer/autumn (December-May) and a trough in winter/spring (July-October).

In March 2003, a relocation program commenced, whereby Melbourne's flying-foxes were relocated from the Royal Botanic Gardens to form two new colonies. The main colony is located at Yarra Bend Park, five km north east of Melbourne's Central Business District, and the second smaller colony is at Eastern Park in Geelong, approximately 60 km south of the city (DSE 2005f).
Former distribution
Collett (1897) and Andersen (1912) recorded Grey-headed Flying-foxes from far North Queensland. In 1929-30, camp sites, occupied permanently or regularly, were found from Rockhampton in Queensland to Mallacoota in Victoria, along the eastern coast to 100 km inland in Queensland and to the eastern edge of the escarpment in NSW (Ratcliffe 1931). By including areas used less consistently, the range was subsequently extended to include the southern boundary to Warrnambool in Victoria and the inland boundary of the species' range to the western slopes of NSW (Nelson 1965a, 1965b).

The national population of the Grey-headed Flying-fox is spatially structured into colonies (Parry-Jones & Wardle 2004). However, there are no separate or distinct populations due to the constant genetic exchange and movement between camps throughout the species' entire geographic range. This indicates that there is one single interbreeding population (Webb & Tidemann 1995; DSE 2005f).
National counts and population estimates
A number of national counts in different years has provided population estimates of the Grey-headed Flying-fox over time, as listed below. However, these estimates are based on incomplete knowledge of camp location and use.

May, 2005

674 000

The 2005 national count figure was considered to be markedly higher than previous, due to: counter error; a possible higher rate of survival of young born in 2004 as a result of food availability and lower culling; and a concentration of individuals on the southern and central coasts of NSW as a result of intense flowering of the Spotted Gum ( Corymbia maculata) during the counting period (Birt 2005).

Birt 2005; Eby 2004

Due to its wide distribution and extensive mobility, annual national counts of the Grey-headed Flying-fox have not taken place since 2005.
Captive populations
Tidemann (1998) notes that the species thrives in captivity and, given suitable food, breeds freely.

The Grey-headed Flying-fox roosts in aggregations of various sizes on exposed branches. Roost sites are typically located near water, such as lakes, rivers or the coast (van der Ree et al. 2005). Roost vegetation includes rainforest patches, stands of Melaleuca, mangroves and riparian vegetation (Nelson 1965a; Ratcliffe 1931), but colonies also use highly modified vegetation in urban and suburban areas (Birt et al. 1998; Tidemann & Vardon 1997; van der Ree et al. 2005). The species can maintain fidelity to roost sites for extended periods (Lunney & Moon 1997), although new sites have been colonised (Tidemann & Vardon 1997).
Sexual maturity
Generally, females do not reach full sexual maturity until three years of age (Martin 2000). However, of the 46 female Grey-headed Flying-foxes and Black Flying-foxes in a captive breeding colony, pregnancy occurred in the second year for some individuals (McIlwee & Martin 2002).
Reproduction
Mating occurs in early autumn, after which time the larger camps begin to break up, reforming in late spring/early summer, as food resources become more abundant (Hall & Richards 2000). Males and females segregate in October when females usually give birth. Following six months of gestation, females bear a single young each year. Twins are rare (Martin 2000). During birthing, the female hangs by the feet with young being born headfirst and subsequently positioned with the mother's wings folded around the young's head (Nelson 1965b; Martin et al. 1987). Lactation usually begins in October and continues for three to four months or sometimes longer (Nelson 1965b).

For a period of four to five weeks after giving birth, the mother carries her single young with her to feeding sites. Young are carried on the ventral surface of their foraging mothers (Tidemann 1998). Once the young are completely furred, they are left in maternal camps and continue to be nursed until they are independent after around 12 weeks (Hall & Richards 2000). During this nursery phase, males rejoin the females for courting with pair bonds being formed (Hall & Richards 2000).

In the wild, as most adult female Grey-headed Flying-foxes conceive one young annually (Nelson 1965b; Towers & Martin 1985, 1995), they have a low maximum rate of population growth for their size (Parry-Jones 2000). This slow growth rate is further affected by females' tendency to abort (Dukelow et al. 1990) or abandon their young (Tidemann 1998) in response to environmental stress, such as food shortages or high temperatures. As a result, mass abortions and premature births are known to occur in the wild (Hall et al. 1991).
Life expectancy
Tidemann and Nelson (2011) inferred an average life expectancy of 7.1 ± 3.9 years and a generation length of 7.4 ± 3.76 years for wild Grey-headed Flying-foxes based on the recapture of 86 banded bats. Recaptured hand-reared bats were found to live half as long as wild bats (Tideman & Nelson 2011). A captive male Grey-headed Flying-fox taken into care at the age of six months died at the age of 23 years (Pritchard 2001); a wild bat was recaptured at 18 years (Tidemann & Nelson 2011).
Mortality
Heat-related deaths in Australian flying-foxes have been documented repeatedly since European settlement. A heatwave in north-east NSW in January, 2004, coincided with a field study of reproductive output in Grey-headed Flying-foxes, providing a unique opportunity to assess the relative impact of temperature on animals in the Bellingen Island, NSW, roost (Eby et al. 2004). During the study, on January 7, 2004, the ambient temperature exceeded 45 °C and an estimated 5000-7000 individuals died. There was a significant impact on dependent young less than 4 months old (young = 33.6% of the pre-heat wave population and 94.3% of dead individuals) and the percentage of adult females with young reduced from 84.1% to 66.5% (Eby et al. 2004).

In one study major causes of death of 86 wild Grey-headed Flying-foxes were: hyperthermia (33.7%); electrocution (18.6%); entanglement in fruit-tree netting (5.8%); entanglement in barbed wire (4.7%); unknown (32.6%) (Tidemann & Nelson 2011). Seventy-seven percent of recoveries of wild-banded bats were within 20 km of where they were banded (Tidemann & Nelson 2011).
Ecosystem maintenance
The Grey-headed Flying-fox is important to the health and maintenance of many ecosystems in eastern Australia. The species performs pollination and seed dispersal for a wide range of native trees, including commercially important hardwood and rainforest species, such as native figs and palms (Tidemann 1998). It contributes directly to the reproduction, regeneration and the evolutionary processes of forest ecosystems. If numbers of Grey-headed Flying-foxes were reduced to small or localised groups, then rainforest seed dispersal and hardwood pollination processes would be severely curtailed (Richards 2000).

Like other species of Australian flying-fox, the Grey-headed Flying-fox will take cultivated fruits (Hall & Richards 2000). Flying-foxes cause crop losses by puncturing fruit with their teeth and claws, soiling fruit from the orchard and damaging trees by breaking limbs, particularly new growth carrying next season's fruiting buds (Ullio 2002). The Grey-headed Flying-fox is capable of causing direct losses to horticulturalists in NSW and is the main species responsible for crop losses in this State (Ullio 2002).

Studies of other Pteropididae in Africa have shown that significant events such as mating (Wolten et al. 1982), lactation (Thomas & Marshall 1984) and migration (Thomas 1983) coincide with a predictable abundance of native fruit (Parry-Jones & Augee 1991).

The Grey-headed Flying-fox is highly mobile (Menkhorst 1995; Tidemann 1998) and the national population is fluid, moving up and down the east coast in search of food. For example, two individuals fitted with satellite tracking devices made round trips of more than 2000 km over a nine-month period (Tidemann & Nelson 2004; van der Ree et al. 2005).
Daily movements
Grey-headed Flying-foxes commute daily to foraging areas, usually within 15 km of the day roost site (Tidemann 1998). Grey-headed Flying-foxes are capable of nightly flights of up to 50 km from their roost to different feeding areas as food resources change (Eby unpubl. cited in Eby 1991). With suitable winds, Grey-headed Flying-foxes can cruise at speeds in excess of 35 km per hour for extended periods (Tidemann 1998). At most times of the year there is a complete exodus from the colony site at dusk. The exception to this rule occurs in spring and early summer when juveniles are left in the nursery colony sites at night. During this time small groups of adult flying-foxes leave the site more than an hour after the majority of bats fly out. In nursery colonies flying-foxes fly in and out of the site throughout the night (Parry-Jones & Augee 1992).
Seasonal movements
Previous studies of movements of the species in northern NSW and southern Queensland have indicated that various seasonal movements occur among camps. It is believed that Grey-headed Flying-foxes respond to changes in the amount of available food by migrating between camps in irregular patterns (Eby 2000).

Ratcliffe (1931), working on Pteropus in eastern Australia, considered that annual southerly movements occurred from northern and central Queensland into NSW in spring and summer, with return migrations in late autumn. Nelson (1965a) suggested a pattern of dispersal from large summer breeding camps near Brisbane (Queensland) to small winter groups in the same region, and suggested that the movements were a response to the availability of food. McWilliam (1986), working in the Richmond River catchment area in north-eastern NSW, observed a seasonal migration from the coast to inland areas, which he attributed to both temperature and food availability (Eby 1991).

The movements and numbers of Grey-headed Flying-foxes were recorded in and around a colony site at Matcham, Gosford, NSW, between 1986 and 1990 (Parry-Jones & Augee 1992). During all four years of the study, population numbers were high during the period March to May, corresponding with the mating season reported by McGuckin and Blackshaw (1987). After mating, there was a rapid or gradual abandonment of the Matcham site, depending on the year, as the bats dispersed to scattered sites within the surrounding area (Parry-Jones & Augee 1992).
Detectability
The Grey-headed Flying-fox is the only Australian flying-fox that has a collar of orange/brown fur fully encircling its neck. It is also the only species where the fur goes down to the ankle, while in other flying-foxes the fur extends to the knee (DEWHA 2010m).
Seasonal considerations
Grey-headed Flying-fox presence will be dependent on food resources. The time and location of flowering and fruiting of diet plants varies among seasons and years. In particular, drought years can have a strong influence on eucalypt flowering times. Sites noted as important in one year or period may not be visited again in the following year. In short, the presence or absence of this species at a site during a particular time or year may not necessarily be indicative of the importance of that habitat area to the species (DEWHA 2010m).
Recommended survey approach
The Grey-headed Flying-fox occupies most areas in their distribution in highly irregular patterns, and, therefore, surveys based on animal sightings are unlikely to be reliable. A more effective survey method is to search appropriate databases and other sources for the locations of camps, and to conduct vegetation surveys to identify feeding habitat (DEWHA 2010m).
Prior to the survey
A review of known flying fox camps should be conducted for the project area and the wider general area. The location of many camps is known, and the information is available through databases held by the NSW Office of Environment and Heritage, Queensland Department of Environment and Resource Management, the Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment, the Australasian Bat Society and in the literature. There is a network of people with knowledge about camp location and seasonal movements. For example, often, local people, orchardists, apiarists, parks officers and forestry workers, wildlife groups, the flying fox carer network and traditional owners will know if camps exist or have existed in or near the project area, and, if so, whether they are likely to be occupied at the time of the survey (DEWHA 2010m).
Daytime field surveys for camps
The primary method for determining the presence of unrecorded day roosts is to conduct field surveys. Flying-foxes are recognised easily from a distance while they roost or are in flight, and have distinctive audible calls that are heard most frequently in the early morning or under sunny conditions. Other signs include their distinctive odour and droppings. Both the ground and foliage should be examined for flying-fox scats. Some project areas may require access by boat. Note that this species rarely vocalises during rain and some periods of the day. Roosts can also be located by surveying for animals exiting at dusk. For very large and/or inaccessible project areas, it may be necessary to conduct an aerial survey for camps from a light aircraft (DEWHA 2010m).
Surveys of vegetation communities and food plants
Vegetation communities, within the core range of Grey-headed Flying-foxes, have been mapped and the significance of each community, as feeding habitat, has been ranked by Eby and Law (2008 cited in DEWHA 2010m). This ranking should be consulted to help identify vegetation communities in the project area. Vegetation maps, based on modelled data, may be less useful as they do not always accurately represent field conditions. Furthermore, field surveys should be conducted by a qualified botanist to confirm the vegetation communities in the project area and the presence of food plants (DEWHA 2010m).
Night time surveys
Conduct walking transects (100 m apart) looking for feeding and flying bats. Smell can also provide a sign of their presence. Alternative methods may include night time audio recordings made at selected sites or where fruiting food plants occur within the project area (DEWHA 2010m).
Biological factors
Based on the longevity of captive animals (up to 23 years), their strict breeding season and single birth per year, McIlwee and Martin (2002) suggest that Australian flying-foxes have evolved in conditions where individuals experience low levels of natural mortality and long survival times in the wild, probably upwards of 15 years. However, since European settlement, flying-fox mortality has increased due to habitat destruction and culling (McIlwee & Martin 2002).
Habitat loss and fragmentation
Post-European settlement, clearing of native vegetation for agriculture and forestry operations has accelerated and has been particularly widespread over the range of the Grey-headed Flying-fox in eastern Australia (State of the Environment Advisory Council 1996). The loss of native habitat is assumed to have resulted in the destruction or disturbance of roosting and foraging habitats of the species.

The complexity of habitat requirements of the Grey-headed Flying-fox, particularly for multiple, geographically dispersed populations of food trees, militates against its conservation within a system of forest reserves. As a result, the species is vulnerable to land use decisions outside such reserves (Eby 1996; Parry-Jones 1993; Pressey 1994; Tidemann & Vardon 1997).

Annually, reliable winter resources are limited in distribution to a narrow coastal strip in Queensland and northern NSW, and primarily occur on freehold land (Eby 1996; Pressey et al. 1996). These coastal areas, containing important winter flowering species, particularly Broad-leaved Paper Bark ( Melaleuca quinquenervia), Spotted Gum (Corymbia maculata), Swamp Mahogany ( Eucalyptus robusta) and Forest Red Gum ( Eucalyptus tereticornis), are targeted for intensive residential development (NSW Department of Planning 1995). For example, 70% of the Broad-leaved Paper Bark swamps, between Noosa Heads and Tweed Heads, has been lost to urban development (Hall unpub. cited in Duncan et al. 1999).

Spring foraging resources are considered to be critical to the survival of the species. Reliable resources during late gestation, birth and early lactation are required to avoid rapid weight loss in adults and poor reproductive success (Eby 1999; Collins 2000; Parry-Jones & Augee 2001). Spring food shortages have been reported over large portions of the range in six of the past 20 years, and more frequently in some local areas (Parry-Jones & Augee 2001; Teagle 2002).

Lack of foraging resources can also force Grey-headed Flying-foxes into commercial fruit crops, increasing conflict with growers and subsequent culling of individuals (Teagle 2002).

The loss of roosting habitat has also been identified as a threat to Grey-headed Flying-foxes (Tidemann et al. 1999, NSW Scientific Committee 2001). Roost sites have often been exposed to the same historical patterns of foraging habitat clearance and degradation (Lunney & Moon 1997). Whilst the species' specific roosting requirements is not fully known, the loss of habitat has forced the Grey-headed Flying-fox to set up daytime roosts in suburban areas. These areas often retain small tracts of bushland and mangroves for conservation value, and it is these sites that flying-foxes are attracted to (Birt 2000). Birt (2000) stresses that, before European settlement, flying-foxes frequented these areas and, therefore, are not necessarily 'new' sites. The impact on the species from the loss of long-term sites, or the degradation of small remnants to the point that they are no longer used, is also not known (Pallin 2000).

Loss of habitat causes an increase in the animal's energy expenditure, as individuals need to fly greater distances between campsites and feeding areas as well as between individual campsites along migratory routes. As a result, flying-foxes have had to resort to alternative food sources, such as fruit crops which carry a greater risk of death for individuals through shooting, electrocution or poison (Birt 2000).
Exploitation
The Grey-headed Flying-fox can destroy commercial fruit grown in Queensland and NSW (Jamieson 1988, Slack 1990; Tidemann et al. 1997). Shooting flying-foxes has been the most common method to protect fruit crops (Teagle 2002). Permit systems in NSW and Victoria have regulated destruction activities whilst Queensland ceased permits for shooting in 2008. Presently, NSW is the only State issuing shooting licences, although this is to be phased out over three years from March 2011 (NSW OEH 2011). The number of flying-foxes shot illegally is unknown, but estimates as high as 100 000 annually have been made (Vardon & Tidemann 1995). As a result, the impact of Grey-headed Flying-foxes from shooting, on population size and demographic structure, remains unquantified. The impact is more substantial than direct deaths alone would indicate, for a large proportion of animals shot in orchards are pregnant and lactating females (Parry-Jones 1993; Tidemann et al. 1997). Juveniles who remain in maternity camps and are dependent on lactating females are known to die of starvation when lactating females are killed (Nelson 1965b; Parry-Jones 1993; Ratcliffe 1931).
Competition and hybridisation
There is no evidence that Black Flying-fox ( P. alecto) and Grey-headed Flying-fox use agonistic behaviour to compete directly for resources (Eby pers. obs. cited in NSW DECCW 2010k; Markus pers. obs. cited in NSW DECCW 2010k). The two species share roosts and diet plants. However, following a substantial southerly shift by the Black Flying-fox, since it was first described, into coastal areas inhabited by the Grey-headed Flying-fox (Webb & Tidemann 1995), it has been suggested that indirect competition is favouring the Black Flying-fox. This observation is based on the increasing displacement of Grey-headed Flying-foxes in coastal areas, north from the Clarence Valley and in the tablelands of southeast Queensland (Birt 2000, Hall 2002a, Eby 2004). Moreover, in Brisbane, the numbers of Grey-headed Flying-foxes, in comparison to Black Flying-foxes, declined markedly during the 1990s (Luckoff undated pers. comm. cited in Duncan et al. 1999).

Grey-headed Flying-foxes and Black-headed Flying-foxes are closely related species that share many behavioural and ecological characterstics. Both species are synchronous, seasonal breeders and their annual reproductive cycles are closely aligned at subtropical latitudes (Nelson 1965b, Webb and Tidemann 1995, Martin et al. 1996). Hybrids between Grey-headed Flying-foxes and Black Flying-foxes have occurred in captivity (Luckoff pers. comm. cited in Duncan et al. 1999). Hall (1987) noted that a female Grey-headed Flying-fox mated with a male Black Flying-fox and produced a female offspring which possessed mainly the features of a Grey-headed Flying-fox, that is, fully encircling collar and hairy legs.
Pollutants, electrocution and pathogens
Some urban-dwelling Grey-headed Flying-foxes accumulate lethal levels of lead from the environment (Hariono et al. 1992). Individuals are also prone to electrocution on powerlines, particularly in urban areas, and a disproportionately high number of lactating females are killed (Duncan et al. 1999). The effects of the pathogens, Australian bat Lyssavirus (ABL), Bat Paramyxovirus and Menangle Pig virus (Hoar et al. 1998), on the Grey-headed Flying-fox are unknown. However, the incidence of ABL in the species is very low whilst approximately 25% of wild flying-foxes carry antibodies to Menangle Pig virus (University of Sydney, 2000).
Habitat management in the Ku-ring-gai Flying-fox Reserve, Gordon
Since 1985, the Ku-ring-gai Bat Conservation Society has managed a program of habitat restoration in the Ku-ring-gai Flying-fox Reserve in Gordon, a northern suburb of Sydney. This reserve consists of 14.6 ha of land including the steep slopes and floor of a bushland valley (Ku-ring-gai Council 1999 cited in Larsen et al. 2002). Grey-headed Flying-foxes have been known to roost in the valley since the mid-1960s. The colony was concentrated around the western end of the reserve until spring 1991, when the flying-foxes moved south-east and further downstream to the present location in the central section of the reserve (Larsen et al. 2002). Parry-Jones and Wardle (2004) noted that the size of the colony during the month of October, consisting of approximately 32 000 individuals, has generally remained unaltered over a ten year period.
The Action Plan for Australian Bats
The following recovery information has been reproduced from The Action Plan for Australian Bats (Duncan et al. 1999):
Recovery objectives

Stabilise the population at its 1999 level.

Define patterns of landscape use, and identify and protect essential habitat.

Develop non-destructive methods for crop protection.

Develop non-destructive methods for management of camps in problem areas.

Ensure consistent management of the species across relevant States (Queensland, NSW and Victoria).

Management and research actions required

Validate methods for estimating population size and demographics.

Develop and implement a population monitoring program.

Document status of foraging habitat in space and time to:

identify high priority conservation areas

guide forest management practices

provide information for revegetation programs which may enhance habitat (particularly winter resources).

Seek funding from orchard industry and relevant government agencies to develop practical and cost effective non-destructive methods for on-crop control. Suggested scope of research could include:

testing of existing methodologies such as acoustic and other repellant methods, and exclusion netting

evaluation of the cost and methods of containing damage

development of clear guidelines for implementation of mitigation methods by fruit growers.

Facilitate protection of existing camp sites and foraging habitat on private land. Considerations could include:

identification of where camps occur and what land tenure exists at these sites

development of conservation agreements with landowners

identification of alternative camp sites and encouragement of relocation to these sites, where necessary, in problem situations.

Develop a national recovery plan which coordinates management actions in relevant States (Queensland, NSW and Victoria).

Commonwealth funding of local Grey-headed Flying-fox projects
The following projects have received Government grants for conservation and recovery work benefiting the Grey-headed Flying-fox:

The Gympie & District Landcare Group Inc received $16 800 through the Threatened Species Network Community Grants in 2005-06 for the protection and enhancement of roosting sites through eradication of weed species, fencing out stock, revegetation and the promotion of conservation through signage, newsletters, brochures and press releases.

The Bellingen Island Landcare Group received $19 000 through the Threatened Species Network Community Grants in 2000-01 for weeding of remnant rainforest, interpretative signage, improved access to the site, and the spreading of knowledge and expertise in bush regeneration to highlight forest habitat values.

Bat Rescue Inc. received $16 081 through the Threatened Species Network Community Grants in 2004-05 for the stabilisation of existing roosting sites, and a community education program to raise public awareness of this species.

Natural Heritage Trust 2 funding was granted to the Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service in 2004-05 who entered into collaborative partnerships with local interest groups such as Gympie Landcare and Noah's Ark Wildlife Coalition. This funding was utilised to undertake strategic habitat protection and rehabilitation programs at key Grey-headed Flying-fox colony sites in South-east Queensland involving weed removal, replanting of appropriate native tree species, protection of habitat and the development of local educational materials promoting the value of flying-foxes as part of the ecosystem. Colony sites identified in the project included Woodend (Ipswich City), Tallebudgera (Gold Coast City) and Gympie (Cooloola Shire) (Kerr 2006).

The Colquhoun-North Arm Landcare Group received $17 600 through the Threatened Species Network Community Grants in 2004-05 for the restoration of 2.25 ha of warm temperate rainforest around the north arm of Lakes Entrance to provide feeding habitat for this species.

A Central Coast Regent Honeyeater Volunteer received $10 815 through the Threatened Species Network Community Grants in 2005-06, part of which was for habitat assessment of the Grey-headed Flying-fox to ensure availability of long-term winter resources.

The Lakes Entrance Golf Club Inc. (Victoria) received $11 000 through the Threatened Species Network Community Grants in 2004-05, part of which was for the maintenance and improvement of local native vegetation that supports the Grey-headed Flying fox.

The Ku-ring-gai Bat Conservation Society Inc received $7868, through the Threatened Species Network Community Grants in 2007-08, part of which was used for habitat restoration. This project focused on the micro-climate preferences of roosting Grey-headed Flying-foxes within the greater Sydney region by looking at the difference in habitat characteristics between the core and outer extremity of six camps. Bush regeneration will continue outside the Ku-ring-gai camp area and the Society will continue to provide information to other groups involved in Grey-headed Flying-fox conservation.

A number of research projects have focused on the Grey-headed Flying-fox, including:

the role of flying foxes in the dispersal of seeds and pollen (Tidemann 1998)

a radiotelemetry case study on the seasonal movements of 22 flying-foxes between two maternity camps in north-east NSW (Eby 1991)

a radio tracking case study on the integration of hand reared individuals into wild populations (Augee & Ford 1999)

a ten year monitoring program and subsequent population modelling of flying foxes in Gordon, Sydney (Parry-Jones & Wardle 2004)

the factors affecting foraging in the metropolitan area of Melbourne (McDonald-Madden et al. 2005).

Key management documentation available for this species includes:

Flying-fox Camp Management Policy (NSW DECC 2007e)

Flying-fox Campsite Management Plan, Yarra Bend Park (DSE 2005f)

The Action Plan for Australian Bats (Duncan et al. 1999)

Ku-ring-gai Flying-fox Reserve Management Plan (Ku-ring-gai Municipal Council 1999)

Draft National Recovery Plan for the Grey-headed Flying-fox (NSW DECCW 2010k).

Andersen, K. (1912). 2nd Megachiroptera. In: Catalogue of the Chiroptera in the Collection of the British Museum . 1:854. London: British Museum.

Aston, H.I. (1987). Influx of the grey-headed flying-fox Pteropus poliocephalus (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae) to the Melbourne area, Victoria in 1986. Victorian Naturalist. 102:9-11.

Augee, M.L. & D. Ford (1999). Radio-tracking Studies of Grey-headed Flying-foxes, Pteropus poliocephalus, from the Gordon Colony, Sydney. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales. 121:61-70.

Birt, P (2005). National Population Assessment- Grey-headed Flying-foxes Pteropus poliocephalus.

Birt, P. (2000). Summary Information on the Status of the Grey-headed (Pteropus poliocephalus) and Black (P. alecto) Flying-fox in New South Wales. In: Proceedings of a Workshop to Assess the Status of the Grey-headed Flying-fox in New South Wales. Unpublished report to the NSW Threatened Scientific Committee.

Birt, P., N. Markus, L. Collins & L.S. Hall (1998). Urban Flying-foxes. Nature Australia. 26:54-59.

Collett, R. (1897). On a collection of mammals from north and north-west Australia. In: Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. Page(s) 317-336. Royal Zoological Society of London.

Collins, L. (2000). Impact of periods of food shortage on the body weight of Grey-headed Flying-foxes. In: Richards, G., ed. Proceedings of a Workshop to Assess the Status of the Grey-headed Flying-fox in New South Wales. Page(s) 99-101. Australasian Bat Society.

Department of Sustainability and Environment (DSE) (2005f). Flying-fox Campsite Management Plan Yarra Bend Park.

Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities (DSEWPaC) (2012g). Flying-foxes and national environmental law. Available from: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/species/flying-foxes.html.

Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (DEWHA) (2010m). Survey Guidelines for Australia's Threatened Bats. EPBC Act survey guidelines 6.1. Canberra: DEWHA. Available from: http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/publications/threatened-bats.html.

Dukelow, W.R., C. Pow, J.H. Kennedy & L. Martin (1990). Stress effects on late pregnancy in the flying fox Pteropus scapulatus. Zoological Science. 7.

Duncan, A., G.B. Baker & N. Montgomery (1999). The Action Plan for Australian Bats. Canberra: Environment Australia. Available from: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/action/bats/index.html.

Eby, P. (1991). Seasonal Movements of Grey-headed Flying-foxes, Pteropus poliocephalus (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae), from Two Maternity Camps in Northern New South Wales. Wildlife Research. 18:547-559.

Eby, P. (1995). The biology and management of flying foxes in NSW. In: Species Management Report, No 18. Hurstville: NSW parks and Wildlife Service.

Eby, P. (1996). Interactions between the Grey-headed Flying-fox Pteropus poliocephalus (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae) and its diet plants-seasonal movements and seed dispersal. Ph.D. Thesis. Armidale, NSW: University of New England.

Eby, P. (1998). An analysis of diet specialization in frugivore Pteropus poliocephalus in Australian subtropical rainforest. Australian Journal of Ecology. 23:443-456.

Eby, P. (1999). Low reproductive output in grey-headed flying foxes associated with a short period of food scarcity. Australasian Bat Society Newsletter. 14:17-20.

Eby, P. (2000). Background biology, ecology and public health issues. In: Richards, G., ed. Proceedings of a Workshop to Assess the Status of the Grey-headed Flying-fox in New South Wales. Unpublished report to the NSW Threatened Species Scientific Committee.

Eby, P. (2004). National Count of Grey-headed Flying-foxes April 3 and 4, 2004. A report to the Department of the Environment and Heritage, Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, NSW Department of Environment and Conservation, Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment.

Eby, P. & D. Lunney (2002). Managing the Grey-headed Flying-fox as a threatened species in NSW. In: Proceedings of the Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales. Mosman, Sydney: Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales.

Eby, P., G. Richards, L. Collins & K. Parry-Jones (1999). The distribution, abundance and vulnerability to population reduction of a nomadic nectarivore, the Grey-headed Flying-fox, Pteropus poliocephalus, in New South Wales, during a period of resource concentration. Australian Zoologist. 31:240-243.

Eby, P., V. Jones, M. Fisher, M. Grahan & M. Smith (2004). The impact of high ambient temperatures on a maternity roost of Grey-headed flying foxes Pteropus poliocephalus. In: Lumsden, L. & G. Ford, eds. 11th Australasian Bat Conference Toowoomba 13th - 16th April 2004. Australasian Bat Society.

Grey-headed Flying-fox Alternative Camp Task Force (GFACTF) (2001). Options for the establishment of an alternative campsite for the Grey-headed Flying-fox Pteropus poliocephalus in Melbourne.

Hall, L. (1987). Identification, distribution and taxonomy of Australian flying-foxes (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae). Australian Mammalogy. 10 (2):75-81.

Hall, L. & G. Richards (2000). Flying Foxes: Fruit and Blossom of Australia. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press.

Hall, L.S. (2002a). Management of flying fox camps: what have we learnt in the last twenty five years?. In: Eby, P. & D. Lunney, eds. Managing the Grey-headed Flying-fox as a Threatened Species in NSW. Page(s) 215-224. Mosman, NSW; Royal Zoological Society of NSW.

Hall, L.S., L. Martin, G. O'Brien, R. Kelly & H. Luckoff (1991). Flying fox populations in crisis in southeast Queensland. Proceedings of the Australian Mammal Society. 37:18.

Hariono, B., J. Ng & R.H. Sutton (1992). Lead concentrations in tissues of fruit bats (Pteropus sp.) in urban and non-urban areas. Wildlife Research. 20.

Hoar B.R., B.B. Chomel, F.J.A. Rodrigues & P.A.Colley (1998). Zoonoses and potential zoonoses transmitted by bats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medicine Association. 212:1714-1720.

House, S.M. (1997). Reproductive Biology of Eucalypts. In: Williams, J. & J. Woniarski, eds. Eucalypt ecology: individuals to ecosystems. Cambridge University Press.

Jamieson, G.I. (1988). Fruit losses from flying-foxes in Queensland. Macroderma. 4:34-42.

Kempton, H. (2010). Foxy lady a rare visitor to Tassie. The Mercury. 10 May. themercury.com.au. Available from: http://www.themercury.com.au/article/2010/05/10/145295_tasmania-news.html.

Kerr, B. (2006). Protection and Rehabilitation of habitat for Grey-headed Flying Fox colonies in South-east Queensland. Project 6. Final Report - Natural Heritage Trust 2 - 2004-05 Implementation Projects.Implementing priority actions for the recovery and management of nationally threatened species and ecological communities - Queensland. Brisbane: Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service.

Ku-ring-gai Municipal Council (1999). Ku-ring-gai Flying-fox Reserve Management Plan. Sydney: Ku-ring-gai Municipal Council. Available from: http://www.sydneybats.org.au/cms/download.php?f0cbde3e481811acc8858446fef91021.

Larsen, E., M. Beck, E. Hartnell & M. Creenaune (2002). Neighbours of Ku-ring-gai Flying-fox Reserve: community attitudes survey 2001. In: Eby, P. & D. Lunney, eds. Managing the Grey-headed Flying-fox as a threatened species in NSW. Mosman, Sydney: Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales.

Law, B., C. Mackowski, L. Schoer & T. Tweedie (2000). Flowering phenology of myrtaceous trees and relation to climatic, environmental and disturbance variables in northern New South Wales. Australian Ecology. 25:160-178.

Lunney, D. & C. Moon (1997). Flying-foxes and their camps in the rainforest remnants of north-east NSW. In: Dargavel, J., ed. Australia's Ever-Changing Forests III. Canberra: Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies, Australian National University.

Martin, L. (2000). Aspects of the Reproductive Biology of the Grey-headed Flying-foxes that explain documented population declines, and support a threatened status. In: Proceedings of a Workshop to Assess the Status of the Grey-headed Flying-fox in New South Wales. Unpublished report to the NSW Threatened Scientific Committee.

Martin, L., J.H. Kennedy, L. Little, H.C. Luckoff, G.M. O'Brien, C.S.T. Pow, P.A. Towers, A.K. Waldon & D.Y. Wang (1996). The reproductive biology of Australian flying-foxes (genus Pteropus). Symposium of the Zoological Society of London. 67:167-184.

Martin, L., P. Towers, M. McGuckin, L. Little, H. Luckhoff & A. Blackshaw (1987). Reproductive biology of flying-foxes (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae). Australian Mammalogy. 10 (2).

McGuckin, M. & A.W. Blackshaw (1987). Cycle of the seminiferous epithelium in the grey-headed fruit bat, Pteropus poliocephalus. Australian Journal of Biological Science. 40.

McIlwee, A.P. & I.L. Martin (2002). On the intrinsic capacity for increase of Australian flying-foxes. Australian Zoologist. 32(1).

McWilliam, A.N (1986). The feeding ecology of Pteropus in north-eastern New South Wales, Australia. Myotis. 23-24:201-208.

Menkhorst, P.W. (1995). Mammals of Victoria. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

Menkhorst, P.W. & J.M. Dixon (1985). Influxes of the grey-headed flying-fox Pteropus poliocephalus (Chiroptera, Pteropodidae) to Victoria in 1981 and 1982. Australian Mammalogy. 8:117-121.

Nelson, J.E. (1965a). Movements of Australian flying foxes (Pteropodidae: Megachiroptera). Australian Journal of Zoology. 13:53-73.

Nelson, J.E. (1965b). Behaviour of Australian Pteropodidae (Megachiroptera). Animal Behaviour. 13:544-557.

NSW Department of Environment and Climate Change (NSW DECC) (2007e). Flying-fox Camp Management Policy. NSW Department of Environment and Climate Change. Available from: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/policiesandguidelines/flyingfoxcamppol.htm.

NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water (NSW DECCW) (2003g). Netting of commercial fruit trees - Guidelines to protect wildlife. Available from: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedspecies/NettingOfCommercialFruitTrees.htm.

NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water (NSW DECCW) (2004l). Nectar Food Trees - North east NSW. Natural Resource Management Advisory Series: Note 4. Available from: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/nature/landholderNotes04NectarFoodTrees.pdf.

NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water (NSW DECCW) (2004m). Flying-fox Camps - North east NSW. Natural Resource Management Advisory Series: Note 8. Available from: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/nature/landholderNotes08FlyingFoxCamps.pdf.

NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water (NSW DECCW) (2004n). Fleshy Fruited Fruit Trees - North east NSW. Natural Resource Management Advisory Series: Note 5. Available from: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/nature/landholderNotes05FleshyFruitedTrees.pdf.

NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water (NSW DECCW) (2008j). Best Practice Guidelines for the Grey-headed Flying-fox. Available from: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/threatenedspecies/08540tsdsflyingfoxbpg.pdf.

NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water (NSW DECCW) (2010k). Draft National Recovery Plan for the Grey-headed Flying-fox Pteropus poliocephalus. Prepared by Woodhead, A. & P. Eby. Sydney: NSW DECCW. Available from: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/threatenedspecies/08214dnrpflyingfox.pdf.

NSW Department of Planning (1995). North coast urban planning strategy into the 21st century. Sydney: NSW Department of Planning.

NSW Office of Environment and Heritage (NSW OEH) (2014r). Grey-headed Flying-fox - profile. Available from: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedspeciesapp/profile.aspx?id=10697.

NSW Office of Environment and Heritage (NSW OEH) (2015). Flying-foxes. Available from: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/animals/flyingfoxes.htm.

NSW Scientific Committee (2001). Grey-headed Flying-fox vulnerable species listing, final determination. Available from: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/determinations/GreyheadedFlyingFoxVulSpListing.htm.

Office of Environment and Heritage (2015). Flying-fox camp management policy 2015. NSW Government. Available from: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedspecies/flyingfoxcamppol.htm.

Pallin, N. (2000). Ku-ring-gai Flying-fox Reserve: habitat restoration project, 15 years on. Ecological Management and Restoration. 1:10-20.

Parnaby, H. (2000). Comments on the Application of IUCN Red List Categories for Evaluating the Status of the Grey-headed Flying-fox in NSW. In: Richards, G., ed. Proceedings of a Workshop to Assess the Status of the Grey-headed Flying-fox in New South Wales. Unpublished report to the NSW Threatened Scientific Committee.

Parry-Jones (2000). Historical declines since the early 1990's, and current mortality factors and abundance of the grey-headed flying fox in NSW - Submission to NSW scientific committee regarding the status of the Grey-headed flying-fox Pteropus poliocephalus. In: Proceedings of the Workshop to Assess the Status of the Grey-headed Flying Fox in NSW. Page(s) 56-65. Unpublished report to the NSW Threatebed Species Scientific Committee.

Parry-Jones, K. (1993). The movements of Pteropus poliocephalus in New South Wales. Ph.D. Thesis. Sydney: University of New South Wales.

Parry-Jones, K. & G. Wardle (2004). A sink or source? - The Grey-headed Flying-fox, Pteropus poliocephalus at an urban colony site. Lumsden, L. & G. Ford, eds. 11th Australasian Bat Conference, Toowoomba 13th-16th April 2004, Program and Abstracts. Australasian Bat Society Newsletter.

Parry-Jones, K. & M. Augee (1992). Movements of Grey-headed Flying-foxes (Pteropus poliocephalus) to and from a Colony Site on the Central Coat of New South Wales. Wildlife Research. 19:331-340.

Parry-Jones, K. & M.L. Augee (1991). Food Selection by Grey-headed Flying Foxes (Pteropus poliocephalus) Occupying a Summer Colony Site near Gosford, New South Wales. In: Wildlife Research. 18:111-124.

Pressey, R.L. (1994). Land classifications are necessary for conservation planning but what do they tell us about fauna. In: Lunney, D., S. Hand, P. Reed & D. Butcher, eds. Future of the Fauna of Western New South Wales. Chipping Norton: Surrey Beatty and Sons.

Pressey, R.L., S. Ferrier, T.C. Hager, C.A. Woods, S.L. Tully & K.M. Weinman (1996). How well protected are the forests of north-eastern New South Wales? - analyses of forest environments in relation to formal protection measures, land tenure and vulnerability to clearing. Forest Ecology and Management. 85:311-333.

Pritchard, K. (2001). George. Friends of Bats Newsletter. 61:7. Ku-ring-gai Bat Conservation Society.

Queensland Department of Environment and Resource Management (Qld DERM) (2009a). Enhancing biodiversity hotspots along Western Queensland stock routes. DERM. Available from: http://www.southwestnrm.org.au/ihub/enhancing-biodiversity-hotspots-along-western-queensland-stock-routes-report.

Queensland Department of Environment and Resource Management (Qld DERM) (2011a). Flying-foxes. Available from: http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/wildlife-ecosystems/wildlife/living_with_wildlife/flyingfoxes/.

Ratcliffe, F.N. (1931). The flying fox (Pteropus) in Australia. CSIRO Bulletin. 52:1-133.

Richards, G., ed (2000). Proceedings of a Workshop to Assess the Status of the Grey-headed Flying-fox in New South Wales. Unpublished report to the NSW Threatened Scientific Committee.

Slack, J.M. (1990). Flying-fox damage in low-chill stonefruit orchards. In: Slack, J.M, ed. Flying fox Workshop Proceedings. Lismore, NSW: NSW Agriculture and Fisheries.

Spencer, H.J., C. Palmer & K. Parry-Jones (1991). Movements of fruit-bats in eastern Australia, determined by using radio-tracking. Wildlife Research. 18:463-468.

State of the Environment Advisory Council (1996). Australia: State of the Environment, 1996.

Teagle, S. (2002). Flying fox Consultative Committee - Formation, Outcomes and Future Strategies. In: Eby, P. & D. Lunney, eds. Managing the Grey-headed Flying-fox as a Threatened Species in NSW. Page(s) 109-116. Mosman, NSW: Royal Zoological Society of NSW.

Thomas, D.W. (1983). The annual migrations of three species of West African fruit bats (Chiroptera: Pteropodiae). Canadian Journal of Zoology. 61:2266-2272.

Thomas, D.W. & A.G. Marshall (1984). Reproduction and growth in three species of West Africa fruit bats. Journal of Zoology (London). 202:265-281.

Threatened Species Scientific Committee (2001bw). Commonwealth Listing Advice on Pteropus poliocephalus (Grey-headed Flying-fox). Available from: http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/species/p-poliocephalus.html. In effect under the EPBC Act from 06-Dec-2001.

Tidemann , C. & J. Nelson (2004). Long-distance movements of the grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus). Journal of Zoology. 263:141-146.

Tidemann, C. & M. Vardon (1997). Pests, pestilence, pollen and pot-roasts: the need for community-based management of flying foxes in Australia. Australian Biologist. 10(1):77-83.

Tidemann, C., M. Vardon, J. Nelson, R. Speare & L. Gleeson (1997). Health and conservation implications of Australian bat Lyssavirus. Australian Zoologist. 30:369-376.

Tidemann, C., P. Eby, K. Parry-Jones & M. Vardon (1999). Grey-headed Flying-fox. Duncan, A., G.B. Baker & N. Montgomery, eds. The Action Plan for Australian Bats. Page(s) 31-35.

Tidemann, C.R. (1998). Grey-headed Flying-fox, Pteropus poliocephalus, Temminck, 1824. In: Strahan, R., ed. The Mammals of Australia. Frenchs Forest: New Holland Publishers Pty Ltd.

Tidemann, C.R. & J.E. Nelson (2011). Life expectancy, causes of death and movements of the grey-headed flying-fox (Pteropus poliocephalus) inferred from banding. Acta Chiropterologica. 13(2):419-429.

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van der Ree, R., J. McDonnell, I. Temby, J. Nelson & E. Whittingham (2005). The establishment and dynamics of a recently established urban camp of flying foxes (Pteropus poliocephalus) outside their geographic range. Journal of Zoology. 268:177-185. The Zoological Society of London.

van der Ree, R., M.J. McDonnell, I. Temby, J. Nelson & E. Whittingham (2004). The establishment and growth of the most southern permanent roost of Grey-headed Flying-fixes'. In: Lumsden, L. & G. Ford, eds. 11th Australasian Bat Conference, Toowoomba 13th-16th April 2004, Program and Abstracts. Australasian Bat Society.

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Wilson, J. & A. Bennett (1999). Patchiness of a floral resource: flowering of Red Ironbark Eucalyptus tricarpa in a box and ironbark forest. Victorian Naturalist. 116:48-53.

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Pteropus poliocephalus - Grey-headed Flying-fox

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The Australian Government Department of the Environment develops and impliments national policy, programs and legislation to protect and conserve Australia's environment and heritage.

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Flying foxes share fruits of their labour

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Celebrate Indigenous Australia with Traditional Place names

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I would like to acknowledge that this article was written on Wiradjuri Country. First Nations peoples are the continuing custodians of the lands, waters and skies of this continent, of which sovereignty was never ceded. I recognise the strength and intergenerational resilience of our Elders, and honour the culture and wisdom that they have been able to pass on to future generations. Always Was, Always Will Be.
In August 2020, I made a spur-of-the-moment decision to add Wiradjuri Country to my address when placing an online order.

Subsequently, I founded the Place Names in Addresses campaign and this prompted Australia Post to include a spot for traditional place names on parcels and envelopes the following year.

I've been asked a few times over the years what made me think to do this. The short answer is: it just popped into my head that day. The bigger story is that I come from a long line of Elders who taught me to be aware of injustice, and to advocate for systemic change.

A social media campaign that worked

Right from the beginning, there has been massive support for this campaign, and social media has really been the catalyst in getting the word out.

From the moment I launched @place_names_in_addresses on Instagram, people from all across Australia have followed, liked and shared my posts, and tagged me in theirs to show First Nations place names being used in their mail.

Initially the call was for Australia Post to include traditional place names in addresses. They updated their official addressing guidelines during NAIDOC week 2020 and the following year released parcels with an additional field printed specifically for First Nations place names and an Acknowledgement of Country printed on the back.

I think that my ancestors would be proud of me for starting this movement, and I hope that my nieces and nephews are inspired to be activists as they grow up as well.

The joy of seeing place names on TV and a birth certificate

The beautiful positive of this campaign is that, despite the lack of a place names database, so many allies are determined to give it a go and have put in the effort to find out the correct First Nations place name for where they live and work.

I've seen place names used at airports, on the weather maps on the news, on touring posters for musicians. Dr Amy Thunig even brought the concept of Country into prime time TV by discussing where Brooke Blurton's mob was from on the Bachelorette.

The one that has really stood out for me was seeing a birth certificate with Dharug Country acknowledged on it.

Jorden is a supporter of my campaign and she tagged me in an Instagram post in 2022 to show how she used place names on her daughter's birth certificate.

It was really emotional for me, because this work is for future generations, and I think the Old people would be really proud.

Building a better place names database

I have received a lot of messages asking for help to find the First Nations names of places. These are often tricky to juggle with running the campaign, my full-time job, uni and other life commitments.

It's also more culturally appropriate for mob from those areas to advise of the name rather than myself, so I was referring people to reach out to local Elders or look at the AIATSIS map.

However, mob from different areas started messaging me saying that their Elders didn't agree with the place name on the map, or their Country wasn't even represented. It quickly became apparent that the only nationwide resource available has its limitations (a disclaimer on the AIATSIS website recognises this).

My advice for finding First Nations place names:

Ask an Elder or community group in your local area.

Research online, find First Nations-informed websites that give advice about what the area is called, such as a LALC (Local Aboriginal Land Council), womens/mens group, or a cultural organisation from that area.

Contact your local Council and ask if there is a local First Nations advisory group you could ask.

Our Elders have never had the opportunity to record the true names of places in a nationwide, community-owned database, so my campaign evolved. I have been working with a small project team to establish a not-for-profit entity that will facilitate the creation of a database of First Nations place names, generated with, by and for mob.

Every place on this continent has an original name that First Nations peoples have been using for thousands of years. The knowledge of these names was impacted by colonisation, and this campaign is playing a part in the reclamation of this language sovereignty.

It is essential for our beautiful Elders to have an opportunity to record the true place names while they are still here with us, to preserve this information for future generations.
Rach McPhail is a proud Gomeroi woman, who lives on Wiradjuri Country in Coolamon, NSW. She is a qualified social worker, and currently works in the homelessness sector.
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'My ancestors would be proud': The beauty of seeing First Nations place names in daily life

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The beautiful positive of this campaign is that despite the lack of a place names database, so many allies are determined to give it a go and find out the correct First Nations place name for where they live and work.

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Burndap Birrarung burndap umarkoo - Yarra Strategic Plan

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Voice of the Birrarung river: Uncle Dave Wandin, Wurundjeri Woi Wurrung Elder and Birrarung Council member. | NGV

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Spoken by Uncle Dave Wandin, Wurundjeri Woi Wurrung Elder and Birrarung Council member. Originally commissioned by the Biennale of Sydney with generous assistance from the Australian Film Television and Radio…

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The history of Melbourne’s scenic Yarra Bend Park, from 1877 to the present.

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What I most love about working at the Australian Museum are the opportunities to inspire change for Country and First Nations people. Even the most subtle uses of language have the potential to bring new understandings to the ways that people think about environment and culture. Our First Nations team at the Museum are continuously working towards changes that dismantle old, harmful ways of thinking and doing. We bring our cultural responsibilities into the Museum to grow change that nourishes, values, and respects all lives and experiences so that no one is forgotten.

In my work, I try to bring museum visitors into my cultural relationships with living, breathing, creative Country - the dynamic world who shapes all things, all happenings, and all lives. Notice how I use 'who' instead of 'that' when referring to Country? This is one of my favourite and most powerful tools!

A long history of Western separation between what is 'human' and what is 'nature' has left us with a sickness in our relationships with Country. All life depends on Country, so a sickness in those relationships is a sickness that reaches into our health and wellbeing too. This sickness makes us see animals and ecosystems as things instead of beings connected together in life-giving, life-creating, life-supporting patterns. We think this way without even noticing - ask yourself how many times you have referred to an animal as 'it', or in the context of the Museum, how often we haphazardly use words like 'specimens', 'collections', and 'objects' when talking about animal bodies.

As a Walbanja Yuin woman, the idea of Country without personhood, aliveness and identity does not make sense. The animal bodies in the Museum are my Ancestors, family, teachers and friends.

At minimum, it is important to me that they are given that acknowledgement along with the due respect their lives deserve through the language we use. At a further push, language extends to how we treat animals and their bodies in museum spaces, calling us to continually grow into new, better practices that reflect respectful relationships with our shared Planet, particularly in the current contexts of enormous ecological devastation and biodiversity loss.

The first - and most challenging - step towards this is recognising Country not as an 'it', but as a 'they' and as an 'us'. So often, we are asked "what is Country?", but for First Nations people the real question has always been "who is Country?"

Country - all plants, animals, ecosystems and humans - is alive with collective agency. First Nations people recognise that nothing happens in isolation from everything else, and everything that happens comes from Country first. Through forces like weather, geology, hydrology and animal movements, Country can make or break a conversation, a recording, an excavation, the preservation of a fossil, or whether or not we will have electrical power during a thunderstorm. Our food, fibres, phones, cars, computers, buildings and energy supply all come from Country.

Everything and everyone is Country, woven together in collective agency that makes life happen.

In Aotearoa 2017, Whanganui River became the first waterway in the world to be legally recognised as a person. The First Nations Whanganui Iwi successfully argued that the interests of ecosystems need to be recognised not only for their human value, but simply because they exist. Whanganui legislation recognises Country as living beings with a stake in their own existences, who are in constant relationships with each other, and who experience and are impacted by trauma. Whanganui River is a First Nations achievement who has set a precedent being followed all over the Planet.

Everything and everyone is Country, woven together in collective agency that makes life happen.

While our First Nations roles at the Australian Museum might not have scope to make such monumental changes, subtle ways of acknowledging agency provide important ways of changing how people think about Country and First Nations cultures. Capitalising English* names of animals speaks strong messages about who they are, instead of what they are.

Capitalised 'Emu' makes her kin to capitalised 'Sara' - both living beings with needs, roles, and a desire to keep living. Capitalising animal names and giving them pronouns makes them more than just 'specimens' collected in jars and pinned to walls, acknowledging them as living beings with stories, Ancestors, and important ecosystem roles that support us all. It recognises them as teachers, Ancestors and law/lore keepers of First Nations people. It prompts questions about animal representation and attitudes towards Country.

Similarly, First Nations staff also capitalise cultural agency. We recognise the aliveness of our Ancestors, the autonomy of our Elders, and that there is not a single 'object' in the Australian Museum collections without a name, family, stories and connections to Law/Lore and Country.

Inspired by the Kanalaritja exhibition of Tasmanian First Nations Shell stringing, our First Nations curators now label cultural objects without named makers as 'Made by Ancestor'. This powerful statement acknowledges that both maker and object are part of continuous stories still being lived and told today. It actively resists painful histories of cultural theft and the denial of rights for First Nations people and the complex worlds we belong to and care for.

For me, no Coolamon or Dilly Bag goes uncapitalised, because they embody my Ancestors - women, Trees, Water, Stone Axe and all the lives who shaped them into who they currently are. Just like I have been shaped into who I am.

Subtle changes in the ways that we acknowledge lives of all kinds can grow our collective responses and relationships with both Country and First Nations cultures. Relationships, connections and kinship are potent ingredients in motivating people to care and uphold social and environmental justice - First Nations law/lore systems systems have always known this.
*It is important to note that when I speak of capitalising, I am referring mainly to English words, and not so much when using First Nations languages. For me, this is because the idea of pronouns and capitalised names to tell the difference between person and non-person is a Western idea that does not reflect my cultural understanding of everything and everyone being alive with story and personhood. For me, when using my language, there is no need to use pronouns or capitalised names, the understanding is inherent and all life is equal.

Sara Kianga Judge is a Neurodiverse Walbunja-Yuin woman born and grown up on Burramattagal Country. She is an environmental scientist, geographer, and artist passionate about accessible science communication and helping people to grow meaningful relationships with Country.

As First Nations Content Producer, Sara is currently working on Burra - a many-ways learning place celebrating First Nations, Pacific and Western knowledges.

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So often we are asked "what is Country?", but for First Nations people the real question has always been "who is Country?"

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3.1 History of Protectorate Station at Yarra Bend

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YARRA BEND ASYLUM. - (COMMUNICATED.) - The Argus (Melbourne, Vic. : 1848 - 1957) - 5 Sep 1861

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On Tuesday last, the patients at the Yarra Bend Asylum were entertained at a porformance of the Dramatio Society,” lately formed among the attendants of that establishment, with the…

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THE FEMALE SIDE OF KEW ASYLUM. - BY AN ATTENDANT. - The Argus (Melbourne, Vic. : 1848 - 1957) - 26 Mar 1886

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IDIOT ASYLUM, KEW. - TO THE EDITOR OF THE ARGUS. - The Argus (Melbourne, Vic. : 1848 - 1957) - 10 Dec 1904

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ALLEGED ILL-TREATMENT AT THE KEW ASYLUM. - SECOND DAY.-THURSDAY, JUNE 17. - The Argus (Melbourne, Vic. : 1848 - 1957) - 18 Jun 1875

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YARRA BEND ASYLUM. - (COMMUNICATED.) - The Argus (Melbourne, Vic. : 1848 - 1957) - 5 Sep 1861

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On Tuesday last, the patients at the Yarra Bend Asylum were entertained at a porformance of the Dramatio Society,” lately formed among the attendants of that establishment, with the…

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Australian poems by Australian poets are at the heart of Red Room Poetry, an organisation devoted to creating, publishing and promoting the reading and writing of great new work.

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I would like you to think about what Birrarung might have felt or experienced over the last two hundred years. So, if you like, close your eyes and try to…

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The Ian Potter Centre: NGV Australia, Fed Square

Ground Level, NGV Design Studio

Until 2 Feb, free entry

Looking fifty years into the future, Reimagining Birrarung: Design Concepts for 2070 presents a series of provocations for the lands and waters of the Birrarung (Yarra River). Focusing on ecological regeneration, public access and connectivity across the catchment, this exhibition asks what it means to acknowledge a river as a living and integrated natural entity.

Urban rivers are being rethought internationally, mindsets shifting from a time when they were seen as systems to be re-engineered to our liking - lands and waters for development, resource extraction and waste disposal. In Melbourne there is an increasing understanding that we should think of the Birrarung not as a disposable resource, but as a complex and diverse, interconnected ecosystem that nurtures our health and is essential to communities both human and non-human.

Through the lens of landscape architecture, Reimagining Birrarung presents research, data, mapping and speculative design ideas for sites along the river corridor, from the city to the upper catchment. Together the projects reveal how the Birrarung has been altered and diminished over time, from a dynamic and abundant ecology to a system in need of healing and care.

Reimagining Birrarung invites us to free our minds from the constraints and assumptions of today and to consider, together, the future of the Birrarung, but also what the river might want for itself.

Reimagining Birrarung

Asked what they thought was possible for the Birrarung by 2070, the eight landscape architecture and design studios in Reimagining Birrarung sought ways to improve the condition of the river and its catchment. These interviews reveal a common intention: to awaken the public consciousness to possible futures for the Birrarung, which are both within our grasp and yet to be imagined.

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Reimagining Birrarung: Design Concepts for 2070 | NGV

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Ground Level, NGV Design Studio Looking fifty years into the future, Reimagining Birrarung: Design Concepts for 2070 presents a series of provocations for the lands and waters of the Birrarung (Yarra River). Focusing on ecological regeneration, public access and connectivity across the catchment, this exhibition asks what it means to acknowledge a river as a living and integrated natural entity.

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Dave Arden Ft. Paul Kelly - Freedom Called (OFFICIAL VIDEO) 2013

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The Lovett family | Australian War Memorial

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The eldest of 12 children, Alfred Lovett was 35 years old when he enlisted with the Australian Imperial Force in 1915. Four of his brothers (Leonard, Frederick, Edward, and Herbert) left Lake Condah Mission to follow in his footsteps.

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Despite discrimination and exclusion, thousands of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have served in the Australian Defence Forces since the 1860s and possibly earlier.

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Major changes: Only VBA threatened species observations are displayed in NatureKit for performance reasons; all available VBA species can still be downloaded using the Download from all Observations tool in VBA Species Observations tab

NatureKit2.0 introduces the following new features:
Datasets updates and new layers:

SMP Habitat Distribution Models (HDMs) (2020 dataset update)

VBA Threatened Species Observations (2020 dataset update)

New SMP layers: Mean cost-effectiveness rank, SMP by Summary Area Layer with linked reports and statistics tables, additional layers in SMP Threats, Benefit & Cost of Actions folder and more complex action combinations accessible through the SMP & Habitat Maps tab tools.

Land Cover new decade to 2019

Native Vegetation Habitat Importance Maps (HIMs) 2017 now available in the SMP & Habitat Maps tab

New Reference layers:

Recent Wildfires: displays the 2019-2020 bushfire boundaries and fire severity.

Administrative Boundaries: CFA Districts

Disturbance: Planned burns 1970-Present

Land Management: Planning Schemes Zones

Wetlands & Rainforest

Please see the NatureKit Layers & Datasets page for detailed information on layers, data sources, descriptions and download options.
Tool enhancements:

New threatened species filters with attribute, filter by area and download option in the VBA Species Observations tab

New Add Action Combinations tool in the SMP & Habitat Maps tab

Download of HDM and HIM from within NatureKit using the Add Habitat Maps tool in the SMP & Habitat Maps tab

Two different Upload Shape tools in the General Tools tab

Newly configured layer search by attribute using Select Based on Condition tool in Query Reference Layers tab

Plot coordinates tool in Search Location tab offers option to download user added coordinate marker

Please see NatureKit User Guide for detailed information about NatureKit's different functions and tools.

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NatureKit allows you to search, view and map biodiversity values and investment prospects across Victoria.