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Figure 1: A zoetrope, an early animation device creating the illusion of motion through spinning images (Walters, 2002).

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The foundation of animation began with William Horner’s 1834 invention of the zoetrope, originally called the Daedalum. This cylindrical device used slits and sequential drawings to create the illusion of motion when spun, becoming one of the first optical toys to simulate animation (Adobe Creative Cloud, n.d.; Aviram, 2022).

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Examples:

Toy Zoetrope – 1834 (Horner, 1834)

Daedalus Cylinder Zoetrope – 1834 (Horner, 1834)

Optical Zoetrope Sequence – 1840 (Horner, 1834)

Victorian Cylindrical Zoetrope – 1850 (Horner, 1834)

Zoetrope with Painted Strips – 1860 (Horner, 1834)

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Acme Filmworks & Animation Show of Shows

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Figure 2: Illustration of the Kineograph from John Barnes Linnett’s 1868 patent, showing the early design for a flipbook-style animation device (John, 1868).

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The zoetrope inspired further innovations, such as the flipbook, or Kineograph, patented by John Barnes Linnett on March 18, 1868. Consisting of drawings flipped in rapid succession, the flipbook turned still images into moving pictures. Though simple, it introduced the principle that would define animation—persistence of vision (Bendazzi, 2016).

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Examples:

Kineograph Patent Flipbook – 1868 (Linnett, 1868)

Fantoccini Flipbook – 1870 (Linnett, 1868)

Animated Flipbook “The Jumping Frog” – 1875 (Linnett, 1868)

Mechanical Flipbook Toy – 1880 (Linnett, 1868)

“Walking Skeleton” Flipbook – 1885 (Linnett, 1868)

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THE HISTORY OF THE DISCOVERY OF CINEMATOGRAPHY

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Figure 3: Screenshot from The Humpty Dumpty Circus (1898), one of the first stop-motion animated films (Kalem Company, 1998).

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Celluloid Stop Motion Animation (Stuart & Albert, 1898)

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Celluloid Stop Motion Animation (Stuart & Albert, 1898)

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By the late 1800s, animation evolved from optical illusion toys to recorded images with the invention of celluloid film. John Carbutt’s 1888 use of celluloid sheets revolutionized film production, allowing for flexible, transparent reels far superior to glass plates. This durable material became the standard for motion picture and animation production (Masterclass, 2021). In 1898, J. Stuart Blackton and Albert E. Smith created The Humpty Dumpty Circus, the first recorded stop-motion film. Although now lost, it pioneered the technique of photographing static models frame by frame to simulate motion. This innovation laid groundwork for future animation, transforming toys and physical objects into moving art (Bendazzi, 2015).

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Examples:

Humpty Dumpty Circus – 1898 (Blackton & Smith, 1898)

The Haunted Hotel – 1907 (Blackton, 1907)

The Sculptor’s Welsh Rarebit Dream – 1908 (Edison Manufacturing, 1908)

The Cameraman’s Revenge – 1912 (Starewicz, 1912)

The Mascot – 1933 (Leprince, 1933)

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THE HISTORY OF THE DISCOVERY OF CINEMATOGRAPHY

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1906 ‘HUMOROUS PHASES OF FUNNY FACES’ JAMES STUART BLACKTON

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Figure 4: Image from Sculptors Welsh Rarebit Dream (1908), demonstrating early claymation techniques (Sbanimation, n.d.).

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The first clay animation film, The Sculptor’s Welsh Rarebit Dream (1908), by Edison Manufacturing, demonstrated stop-motion storytelling through sculpted figures. Though time-consuming, it showcased how animators could create expressive movement by reshaping clay frame by frame. Claymation was imaginative yet labor-intensive, often serving as experimental interludes in early cinema (Youtube, 2018; Priebe, 2010).

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Examples:

The Sculptor’s Welsh Rarebit Dream – 1908 (Edison Manufacturing, 1908)

Long Live the Bull – 1926 (Sunn, 1926)

The Adventures of Mark Twain – 1985 (Vinton, 1985)

Dante’s Inferno – 1985 (Onorato, 1985)

Closed Mondays – 1974 (Vinton, 1974)

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Figure 5: Still from Émile Cohl’s Fantasmagorie (1908), an example of early hand-drawn animation (Émile Cohl, 1908).

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Traditional (Hand-Drawn) Animation (Émile Cohl, 1908)

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Traditional (Hand-Drawn) Animation (Émile Cohl, 1908)

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That same year, Émile Cohl’s Fantasmagorie (1908) became the first fully hand-drawn animated film. Cohl drew each frame individually on paper, producing over 700 drawings for a two-minute sequence. Using stop-tricks and double-frame exposure, the animation blended surreal transformations with humor, forming the foundation of modern animation storytelling (SilentFilmHouse, 2012; Emma, 2022).

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Examples:

Fantasmagorie – 1908 (Cohl, 1908)

Gertie the Dinosaur – 1914 (McCay, 1914)

The Skeleton Dance – 1929 (Disney, 1929)

Mickey’s Gala Premiere – 1933 (Disney, 1933)

Flowers and Trees – 1932 (Disney, 1932)

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Fantasmagorie (1908) Emile Cohl - Silent Animation

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Figure 6: Thumbnail of Betty Boop in Koko the Clown Performs Saint James Infirmary Blues (2023), showcasing rotoscope animation (Zoon, 2023).

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In 1915, Max Fleischer introduced the rotoscope, a device that allowed animators to trace over live-action footage to create natural, lifelike movement. Initially used for Koko the Clown, it became a major Disney technique in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). Rotoscoping helped merge realism and fantasy in animation, elevating character fluidity (Marco, 2023; Masterclass; Adobe Creative Cloud).

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Figure 7: Promotional image of Oswald the Lucky Rabbit (1922), an early example of character-driven animation (IMDb, 2022).

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Rubberhose Animation (Walt Disney, 1927)

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Rubberhose Animation (Walt Disney, 1927)

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Pioneered by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks in the late 1920s, rubberhose animation gave characters flexible, exaggerated limbs that bounced and stretched with humor and energy. This playful style became the hallmark of early cartoons like Oswald the Lucky Rabbit and Mickey Mouse (GarageFarm, n.d.).

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Examples:

Steamboat Willie – 1928 (Disney, 1928)

Oswald the Lucky Rabbit Shorts – 1927 (Disney, 1927)

Felix the Cat: The Bank Robbery – 1920 (Stuart, 1920)

Mickey’s Circus – 1928 (Disney, 1928)

The Skeleton Dance – 1929 (Disney, 1929)

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Oswald The Lucky Rabbit | Animated Short-Story | Disney UK

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Figure 8: Scene from Steamboat Willie (1928), Walt Disney’s iconic debut of Mickey Mouse with synchronized sound (The Walt Disney Company, 2023).

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Steamboat Willie (1928) marked a turning point as the first synchronized sound cartoon. Music, voices, and action aligned rhythmically, revolutionizing storytelling by connecting sound to motion (Walt Disney Animation Studios, 2023; D23, n.d.).

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Examples:

Steamboat Willie – 1928 (Disney, 1928)

Fiddlesticks – 1930 (Iwerks, 1930)

The Skeleton Dance – 1929 (Disney, 1929)

Flowers and Trees – 1932 (Disney, 1932)

Three Little Pigs – 1933 (Disney, 1933)

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Figure 9: Release image for Fiddlesticks (1930), the first color and sound cartoon by Ub Iwerks (Aldridge State High School, 2021).

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By the 1930s, the introduction of color alongside sound—seen in Fiddlesticks (1930)—allowed animators to create more vivid and expressive worlds. Studios like Warner Bros. and MGM advanced comedic timing, personality-driven humor, and narrative sophistication (KCTV5, 2025; School of Design, n.d.).

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Examples:

Flowers and Trees – 1932 (Disney, 1932)

Three Little Pigs – 1933 (Disney, 1933)

The Tortoise and the Hare – 1935 (Disney, 1935)

The Old Mill – 1937 (Disney, 1937)

Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs – 1937 (Disney, 1937)

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Figure 10: Poster for Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), Disney’s first full-length animated feature (IMDb, n.d.).

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Full-Length Feature Film (Walt Disney, 1937)

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Full-Length Feature Film (Walt Disney, 1937)

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Disney’s Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) demonstrated the emotional and artistic potential of animation. Through cel animation, layered backgrounds, and rotoscoped realism, Disney’s team crafted a full narrative experience that set a global standard for the medium (Priebe, 2010; Jumbla, 2024; Adobe Creative Cloud).
This era also marked the rise of Warner Bros. and MGM, whose sharp humor and timing defined animation’s Golden Age (Lam, 2024).

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Figure 11: Film poster for Vertigo (1958), demonstrating early use of computer-assisted visual effects (Paramount Pictures, 1958).

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The earliest use of CGI appeared in Alfred Hitchcock’s Vertigo (1958), where computer-generated patterns were integrated into live-action scenes. This experimental use of visual effects opened the path for digital compositing in film (Ultimate History of CGI, 2018).
In 1972, Edwin Catmull and Fred Parke’s A Computer Animated Hand introduced true 3D computer graphics using digitized polygons. These innovations established the groundwork for modern digital animation (Shieldsdundee, 2011; Nashville Film Institute, n.d.).

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Examples:

Vertigo (computer pattern sequences) – 1958 (Hitchcock, 1958)

A Computer Animated Hand – 1972 (Catmull & Parke, 1972)

Futureworld (CGI effects) – 1976 (Meyer, 1976)

Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back (wireframe graphics) – 1980 (Lucasfilm, 1980)

Tron – 1982 (Disney, 1982)

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Figure 12: Cover art from Tezuka Productions, representing mid-20th century animation style and Japanese influence (Tezuka Productions, n.d.).

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Meanwhile, Japan’s Astro Boy (Tetsuwan Atomu), created by Osamu Tezuka in 1963, defined the anime genre. Its distinctive visual style and serialized storytelling influenced global animation trends. By the 1980s, anime such as Dragon Ball, Macross, and Gundam expanded its reach internationally, impacting media, sociology, and global culture (Jadhav, 2024).

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Examples:

Out of the Inkwell: Koko the Clown – 1915 (Fleischer, 1915)

Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs – 1937 (Disney, 1937)

Cinderella – 1950 (Disney, 1950)

Alice in Wonderland – 1951 (Disney, 1951)

Sleeping Beauty – 1959 (Disney, 1959)

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Koko's Crib | 1929 | Inkwell Imps | Koko the Clown | Max Fleischer Studios Cartoon

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Examples:

Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs – 1937 (Disney, 1937)

Pinocchio – 1940 (Disney, 1940)

Fantasia – 1940 (Disney, 1940)

Dumbo – 1941 (Disney, 1941)

Bambi – 1942 (Disney, 1942)

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Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) Trailer #1 | Movieclips Classic Trailers

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Examples:

Astro Boy (Tetsuwan Atomu) – 1963 (Osamu Tezuka, 1963)

Kimba the White Lion – 1965 (Osamu Tezuka, 1965)

Speed Racer (Mach GoGoGo) – 1967 (Tatsuo Yoshida, 1967)

Gigantor (Tetsujin 28-go) – 1963 (Mitsuteru Yokoyama, 1963)

Princess Knight – 1967 (Osamu Tezuka, 1967)