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Rivers animation showing creation of oxbow lake

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This site is a curated collection of science phenomena for the NGSS, along with phenomenon based learning resources and help for how to use phenomenon to drive student questions in the classroom centered around 3 dimensional teaching and learning.

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Animation showing Jupiter and Asteroid Belt

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This site is a curated collection of science phenomena for the NGSS, along with phenomenon based learning resources and help for how to use phenomenon to drive student questions in the classroom centered around 3 dimensional teaching and learning.

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Simulation showing relationship between distance and KE and PE as a satellite orbits Earth.

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Explore the motion of a satellite as it orbits earth. In this interactive simulation, satellite motion is computed using realistic values for Earth's mass, orbital radius, and satellite speed. Learn more about this activity in the Support Materials below.

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Video/simulation showing how different satellites and their orbits around Earth result in changes of velocity.

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Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion Described Using Earth Satellites | PBS LearningMedia

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See the orbits of various artificial Earth satellites and how they demonstrate Kepler's laws of planetary motion in this animation from NASA's Scientific Visualization Studio. Use this resource to observe patterns of orbital period and velocity as a function of distance from Earth-phenomena that are too big and abstract to see in a classroom-and to stimulate thinking about the universality of Kepler's laws.

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Why On Earth are Winters Getting Worse If The Planet Is Getting Warmer?

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Why On Earth are Winters Getting Worse If The Planet Is Getting Warmer?

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Video about severe winters as a result of climate change

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Why on Earth are Winters Getting Worse if the Planet is Getting Warmer? | Weathered | PBS LearningMedia

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As our planet warms, the Arctic is warming much faster than any other place on earth. This effect, known as Arctic amplification, is destabilizing the polar vortex, which in turn causes periodic cold outbreaks of extreme winter weather in many parts of the northern hemisphere.

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Students compare the two sides of Mt. Hood in Oregon to see how there is a rain shadow desert on the leeward side and a lush evergreen forest on the windward side.

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Mountains and Rain Shadows | Interactive Lesson | PBS LearningMedia

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Students explore how climate conditions can be completely different on either side of a mountain range in this interactive lesson from WGBH. Through satellite images, graphics, and video, they learn how wind patterns, moisture, and landforms interact to form clouds, precipitation, and rain shadows. Students analyze temperature and precipitation data to further support their understanding of how mountains can affect climate. As a summative activity, students use digital tools to create their own model to explain how rain shadows form.

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Exploring Evidence for the History of the Early Earth Interactive Timeline

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Exploring Evidence for the History of the Early Earth Interactive Timeline

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Students move through a timeline highlighting specific information gained from studying meteorites and early Earth rocks.

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Exploring Evidence for the History of Early Earth Interactive Timeline | PBS LearningMedia

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Explore events in the first few hundred million years of the solar system and Earth's history and view some key evidence of these events with this interactive timeline.

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Students click through observational evidence gathered by scientists about our solar system.

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Evidence in Planetary Science | PBS LearningMedia

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Explore techniques that planetary scientists use to gather and analyze evidence from solar system objects to learn more about the early history of Earth and its formation through this media-rich slideshow. Use this resource to engage students in thinking about the process of science and to visualize how phenomena can be investigated from multiple perspectives.

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This interactive lab allows students to change velocity and mass to see interactions involving solar system objects

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Welcome to My Solar System. It has 2 interactive screens that you can explore. Choose a screen to start exploring.

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This interactive has all three of Kepler’s Laws of Orbital motion. The animations clearly show the relationships between velocity, area swept out, and period of revolution.

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This simulation allows students to do a scale model or without scale. It also allows them to turn gravity on or off so they can see what happens to a planet without the force of gravity. Students can also use the model with the moon or without.

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Move the sun, earth, moon and space station to see how it affects their gravitational forces and orbital paths. Visualize the sizes and distances between different heavenly bodies, and turn off gravity to see what would happen without it!

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Students work through interactive videos and games to uncover what Earth’s climate was like using clues.

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Hot House Earth | Polar Lab | PBS LearningMedia

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Learn about Earth's global climate past, one that has oscillated between hot house and ice house conditions in these videos from the NOVA Polar Lab. Use this resource to introduce students to evidence that Earth's climate has changed dramatically over the past half a billion years, and to clarify the difference between weather and climate.

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NASA Scale in the Sky (Measuring Earth's Water with Gravity)

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NASA Scale in the Sky (Measuring Earth's Water with Gravity)

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Video explaining gravitational forces, and how we can monitor the motion of water and ice using satellites.

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Student Video: NASA’s Earth Minute: Scale in the Sky | NASA/JPL Edu

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How does measuring Earth’s gravity show us where water is and where it’s going?

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Video of people watching a total solar eclipse,

Followed by sequenced information about an eclipse. Can be shared directly to google classroom.

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Phases of a Total Solar Eclipse | PBS LearningMedia

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Experience what it is like to see a total solar eclipse with photographs that show how the Sun appears during various phases and a video that captures the reactions of people during totality. Use this resource to visualize a total solar eclipse and to relate science concepts to real-life experiences.

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Eclipses: How can the little Moon cover the Big Sun?

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Eclipses: How can the little Moon cover the Big Sun?

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Students create a simple to model with a large ball and a small ball to represent an eclipse.

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This activity offers great hands-on exploration of how distance can affect the way we perceive the size of an object. It makes a good introduction to solar eclipse as well as Sun and Moon's sizes and distances from Earth. The idea behind this activity is very simple and the activity itself is easy to do, making it accessible even for young kids.
How Can The Little Moon Hide The Giant Sun? Activity

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Eclipse: How Can The Little Moon Hide The Giant Sun? - NASA

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This hands-on activity makes a good introduction to solar eclipse as well as Sun and Moon's sizes and distances from Earth, by introducing how distance can affect the way we perceive the size of an object.

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Students examine sea ice data sets to see that with more melting taking place, melting rates increase. The data focuses on albedo (reflection). The less reflection causes more absorption of infrared thus causing an increase in melting.

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The Faster Sea Ice Melts, the Faster Sea Ice Melts! - Science On a Sphere

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White, snowy areas help to reflect heat from sun away from the Earth. As the ice caps melt due to anthropogenic climate change, they reflect less heat, causing the global temperatures to rise, which causes the ice caps to melt faster...

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Case Study: Students look at Lake Superior and how Climate change is affecting this region of the United States.

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Climate Change and the Great Lakes: Identity and Home

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Objectives: Students will be able to... Describe how climate change is affecting Lake Superior and Lake Huron Summarize and evaluate the role that the lake has in supporting the livelihood and identity of surrounding communities Warm-up: 1. Think about your home: your bedroom, the apartment or house you live in, your yard or the surrounding landscape, and your neighbors. How would you describe it to a stranger? What elements of your city or neighborhood are unique? What elements of your home reflect you? 2. Take three to five minutes to write a response. You can do this in list form or write your response as a composition. 3. After you write your response, share in a small group of your peers. What do you have in common? Can your group agree on common characteristics that describe your community? Introducing the Lesson: Climate change is affecting North America’s Great Lakes. The lakes are home to 20 percent of the planet’s surface freshwater. They support a $7 billion fishing industry and $25 billion in shipping commerce, but climate change is taking a toll on each lake in a different way. Today, we’ll focus on the effects of climate change on Lake Superior and Lake Huron. We’ll review two articles published by The Chicago Tribune that explore these environmental effects as well as the impact that climate change continues to have on the surrounding communities who have deep connections to the lake. For more articles, explore the full reporting project on climate change in the Great Lakes. Note to the educator: You can choose to split the class into two groups and share their findings or have the class read both articles. The comprehension questions listed in the sections that introduce the resources are intended to support students in doing a close reading. Introducing Resource 1: The news article “On the Largest Freshwater Island in the World, Lake Huron’s Native Americans Warn of the Fragility of Water” from The Chicago Tribune explores the impact that climate change has on Native American and First Nation tribes as well as coastal areas surrounding Lake Superior. For each section in the article, answer the following questions: Introductory text: How would you characterize Native peoples’ attitude towards Lake Huron? List the ways climate change is affecting First Nation communities. Our Territory: Describe the First Nation communities’ history in the Great Lakes region. How are First Nation tribes attempting to reestablish sovereignty of the region? How might that affect climate change? Decimated Fishing Grounds: What accounts for the conflict between the tribes in the Great Lakes region and the Canadian authorities? How has commercial fishing affected the wildlife in Lake Superior? Pipeline Fears: Describe how Enbridge’s Line 5 could be a threat to drinking water. List the ways the pipeline could be compromised. Outline both sides of the argument about whether to keep the pipeline open or closed. What other man-made threats is the lake facing? Water Walkers: What has motivated Wiikwemkoong women to participate in water walks? What are they hoping to accomplish? How do water walks exemplify the First Nation communities’ attitude toward water? Introducing Resources 2: The news article “Homeowners Near the Great Lakes Face a ’Very Scary” Challenge: How Do You Handle a Generation’s Worth of Water Level Changes in Just a Few Years?” explores climate change’s effect on Lake Huron and its surrounding community. For each section in the article, answer the following questions: Introductory text: How is Lake Huron changing? What is particularly concerning about this change? Historically Low to Historically High: Compared to the other Great Lakes, what is unique about Lakes Michigan and Huron? Describe how the chain of events triggered by the increase in greenhouse gases is contributing to the rise and fall of water levels in the area surrounding Lake Huron. How is it affecting the surrounding communities and wildlife? An Economic Rise and Fall: How are rising water levels affecting people who own property on Lake Huron? What steps are they taking to maintain their homes? How might ice and increasing water levels affect dock posts and cribs? Rhythm of the Water: How are fluctuating water levels affecting the economy in Cedarville? How does the community characterize their connection to Lake Huron? Describe Kenneth Kloster’s attitude about his home, the lake, and the upcoming challenges of fluctuating water levels. Hard to Pin Down: Describe the seasonal process of lake levels. How is climate change affecting that pattern? How will Lake Huron be uniquely affected by precipitation changes due to climate change? How Lake Huron Compares: What accounts for the increase in storms around the Lake Michigan-Huron basin? How is water availability affected by evaporation? Why are experts having a hard time predicting evaporation patterns? How has the polar vortex affected evaporation patterns? Polar Opposites: How has a lack of state and federal funding affected communities around Lake Huron like Cedarville? What work are the citizens of Clymer doing to combat the effects of climate change on the lake and their community? Why is determining “who is to blame” integral to their discussion? How does a community dependent on the lake persevere when it has to deal with extreme highs and lows? Activity: After reading each article, fill out the attached chart individually or in small groups. Use the chart to describe how climate change is affecting the identity, sense of home, income, and livelihood of each of the following communities discussed in the articles: First Nation tribes, commercial and sports fisherman, homeowners near Lake Huron, and communities surrounding Lake Huron. Worksheet for this activity [PDF] Discussion: As a class or in pairs, discuss: How are the effects of climate change especially impactful to communities that live in proximity to great lakes? In communities like the First Nation tribes and Cedarville, how are notions of identity and home being disrupted by the effect that climate change has on the lakes? Are communities that live in proximity of great lakes responsible for safeguarding the lake? Do they bear more responsibility than other communities? Extension Activities: Option 1. Creative writing Consider the following quote from this article: “A band of Toledoans petitioned to put a referendum on the February ballot that would create a Lake Erie Bill of Rights, a designation to grant the lake the same rights as a person. It would also allow environmentalists to sue on behalf of the lake.” Imagine the lakes could speak for themselves. What would the lake say? Write a poem or letter in the perspective of any of the Great Lakes describing the effect that human-induced climate change is having on your mind, body, and spirit. Option 2. Persuasive writing Consider the following quote from this article: “A band of Toledoans petitioned to put a referendum on the February ballot that would create a Lake Erie Bill of Rights, a designation to grant the lake the same rights as a person. It would also allow environmentalists to sue on behalf of the lake.” Imagine that you were asked to either defend or refute this bill. What side would you take? Compose a three-paragraph, persuasive essay defending your stance. Option 3. Take action 1. Learn more about how climate change is affecting places around the world by exploring one or more of these stories. Alternatively, delve more deeply into how climate change is affecting the Great Lakes with one or more of the stories in this reporting project. 2. Write a letter to your representative that summarizes the story you explored, how it connects to your community, and what action you would like them to take to improve circumstances. You can use this template to write your letter.

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Students can read about types of weathering and explore photos of different weathering features from all over the world.

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Weathering describes the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on the surface of Earth. Water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and changes in temperature are all agents of weathering.

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Students read about the once giant landmass Pangaea and the giant sea Panthalassa. A video link to explore continental drift is available in the text.

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What continent do you live on? North America? South America? Africa? Asia? Australia? Europe? Would you believe that those continents used to be one huge body of land?

That's what scientists believe. About 270 million years ago, almost all of the land on Earth was part of one supercontinent . Today, scientists call that land mass Pangaea. The name comes from a Greek word that means "all the Earth."

Pangaea covered about one-third of Earth's surface. What took up the other two-thirds of the planet? A giant ocean! Without many landmasses to break up the water, the world's oceans formed one worldwide body. This ocean was called Panthalassa.

Where did the idea of Pangaea come from? Do we have pictures or records from 270 million years ago? Of course not! Instead, a German meteorologist named Alfred Wegener developed the idea of Pangaea. He introduced Pangaea back in 1912 as part of his about how continents drift. Since then, scientists have learned a lot more about plate .

Experts think Pangaea started splitting apart around 200 million years ago. It broke apart slowly rather than all at once. Over time, the separate pieces drifted apart. Eventually, they created the continents we know today. This also created new oceans.

Is Pangaea the only supercontinent in Earth's past? Many experts think not. They believe that another supercontinent existed a billion years ago. This mass was called Rodinia. Another one named Pannotia formed about 600 million years ago. It seems that the Earth's landmasses have been drifting about for quite a while!

Plate tectonic tell scientists that the Earth's crust is made up of various plates. These plates continue to move even today. Will you wake up tomorrow to your continent slamming into another one? No, of course not! The plates move very slowly, and it will be a long time before the continents move together again.

How do scientists know all this? They make educated guesses about the past based on they find today. For example, scientists have found from species on continents that are now far apart. This is just one piece of that makes them believe the continents were once connected.

Experts also look to geological . For example, scientists have found matching geological in South America and Africa. This makes them believe the two were once joined.

What do you think it would be like to live on a supercontinent ? What might we name the next giant ? Luckily, we have plenty of time to decide. Experts think a new Pangaea could form within the next 50 million years!

C3.D2.Geo.2, CCRA.L.3, CCRA.L.6, CCRA.R.1, CCRA.R.2, CCRA.R.4, CCRA.R.10, CCRA.SL.1, CCRA.W.2

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What continent do you live on? North America? South America? Africa? Asia? Australia? Europe? Would you believe that those continents used to be one huge body of land? That's what scientists believe. About 270 million years ago, almost all of the land on Earth was part of one supercontinent .

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Students look at real temperature data from the Gulf of Maine and temperature data from the mainland of Maine to explore why Maine’s waters are warming so fast.

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Middle School | Daily Do

Why Is Ocean Water Warming Faster in Some Places Than Others?

1. NSTA

2. Why Is Ocean Water Warming Faster in Some Places Than Others?

Welcome to NSTA's Daily Do

Teachers and families across the country are facing a new reality of providing opportunities for students to do science through distance and home learning. The Daily Do is one of the ways NSTA is supporting teachers and families with this endeavor. Each weekday, NSTA will share a sensemaking task teachers and families can use to engage their students inauthentic, relevant science learning.We encourage families to make time for family science learning (science is a social process!) and are dedicated to helping students and their families find balance between learning science and the day-to-day responsibilities they have to stay healthy and safe.

Interested in learning about other ways NSTA is supporting teachers and families? Visit the NSTA homepage.

What Is Sensemaking?

Sensemaking is actively trying to figure out how the world works (science) or how to design solutions to problems (engineering). Students do science and engineering through the science and engineering practices. Engaging in these practices necessitates that students be part of a learning community to be able to share ideas, evaluate competing ideas, give and receive critique, and reach consensus. Whether this community of learners is made up of classmates or family members, students and adults build and refine science and engineering knowledge together.

Introduction

In this Daily Do lesson, Why is ocean water warming faster in some areas than others?, students are introduced to the phenomenon of the rapid increase in ocean water temperature in the Gulf of Maine through the film Our Beautiful Planet: A Search Beneath the Sea. Students analyze multiple data sets to try to explain why the Gulf of Maine is warming at a rate three times faster than the average rate of warming for the world's oceans.

View the Why is ocean water warming faster in some places than others?NGSS table to see the elements of the three dimensions targeted in this lesson.

Materials

Introducing the Phenomenon

Tell students that something unusual is happening in the Gulf of Maine. Show students on a map where the Gulf of Maine is located, then introduce students to the film Our Beautiful Planet: A Search Beneath the Sea. Play the film from the beginning (0:00) to 1:23.

Share with students the sea surface temperature anomaly data for the Gulf of Maine. Students could obtain information about the data set from the 2020 Gulf of Maine Warming Update, or you might provide them with the following information:

Each row represents one year.

Red represents days on which sea surface temperature was above average.

Blue represents days on which sea surface temperature was below average.

Black dots represent heatwaves.*

* Marine heatwaves are defined as five or more consecutive heatwave days. To qualify as a heatwave day, the temperature for that day must be higher than 90% of the same calendar days during the 30-year baseline period (1982-2011).

Teacher -While heatwaves (both land and ocean) are defined by specific criteria, you might choose to use the term more generally (e.g., a prolonged period of abnormally high temperatures) with students.

Next, assign students to small groups and provide each group with a whiteboard, large sheet of paper, or digital space to work with. Ask students to share the patterns they identified, or other information extracted from the data, with their group members. Instruct groups to record these patterns and/or information and be prepared to share their noticings with the class. Group noticings may include these:

The number of "red" days increase a lot after 2010.

There were mostly "blue and white" days before 2009.

Some years, like 1992 and 1996, have very few "red" days.

2012 had a heatwave that lasted almost the entire year.

After 2010, heatwaves always occur, but before 2010, some years didn't have any.

Ask students to share questions they have about the sea surface temperature anomaly data and the information provided in the film clip with their group.

Have each group share their top one or two common questions with the class. Common questions will likely include these:

Why is the sea surface temperature rising so fast?

Did something happen in 2010 to make the water warmer all the time?

Could the rise in sea surface temperature affect the fish?

Why hasn't the water temperature decreased like it has in the past (for example, in 1992, 1996, and 2004)?

How does a big body of water/the ocean get warmer in just one spot?

Is the water polluted? Is pollution in the water making it warmer?

Is the ocean water warmer in this spot because it is close to land?

Record students' questions in a shared space where they can be easily seen by the whole class. Acknowledge that students have many questions about what is happening in the Gulf of Maine. Point out that the answers to these questions might help answer the question presented in the film: Why is the Gulf of Maine warming at such an alarming, accelerating rate? Write this question across the top of the class list of questions.

Each row is a year, and the color indicates whether the day (sea surface temperature) is above (red) or below (blue) the average. Black dots indicate heatwaves.

Building Initial Ideas

Ask students to turn to a partner and brainstorm (for about two minutes) possible causes for the rapid rise in sea surface temperature in the Gulf of Maine. Bring the students back together and ask them to share their idea or a partner's idea about why the warming trend might be occurring. Students may share the following ideas:

Pollution is causing global warming. (Greenhouse gas emissions are causing climate change.)

The ocean water is getting warmer from the warmer air temperature.

An underwater volcano is making the water warmer.

Someone is dumping chemicals into the Gulf of Maine, and that is making the water warmer.

T-As students share their ideas, use talk moves to get them to think more deeply about their ideas, such as these:

Can you say more about why you think we need to know more about the air temperature?

Does anyone else have anything to add to the idea of knowing more about air temperature?

What data do you think we might need to figure out if pollution is causing the sea surface temperatures to rise in the Gulf of Maine?

Next, tell students you have some data to share that might help them figure out what is happening in the Gulf of Maine. Ask students to return to their small groups, and provide each group with a different data set to analyze. Encourage them to write down any questions they have about the data.

Have groups share patterns they identified and/or information they obtained from their assigned data set with the rest of the class.

Common noticings may include these:

The Gulf of Maine has a large watershed that could be dumping warm water into the ocean.

Cold water currents come in from the north, but most of the currents entering the Gulf of Maine seem to be warm water.

Warm water currents seem to get stuck in a loop in two places. We think that means the warm water just stays there and doesn't move out.

Greenhouse gases are decreasing. We thought these would be going up, since we heard that greenhouse gases make the air temperatures rise.

Air temperature in Maine is getting warmer, and we think that could make the water warmer. (But we're not sure why the air temperature is increasing.)

T -This activity could be completed as a jigsaw: (1) return students to small groups; (2) assign each group member a different data set; (3) move students into new groups based on their assigned data set; (4) provide time for students to work collaboratively with their new group members to analyze their assigned data set; and (5) send students back to their original group to share information gleaned from their assigned data sets.

Taking Stock

After all groups have presented their findings to the class, ask, "Do you think we can use these data sets to help us explain why the Gulf of Maine is warming at such an alarming, accelerating rate?"

Give groups time to develop an initial (consensus) explanation about why the sea surface temperature is rapidly rising in the Gulf of Maine.

Ask students if they remember from the film clip how much faster the Gulf of Maine is warming compared to other parts of the ocean. (Three times faster) Tell students what scientists don't know is why the Gulf of Maine is warming at such a rapid rate. Ask students, "We've looked at many different kinds of data for the Gulf of Maine. What do you think?"

Show students the rest of the filmOur Beautiful Planet: A Search Beneath the Sea.

Putting the Pieces Together

Have students revisit their initial explanations. How did their explanations compare to what scientists currently understand about why the Gulf of Maine is warming so rapidly?

Students should conclude that several factors are working together to warm the Gulf of Maine at a rate three times faster than the average rate of warming of the world's oceans. Air temperature, ocean currents, and the rivers that flow into the Gulf of Maine all contribute to warmer waters. Carbon emissions also contribute to a rise in ocean temperature, even though data clearly show the carbon emissions in Maine are decreasing.

Next Steps

Meet Charles Tilburg, Oceanographer

Dr. Charles Tilburg is Director of the School of Marine and Environmental Programs, Director of the Arthur P. Girard Marine Science Center, and a Professor of Marine Sciences at the University of New England. He earned a Bachelor of Science in Aerospace Engineering and a Master of Science in Environmental Engineering from the University of Texas and a PhD in Oceanography from Florida State University. He has 20 years of research and teaching experience in physical oceanography, numerical modeling, and biophysical coupling of marine systems. He has authored more than 40 peer-reviewed publications and received more than $3 million in research funding. Tilburg previously taught in the marine science departments of the University of Georgia and the University of New England.

About the Our Beautiful Planet Film Series

This lesson is based on information provided in the film Our Beautiful Planet: A Search Beneath the Sea. Our Beautiful Planet is a fascinating new series of films highlighting the work that climate scientists around the country are doing to solve some of the world's most pressing issues. These dedicated researchers are seeking to better understand the many different ways we are being impacted by our changing climate and determine the ways we can most effectively respond. Using cutting-edge technology and innovative problem-solving strategies, they sometimes find their answers in surprising and unexpected places. Our series, by enabling viewers to experience firsthand some of the most important field work being done today, takes science out of the classroom and puts it right into the world. These compelling stories will not only teach our viewers crucial scientific principles, but will also inspire them to use science to examine the issues that confront them in their own communities. Through these films, we hope scientists and citizens alike can come together to safeguard our environment and to protect our beautiful planet. The films are produced by Kikim Media. Support is provided by Kennebunkport Climate Initiative.

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Why Is Ocean Water Warming Faster in Some Places Than Others?

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Middle School | Daily Do NSTA Why Is Ocean Water Warming Faster in Some Places Than Others? Welcome to NSTA's Daily Do Teachers and families across the country are facing a new reality of providing opportunities for students to do science through distance and home learning.

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Video on circulation of ocean currents and climate, comparing the ocean currents to a fast moving roller coaster.

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Mass flows of water, or currents, are essential to understanding how heat energy moves between Earth's water bodies, landmasses, and atmosphere. The ocean covers 71 percent of the planet and holds 97 percent of its water, making the ocean a key factor in the storage and transfer of heat energy across the globe. The movement of this heat through local and global ocean currents affects the regulation of local weather conditions and temperature extremes, stabilization of global climate patterns, cycling of gases, and delivery of nutrients and larva to marine ecosystems.

Ocean currents are located at the ocean surface and in deep water below 300 meters (984 feet). They can move water horizontally and vertically, which occurs on local and global scales. The ocean has an interconnected current, or circulation, system powered by wind, tides, Earth's rotation (Coriolis effect), the sun (solar energy), and water density differences. The topography and shape of ocean basins and nearby landmasses also influence ocean currents. These forces and physical characteristics affect the size, shape, speed, and direction of ocean currents.

Surface ocean currents can occur on local and global scales and are typically wind-driven, resulting in horizontal and vertical water movement. Horizontal surface currents that are local and typically short term include rip currents, longshore currents, and tidal currents. In upwelling currents, vertical water movement and mixing brings cold, nutrient-rich water toward the surface while pushing warmer, less dense water downward, where it condenses and sinks. This creates a cycle of upwelling and downwelling. Prevailing winds, ocean-surface currents, and the associated mixing influence the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the ocean, as well as global climate.

Deep ocean currents are density-driven and differ from surface currents in scale, speed, and energy. Water density is affected by the temperature, salinity (saltiness), and depth of the water. The colder and saltier the ocean water, the denser it is. The greater the density differences between different layers in the water column, the greater the mixing and circulation. Density differences in ocean water contribute to a global-scale circulation system, also called the global conveyor belt.

The global conveyor belt includes both surface and deep ocean currents that circulate the globe in a 1,000-year cycle. The global conveyor belt's circulation is the result of two simultaneous processes: warm surface currents carrying less dense water away from the Equator toward the poles, and cold deep ocean currents carrying denser water away from the poles toward the Equator. The ocean's global circulation system plays a key role in distributing heat energy, regulating weather and climate, and cycling vital nutrients and gases.

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Scientists across the globe are trying to figure out why the ocean is becoming more violent and what, if anything, can be done about it. Ocean currents, including the ocean conveyor belt, play a key role in determining how the ocean distributes heat energy throughout the planet, thereby regulating and stabilizing climate patterns.

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Allows students to look at samples of rock gathered from all over the world and solar system. Students can choose from meteorites, lunar rocks, or Earth rocks. Samples give photographs and a fact sheet of data/observations about each sample.

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Browse our full range of rock types native to Earth and beyond

The rocks in the Virtual Microscope are presented as a series of collections to make them easy to browse. Our biggest collection is called the UKVM and consists of over 100 rocks from the United Kingdom, digitised as an open educational resource with JISC funding.
The Collections are the core of the Virtual Microscope project: each one a unique, open educational resource created by The Open University in collaboration with one or more partners. Every Collection gives you access to virtual thin sections - and in some cases virtual hand specimens as well - of a range of samples for you to study as if using a specialist petrological microscope. You can observe the properties, size, shape, proportion and colour of minerals in the sample, as well as textures and microstructures, piecing together clues to the rock's history - or just marvelling at the interplay of colours and patterns.

You will ﬁnd all the Collections on this page but you can also search through all available samples (from whatever Collection) by using the search feature in the Explore section.