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What is already known-time to gather, read, and then synthesize information of the research topic. Consider it a snapshot of studies to help distinguish a rationale for the new study based on holes discovered, key findings, and frames what has already been discovered.

Some thoughts to consider:

Who are the leading authors/experts/researchers in this area of study?

Relevant definitions, concepts, and issues to this topic

Any changes in the research over recent years?

Conflicting and differing theories surrounding this topic

How are unanswered (if any) questions being addressed?

What does the future research look like with this research topic?

Where does your research fit in the field of study?

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A. (2023) Qualitative Research in Education and Social Sciences, (2nd ed.). Cognella Academic Publishing

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Figure 6.3 on page 227 outlines an example of a mind map of potential gatekeepers for a study of women's experiences in historically black universities.

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Consider your:

-personal motivations

-professional motivations

-assumptions about what the problem is who might be influenced by it

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A. (2022). Qualitative research in education and social sciences (2nd ed.). Cognella Academic Publishing.

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What are you passionate about that led you to your profession?

How are your research topics connected to social change?

How will the RPA model influence your research topic?

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A. (2022). Qualitative research in education and social sciences (2nd ed.). Cognella Academic Publishing.

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-Reflect on your personal relationship to the topic to find a more specific inquiry

-Use a literature review to find perspectives you wish to explore or uncover more perspectives

-Brainstorm research Q & A

-Consider drafting a working title

-Evaluate the feasibility by considering what might inhibit your research

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A. (2022). Qualitative research in education and social sciences (2nd ed.). Cognella Academic Publishing.

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Knowledge

Build theory

Test existing theory

Publish Findings

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A. (2022). Qualitative research in education and social sciences (2nd ed.). Cognella Academic Publishing.

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Generalizability of results

Apply knowledge to problems

Interventions

Share findings with those working with the problem

Limited in terms of time, setting, problem

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A. (2022). Qualitative research in education and social sciences (2nd ed.). Cognella Academic Publishing.

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Evaluate effectiveness of solutions/interventions to problems

Improve programs in progress (formative)

Investigated completed program effectiveness (summative)

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A. (2022). Qualitative research in education and social sciences (2nd ed.). Cognella Academic Publishing.

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Solve specific problems to a group, setting, time

Fosters changes

Active involvement of participants

Mirror researcher's social values

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A. (2022). Qualitative research in education and social sciences (2nd ed.). Cognella Academic Publishing.

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Tends to begin general and become specific.

Will help generate research questions.

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Are you going for depth (one population) or scope (many populations)?

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A. (2022). Qualitative research in education and social sciences (2nd ed.). Cognella Academic Publishing.

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Hayes and Singh (2022) suggest making a plan (including a timeline) to share the results of your study with your participants.

Don't forget to collect contact information from those who would like to receive the results.

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Build relationships with all key players by considering and/or asking:

How can I help you feel comfortable participating in this research?

Who am I to you?

Who are we to each other?

Where is the line between participating in research and friendship?

How does our relationship enhance the research in which we are mutually invested?

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1. Convenience Sampling is when you choose those most readily available to you for your sample. Caution! This approach does not yield good generalizability

2. Snowball Sampling is when you ask participants to recommend others for your study

3. Intensity Sampling is when you choose participants who meet extreme cases of your participant criteria

4. Criterion Sampling is selecting your participants based upon specific predetermined criteria

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Hayes and Singh (2022) suggest conducting an initial visit wherein you will gather all the information you need guiding your activities while on site.

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Plan out how long your activities will take while on site. Be sure to stay in communication, should these timelines change, with all key players to maintain a trusting relationship.

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Brainstorm all the things that could go wrong during your visit- people, time, resources, etc. Address each in preparation for your visits.

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Research question connects the conceptual framework and theoretical orientation.

has broad and open ended central question and sub questions, typically with "what", "how", and "why".

Use exploratory verbs, flexible, and applied to the specific context.

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Mixed methods approach involve the combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Enhance the trustworthiness of a study by increasing the integrity of findings.

This approach is suitable when researcher aim to corroborate, complement the findings through triangulation, development, and initiation.

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A. (2022). Qualitative research in education and social sciences (2nd ed.). Cognella Academic Publishing.

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Consider conceptual framework as a network

concepts

theories

personal and professional assumptions

exploratory studies

alternative explanations that together inform the research topic

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A., (2023). Qualitative Research in Education and Social Sciences, (2nd ed.). Cognella Academic Publishing

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1. experiential knowledge

2. prior theory and research

3. pilot and exploratory studies

4. thought experiences, "waving the red flag," and the "flip-flop" technique

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A. (2023). Qualitative Research in Education and Social Sciences, (2nd ed.). Cognella Academic Publishing

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This is the literature review-or at least the pondering of the theory and looking for the research. See also the literature review section

Think of several areas of prior research

benefits and challenges

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A. (2023) Qualitative Research in Education and Social Sciences, (2nd ed.). Cognella Academic Publishing

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Concepts are refined through pilot and exploratory studies on the research topic that will inform the research study itself

Reasons:

develop an understanding of subjects (concepts and theories, aka in vivo codes)

help to find the middle range theory-firmly in the data

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A. (2023) Qualitative Research in Education and Social Sciences, (2nd ed.). Cognella Academic Publishing

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Thought experiments, "waving the red flag," & the "flip-flop" technique

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Thought experiments, "waving the red flag," & the "flip-flop" technique

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Used to develop theoretical sensitivity (grounded theory analysis)

Others, such as research team members or colleagues, for critical analysis of the framework

1. thought experiment-challenge to consider other ways to look at how assumptions and concepts work together and explain the research

2. Waving the red flag-identifying researcher bias and assumptions, how do they affect the framework?

3. flip-flop technique- compare opposites/extremes to find aspects of the framework that may not be so apparent

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A. (2023) Qualitative Research in Education and Social Sciences, (2nd ed.). Cognella Academic Publishing

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Thought experiments, "waving the red flag," & the "flip-flop" technique

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Conceptual framework in qualitative research is constantly developing and evolving. Consider that having a research team may add to the research process and bring in insight, reflection, experience and diversity.

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Table 6.2 suggests some recommended sample sizes based upon your research tradition.

Some things to consider:

-scope of study

-scope of research questions

-sample diversity

-desire for negative cases

-accessibility of sample

-degree of participant engagement

-qualitative research tradition

-sample size from previous similar studies

-data collection period/amount of data collected per data source

Overall your sample size should be sufficient enough to represent the phenomenon in question.

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AKA: researcher bias, critical subjectivity, and reflexivity.

The researcher brings to the research topic

1. assumptions

2. expectations

3. biases

More specifically, these are applied to the interconnections among concepts.

Background knowledge and experience can play a huge role in researcher "insight" and can either add to or hinder what the data tells a researcher. Therefore, a researcher needs to be reflective about experiential knowledge that they are bringing in throughout the development of the conceptual framework. This reflectivity may also help revisions along the way.

Hays, D. G. & Singh, A. A. (2023). Qualitative Research in Education and Social Sciences, (2nd ed.). Cognella Academic Publishing.

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Purpose statement should be clear, specific and informative statement. It includes the objectives, the intent and the major idea of a proposal.

The purpose statement need to be in a separate paragraph following the conceptual framework, provide details about selected research paradigms and tradition, focus on one phenomenon, action verbs, neutral words, mention the participants.

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A. (2022). Qualitative research in education and social sciences (2nd ed.). Cognella Academic Publishing.

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Table 5.2 on p. 163 helped me to understand what type of research I'm headed towards. As it stands, I'm looking at 2: Applied research and and Action research. For Applied, the purpose is to use the knowledge gained to intervene and be able to share my findings with policy makers, and those higher up than me. This aligns with what we have been advocating for at work as far as a bottom-up approach. As it relates to Action research, I seek to solve specific program, district and organizational challenges, by actively involving participants.

within this, I have 2 areas of research I would like to look into, and discerning which best fits a greater purpose and which best fits within our allotted time frame: SEL in EC & Translanguaging in EC to support SEL.

Felicia

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Building Trust with Participants Before Data Collection

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Building Trust with Participants Before Data Collection

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Establishing trust with participants is foundational to ethical and meaningful research. Drawing from my experience as a psychotherapist, I recognize that building rapport is not just about external actions but also about an awareness of one's inner world and how that affects interactions with others. Trust is built through transparency, collaboration, and the ability to hold space for participants' emotions, ensuring they feel safe and respected.

Pitt’s (2007) Stage Model of Participant-Researcher Relationships in Fieldwork (seen on p. 224 of our textbook) highlights key patterns in these relationships, offering a useful guide for trust-building:

1. Other Orientation – Before data collection, it's important to acknowledge the participant's comfort. You must actively respond to their needs and create a welcoming environment where they feel heard, fostering a sense of security.

2. Self in Relation to Other – Trust also depends on being transparent about your role. As a researcher, it’s essential to acknowledge power dynamics. This invites participants into a reciprocal relationship rather than a hierarchical one.

3. Self and Other Thinking – Understanding relational dynamics is critical. Asking, “Who are we to each other?” encourages reflection on the shared space you are creating and allows for a more ethical and engaged partnership.

4. Interpersonal Connection – Research often involves navigating the line between professionalism and personal connection. Building rapport means striking a balance between empathy and maintaining ethical research boundaries.

5. Partnership – True trust develops when participants feel they are not just subjects but valued collaborators. Asking, “How does our relationship enhance the research in which we are mutually invested?” fosters a sense of shared purpose.

Beyond these stages, trust is built by creating a safe space for emotions. As in psychotherapy, research requires the ability to hold space for participants' emotions without judgment. Whether discussing personal experiences or sensitive topics, being attuned to participants' feelings encourages openness.

Ultimately, trust is an ongoing process that requires self-awareness, ethical transparency, and genuine engagement. By approaching participants with authenticity and care, researchers create an environment where individuals feel empowered to share their experiences, leading to richer and more meaningful research outcomes.

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Strengthening a Conceptual Framework Before Fieldwork

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Strengthening a Conceptual Framework Before Fieldwork

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A strong conceptual framework serves as the foundation for fieldwork, guiding research design, data collection, and interpretation. It is essential to refine this framework before entering the field to ensure that the research remains focused, ethically sound, and methodologically rigorous. The considerations presented in Figure 6.1 on page 195—sampling methods, sample size, site selection, building rapport, and exiting the field—illustrate how different elements of fieldwork must be aligned with the conceptual framework.

1. Aligning Sampling Methods with Theoretical Assumptions

The conceptual framework should shape sampling methods by determining who should be included in the study and why. If the research is grounded in a specific theoretical approach (e.g., critical theory, phenomenology), the sampling strategy must reflect those epistemological commitments. Ensuring that sampling aligns with the framework strengthens the study’s credibility and relevance.

2. Determining a Justifiable Sample Size

The framework helps define an appropriate sample size based on the study’s aims. For qualitative research, smaller, information-rich samples may be more appropriate. By considering how the conceptual framework dictates data needs, researchers can avoid oversampling or collecting data that does not contribute to answering the research questions.

3. Selecting a Site That Reflects the Conceptual Focus

Site selection should be informed by the framework’s key constructs. If a study examines systemic inequities in education, choosing a site where these inequities are observable ensures alignment between theory and fieldwork.

4. Establishing Trust and Building Rapport

The conceptual framework also shapes how researchers build rapport with participants. A well-developed framework guides researchers in fostering trust while maintaining professional and ethical boundaries.

5. Planning for Ethical and Thoughtful Exit Strategies

Exiting the field is just as crucial as entering it. The framework should help anticipate the ethical implications of concluding research, particularly in studies involving vulnerable populations. Researchers must ensure that their departure does not cause harm or disrupt existing structures. Furthermore, planning for sharing of findings in a way that benefits participants should also be considered.

By strengthening a conceptual framework before fieldwork, researchers ensure that every step—from sampling to exiting the field—is intentional, ethical, and theoretically grounded.

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These pitfalls can be found on page 196:

Unclear Definition of Population of Interest

-Failing to clearly define the population leads to difficulties in identifying the target group and ensuring accessibility.

-It is crucial to critically assess how to maximize participant voice.

Weak or Inappropriate Sampling Strategy

-A strong sampling method should align with the research paradigm and enable a clear and concise explanation of how the sample was chosen.

-Avoid selecting a sample based on convenience alone.

Overly Rigid or Overly Broad Sampling Criteria

-Criteria should be clearly established but flexible enough to allow for necessary adjustments.

-Overly restrictive criteria may exclude essential voices, while overly broad criteria may dilute research focus.

Limiting Fieldwork to Physical Sites

-Ignoring online spaces as potential sites for data collection can be a missed opportunity, especially for sensitive topics that might benefit from digital engagement.

Improper Sample Size Selection

-Selecting too few participants may limit the depth of insights.

-Selecting too many may lead to overwhelming amounts of data that are difficult to analyze effectively.

Failing to Critically Reflect on Sampling Choices

-Researchers should reassess if their chosen sample truly addresses their research questions.

-New voices may be needed, requiring adaptability in participant selection.

Misguided Assumptions About Sampling Methods

-The best approach depends on the research question and context.

Lack of Relationship Building with Gatekeepers and Stakeholders

-Overlooking the importance of gatekeepers, stakeholders, and key informants can jeopardize access to participants.

-Building trusting relationships early in the process can facilitate smoother data collection.

Neglecting Access and Exit Strategies

-Poor planning around site access can lead to logistical and ethical challenges.

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Think of concept maps as an evolving theory about your research topic. They can be used to display large amounts of information simply and can shape how you gather information.

Things to consider:

use a linear design or a systematic design

design it to be read from top down

color code conceptual framework components

categorized as variance or process maps

most important component is the use of arrows

There are several designs used in concept maps

an abstract framework

a flowchart of events

causal network of variables

a treelike diagram

a Venn diagram

a flowchart

Advantages of concept maps

1. structure the literature review

2. help make decisions about aspects of research design

3. give a visual context of assumptions about research topic

4. can depict an emerging theory as data comes in

Hays, D. G., & Singh, A. A. (2023) Qualitative Research in Education and Social Sciences, (2nd ed.). Cognella Academic Publishing

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After all the reading done so far, in my head I'm building a concept map that includes not only the entire process, but breaking it down into mini maps. I need to put it on paper, but visualizing does help me to remember the important aspects as we continue this journey. I don't want to miss anything, and I want to be extra prepared when presenting to the board.