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~What do you notice about Fitzgerald's name?

~What is his family like?

~What reputation does Fitzgerald develop as an adult? Is he a partier?

~What is Fitzgerald's social status as an adult?

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A Brief Life of Fitzgerald - University Libraries | University of South Carolina

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The dominant influences on F. Scott Fitzgerald were aspiration, literature, Princeton, Zelda Sayre Fitzgerald, and alcohol.

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~What do you learn about Fitzgerald's lifestyle as he continues publishing more and more literary works?

~What people and events seem to influence Fitzgerald the most?

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~What was Prohibition?

~What is bootlegging?

~What are speakeasies?

~How did Prohibition catalyze an increase in criminal activity in 1920s America?

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When Prohibition took effect on January 17, 1920, many thousands of formerly legal saloons across the country catering only to men closed down. People wanting to drink had to buy liquor from licensed druggists for "medicinal" purposes, clergymen for "religious" reasons or illegal sellers known as bootleggers. Another option was to enter private, unlicensed barrooms, nicknamed "speakeasies" for how low you had to speak the "password" to gain entry so as not to be overheard by law enforcement.

The result of Prohibition was a major and permanent shift in American social life. The illicit bars, also referred to as "blind pigs" and "gin joints," multiplied, especially in urban areas. They ranged from fancy clubs with jazz bands and ballroom dance floors to dingy backrooms, basements and rooms inside apartments. No longer segregated from drinking together, men and women reveled in speakeasies and another Prohibition-created venue, the house party. Restaurants offering booze targeted women, uncomfortable sitting at a bar, with table service. Italian-American speakeasy owners sparked widespread interest in Italian food by serving it with wine.

Organized criminals quickly seized on the opportunity to exploit the new lucrative criminal racket of speakeasies and clubs and welcomed women in as patrons. In fact, organized crime in America exploded because of bootlegging. Al Capone, leader of the Chicago Outfit, made an estimated $60 million a year supplying illegal beer and hard liquor to thousands of speakeasies he controlled in the late 1920s.

The competition for patrons in speakeasies created a demand for live entertainment. The already-popular jazz music, and the dances it inspired in speakeasies and clubs, fit into the era's raucous, party mood. With thousands of underground clubs, and the prevalence of jazz bands, liquor-infused partying grew during the "Roaring Twenties," when the term "dating" - young singles meeting without parental supervision - was first introduced.

Speakeasies were generally ill-kept secrets, and owners exploited low-paid police officers with payoffs to look the other way, enjoy a regular drink or tip them off about planned raids by federal Prohibition agents. Bootleggers who supplied the private bars would add water to good whiskey, gin and other liquors to sell larger quantities. Others resorted to selling still-produced moonshine or industrial alcohol, wood or grain alcohol, even poisonous chemicals such as carbolic acid. The bad stuff, such as "Smoke" made of pure wood alcohol, killed or maimed thousands of drinkers. To hide the taste of poorly distilled whiskey and "bathtub" gin, speakeasies offered to combine alcohol with ginger ale, Coca-Cola, sugar, mint, lemon, fruit juices and other flavorings, promoting the enduring mixed drink, or "cocktail," in the process.

As bootlegging enriched criminals throughout America, New York became America's center for organized crime, with bosses such as Salvatore Maranzano, Charles "Lucky" Luciano, Meyer Lansky and Frank Costello. At the height of Prohibition in the late 1920s, there were 32,000 speakeasies in New York alone. The most famous of them included former bootlegger Sherman Billingsley's fashionable Stork Club on West 58 Street, the Puncheon Club on West 49 favored by celebrity writers such as Dorothy Parker and Robert Benchley, the Club Intime next to the famous Polly Adler brothel in Midtown, Chumley's in the West Village and dives such as O'Leary's in the Bowery. Harlem, the city's black district, had its "hooch joints" inside apartments and the famed Cotton Club, owned by mobster Owney Madden, on 142 Street.

Owners of speakeasies, not their drinking customers, ran afoul of the federal liquor law, the Volstead Act. They often went to great lengths to hide their stashes of liquor to avoid confiscation - or use as evidence at trial - by police or federal agents during raids. At the 21 Club on 21 West 52nd (where the Puncheon moved in 1930), the owners had the architect build a custom camouflaged door, a secret wine cellar behind a false wall and a bar that with the push of a button would drop liquor bottles down a shoot to crash and drain into the cellar.

Near the end of the Prohibition Era, the prevalence of speakeasies, the brutality of organized criminal gangs vying to control the liquor racket, the unemployment and need for tax revenue that followed the market crash on Wall Street in 1929, all contributed to America's wariness about the 18 Amendment. With its repeal via the 21 Amendment in 1933 came an end to the carefree speakeasy and the beginning of licensed barrooms, far lower in number, where liquor is subject to federal regulation and taxes.

Next Story: Bootleggers and Bathtub Gin

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The Speakeasies of the 1920s - Prohibition: An Interactive History

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When Prohibition took effect on January 17, 1920, many thousands of formerly legal saloons across the country catering only to men closed down. People wanting to drink had to buy liquor from licensed druggists for "medicinal" purposes, clergymen for "religious" reasons or illegal sellers known as bootleggers.

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~What is bootlegging?

~How did Prohibition catalyze an increase in criminal activity in 1920s America?

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How Prohibition Created the Mafia | History

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~What is eugenics?

~What is scientific racism?

~Where else was eugenics popular across the globe?

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Eugenics is an inaccurate theory linked to historical and present-day forms of discrimination, racism, ableism and colonialism. It has persisted in policies and beliefs around the world, including the United States.

The Big Picture:

Eugenics is the scientifically inaccurate theory that humans can be improved through selective breeding of populations.

Eugenicists believed in a prejudiced and incorrect understanding of Mendelian genetics that claimed abstract human qualities (e.g., intelligence and social behaviors) were inherited in a simple fashion. Similarly, they believed complex diseases and disorders were solely the outcome of genetic inheritance.

The implementation of eugenics practices has caused widespread harm, particularly to populations that are being marginalized.

Eugenics is not a fringe movement. Starting in the late 1800s, leaders and intellectuals worldwide perpetuated eugenic beliefs and policies based on common racist and xenophobic attitudes. Many of these beliefs and policies still exist in the United States.

The genomics communities continue to work to scientifically debunk eugenic myths and combat modern-day manifestations of eugenics and scientific racism, particularly as they affect people of color, people with disabilities and LGBTQ+ individuals.

What are eugenics and scientific racism?

Eugenics is the scientifically erroneous and immoral theory of "racial improvement" and "planned breeding," which gained popularity during the early 20th century. Eugenicists worldwide believed that they could perfect human beings and eliminate so-called social ills through genetics and heredity. They believed the use of methods such as involuntary sterilization, segregation and social exclusion would rid society of individuals deemed by them to be unfit.

Scientific racism is an ideology that appropriates the methods and legitimacy of science to argue for the superiority of white Europeans and the inferiority of non-white people whose social and economic status have been historically marginalized. Like eugenics, scientific racism grew out of:

the misappropriation of revolutionary advances in medicine, anatomy and statistics during the 18th and 19th centuries.

Charles Darwin's theory of evolution through the mechanism of natural selection.

Gregor Mendel's laws of inheritance.

Eugenic theories and scientific racism drew support from contemporary xenophobia, antisemitism, sexism, colonialism and imperialism, as well as justifications of slavery, particularly in the United States.

How did eugenics begin?

Francis Galton, an English statistician, demographer and ethnologist (and cousin of Charles Darwin), coined the term "eugenics" in 1883.

Galton defined eugenics as "the study of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations either physically or mentally." Galton claimed that health and disease, as well as social and intellectual characteristics, were based upon heredity and the concept of race.

During the 1870s and 1880s, discussions of "human improvement" and the ideology of scientific racism became increasingly common. So-called experts determined individuals and groups of people to be either superior or inferior. They believed biological and behavioral characteristics were fixed and unchangeable, and placed individuals, populations and nations inside of that hierarchy.

What did eugenics look like across the globe?

By the 1920s, eugenics had become a global movement. There was popular, elite and governmental support for eugenics in Germany, the United States, Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, Canada and other countries. Statisticians, economists, anthropologists, sociologists, social reformers, geneticists, public health officials and members of the general public supported eugenics through a variety of academic and popular literature.

The most well-known application of eugenics occurred in Nazi Germany in the lead up to World War II and the Holocaust. The Nazi German racial state between 1933 and 1945 used its resources to "cleanse" the German people and the Nazi state of those they deemed "unworthy of life." Nazis in Germany, Austria and other occupied territories euthanized at least 70,000 adults and 5,200 children. They implemented a campaign of forced sterilization that claimed at least 400,000 victims. This culminated in the near destruction of the Jewish people, as well as an effort to eliminate other marginalized ethnic minorities, such as the Sinti and Roma, individuals with disabilities and LGBTQ+ people.

What did eugenics look like in the United States?

In the United States, slavery and its legacies, fears of " miscegenation " and eugenics were deeply connected in the early 20th century. Prominent American eugenicists expounded on their concerns of "race suicide," or the increasingly differential birthrates between immigrants and non-Nordic races compared to native-born Nordic whites. Eugenicists used these concerns to promote discriminatory policies like anti-immigration and sterilization.

American eugenicists from a variety of disciplines declared certain individuals unfit, "feebleminded" or anti-social, which resulted in the involuntary sterilization of at least 60,000 people through 30 states' laws by the 1970s.

These eugenicists disproportionately targeted Latinxs, Native Americans, African Americans, poor whites and people with disabilities during the entirety of the 20th century. Eugenicists were also crucial to the enactment of discriminatory immigration legislation that was passed in 1924 (the Johnson-Reed Act), which completely excluded immigrants from Asia.

Do eugenics and scientific racism still exist?

Yes.

While eugenics movements especially flourished during the three decades before the end of World War II, eugenics practices such as involuntary sterilization, forced institutionalization, social ostracization and stigma were common in many states until at least the 1970s and, in some instances, have continued into the present in various forms.

With the completion of the Human Genome Project (HGP) and, more recently, advances in genomic screening technologies, there is some concern about whether generating an increasing amount of genomic information in the prenatal setting would lead to new societal pressures to terminate pregnancies where the fetus is at heightened risk for genetic disorders, such as Down Syndrome and spina bifida.

The emergence of statistical techniques, such as polygenic risk scores, that can estimate risks for more genetically complex disorders have raised concerns among ethicists that their use in the context of in vitro fertilization and preimplantation genetic diagnoses. The possible genomic-based screening of embryos for behavioral, psychosocial and/or intellectual traits would be reminiscent of the history of eugenics in its attempt to eliminate certain individuals.

Some geneticists view both genomic screening and genetic counseling as an extension of eugenics.

What is NHGRI doing to address eugenics and scientific racism?

When the HGP began in 1990, there was widespread concern that genomics would lead to a new era of eugenics. Many bioethicists were aware of how past eugenic movements used genetic information to ostracize historically marginalized groups and believed that people would use the outcomes of the HGP and subsequent developments in genomics to further marginalize and stigmatize certain groups. People were also concerned that the HGP would usher in a new era of behavior genetics, where genes would be used to explain certain behaviors. Many discussions about the HGP revolved around whether employers or insurance companies could use genomic information to discriminate against specific individuals.

In response to these and other concerns, the National Center for Human Genome Research (now the National Human Genome Research Institute, or NHGRI) founded the Ethical, Legal and Societal Implications (ELSI) Research Program. For more than three decades, the NHGRI ELSI Research Program has funded research on all aspects of the social and ethical implications of genomics, including the legacies of eugenics and scientific racism in the context of new and emerging genetic and genomic technologies.

Building on a long tradition of these legacies, NHGRI is committed to taking proactive steps to provide leadership in the field of genomics in addressing structural racism and anything that would foster eugenics-based ideas. Together with efforts of the National Institute of Health, including the UNITE Initiative, NHGRI will continue to combat the legacies of eugenics and scientific racism and their present-day manifestations to develop an inclusive and welcoming genomics community.

In addition, the NHGRI History of Genomics Program is committed to interrogating the legacies of eugenics and scientific racism to further develop ethical and equitable uses of genomics.

Only by understanding and fully engaging with the history of eugenics and scientific racism will genomics serve to facilitate an inclusive and humane future.

Additional Resources

To learn more about eugenics and scientific racism, see the following resources:

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Eugenics is the scientifically erroneous and immoral theory of "racial improvement" and "planned breeding,"

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~Where does eugenics come from? What are its origins?

~How did eugenics manifest in American culture in the late 1800s and early 1900s?

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~What new opportunities were women afforded in the 1920s?

~Describe what employment was like for women during the 1920s

~What are 2 social changes that occurred for women during the 1920s?

~What are 2 political changes that occurred for women during the 1920s?

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Learn more about the lives of women in the USA in this podcast.

New opportunities versus traditional restrictions

Advertisements in the 1920s showed women operating shiny new appliances or driving cars. However, the experiences of many women during this period were less positive. For example:

Although more women joined the workforce in the 1920s, their wages were usually lower than those of men in the same jobs.

The greater freedom promised by labour-saving devices only affected the lives of urban women. Around a third of American homes, mainly in rural areas, did not have electricity. For many other women, the traditional role of looking after the family continued alongside the need to earn a living outside the home.

From 1920, all women had the right to vote through the 19th Amendment, which promised political freedom. However, this had little impact on their lives.

Throughout the 1920s, new employment opportunities for women opened up in factories, offices and department stores alongside the more traditional roles found in nursing and teaching. The introduction of the brought about many new opportunities for women in factories as it reduced the physical demands of many jobs. More than 2 million women joined the workforce in the 1920s.

Despite this, educational opportunities were increasing. By 1930, there were around 50,000 women with college degrees, which was three times more than the number of women with college degrees in 1920.

However, in the 1920s, fashion trends changed. Some women wore shorter skirts and more make-up, and many cut their hair into a shorter 'bobbed' style. The flapperflapper The term used to describe a liberated, young, fashionable woman in 1920s America whose behaviour would have been considered unconventional. was a familiar sight in towns. Women also freely smoked and drank outside the home for the first time - for example, in speakeasies.speakeasy A bar that sold alcoholic beverages illegally during Prohibition in the 1920s. This had been frowned upon for women before the war, although not for men. There was a greater acceptance of dating and slightly more sexual freedom, with film actresses such as Clara Bow becoming icons for the rejection of pre-war values.

Despite these changes, old values continued to exist in rural areas and in the older generation of women, who disapproved of the lifestyle that flappers represented.

For many women who continued to look after the home, a bigger social change came with the invention of devices such as vacuum cleaners, refrigerators and other electric devices. These reduced the time needed to complete in the home. The growth of department stores meant that clothes could be bought instead of made. The 1920s also saw growth in leisure time.

However, these opportunities were mostly enjoyed by the middle and upper classes. Working-class, immigrant and African American people were unable to afford many of these devices and luxuries.

However, these reforms did not continue throughout the 1920s. In terms of political representation, the 1920s saw few women get involved in running for political office. By 1928 there were only 145 women in state and only a few women had served in the

One reason for this was the fact that once the vote had been obtained, the movement for women's suffrage broke down into many smaller groups with different priorities. These groups campaigned on many different issues, including and gender discrimination. One particular area of achievement was in the campaign for where the was successful in pushing the cause of

More guides on this topic

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Women in the 1920s - US society in the 1920s - OCR A - GCSE History Revision - OCR A - BBC Bitesize

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Learn about and revise how US society developed during the 1920s and whether the good times were felt by all with BBC Bitesize GCSE History - OCR A.

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~Identify 4 major ways that women were different in the 1920s than in past decades within America

~What are flappers?

~What was the flapper lifestyle like?

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How did life change for women in 1920s America? GCSE AMERICA | Get a Grade 9

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~What did cars become symbolic of in the 1920s?

~How were cars connected to leisure?

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From 1919 to 1929, primarily North America and parts of Europe experienced the rise of the Roaring Twenties. Social and economic circumstances underwent dramatic changes. The economic power and high employment of the United States allowed Americans to spend more extravagantly on entertainment. War veterans returned home seeking relaxation and comfort, instead of returning to their factory or agricultural duties. Watching movies and listening to the newly invented radio became increasingly popular during this period, which further encouraged the desires of people for Hollywood style lives of indulgence and ease. This extravagance was ignited by the introduction of Henry Ford's Model T, a car affectionately known as the "Tin Lizzie." Cars became a major source of freedom and adventure as well as travel, and greatly altered the standard of living and social patterns, urban planning and differentiated suburban and urban living purposes. In addition, the rise of cars led to the creation of new leisure activities and businesses. The car became the center of middle and working class life, until the start of World War II.

The end of World War I saw the rise in the economic power of the United States due to their active trade and support of the Allied Nations in the war. Their supplying of agricultural and manufactured goods to these nations greatly boosted their economy, while the economies of Germany, France, and Great Britain suffered from major decreases in export trade activity. Henry Ford's Ford Motor Company played a critical role in the economic growth of the time period due to its rapid sales of the Model T. By 1924, approximately ten thousand Ford Motor Company dealerships operated throughout the United States. Ford's method of assembly line production and stable wages for workers made the Model T a popular car. By 1927, fifteen million Ford cars were sold throughout the country. Along with public funds that were raised towards the building of roads and highways, these factors contributed greatly to the economic wealth of the time.

Car ownership created a major distinction among social classes and the areas in which people lived and worked. Stereotypes were made on the financial status of those who lived in cities versus the suburbs.

Cars allowed for flexibility in the living areas of the working class, who were no longer tied to living near train stations and trolley lines for transportation to their areas of employment. Many members of the middle class began to separate their lives at home and at work by living in suburban areas and commuting to urban areas for employment. Those who lived in urban areas did not need cars to commute to areas for leisure or for work, which separated the status of

. People who lived in urban areas could be assumed as people who could not afford cars, and people who lived in suburban areas who had to commute to urban areas for work leisure could be assumed as relatively wealthy. Overall, job opportunities and social distinctions both increased.(subscription required)

As cars transformed from being a luxury to a commonplace household item, and as larger distinctions were made between the higher and lower classes, standards of living increased. The mass production of vehicles led to the mass production of newer technologies that went along with the theme of convenience in society at the time. Henry Ford set his cars at an affordable price for the middle classes in North America and Europe, and paid his workers relatively well for the time period. This influenced production in other industries, including in appliances. Soon, the average household had one car, refrigerator, stove, and washing machine. There became an evident difference between early times of hard work, and the times of ease and recreation during the Roaring Twenties.

This transformation was noted by historian Ruth Schwartz Cowan in the novel More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave, in which she compared the work of the times. "A woman who is placing a frozen prepared dinner into a microwave oven is involved in a work process that is as different from her grandmother's methods of cooking as building a carriage from scratch differs from turning bolts on an automobile assembly line."

Many longer distances were traveled because of cars, which called for the necessity in the development of new businesses, including gas stations, car repair services, motels, convenience stores, and roadside restaurants. These services added to the conveniences of the time, and made travel and the use of cars more appealing. These new businesses added to the booming economy of societies in the Roaring Twenties and created more types of employment and choices in educational studies. Competition among businesses led to new forms of payment, including credit.

Motels emerged in 1925 for the purpose of accommodating cross country drivers. The name "motel" originated from motor-hotels, in which guests were given the convenience of parking their cars for free in a space that was directly across from their hotel room. Motels were created as drop-in services, and attracted travelers due to its low cost lodging and flexibility.

As the number of cross country drivers increased, the number of roadside restaurants did as well. However, these restaurants were created with the purpose of allowing their customers to dine at their own pace, whether it was taking food to-go or stopping by for a quick meal. Some restaurants were designed to allow customers to dine without leaving their cars. This fast paced method led to the development of drive-in-movies, drive-in-banks, and fast food restaurants.

Prior to the widespread introduction of the car, installment buying, or credit, was used to pay for a limited amount of products. However, in 1916, the use of credit expanded due to the competition among car dealers to match the low price of Ford's Model T. Medium priced car dealers allowed for their customers to pay in several payments over time for their cars. Soon the purchase of cars became credit-based in all countries. This method of payment also eventually became used for the purchase of other consumer goods. The use of credit attracted more customers to buying items that they previously would not have been able to afford.

The freedoms and recreation that cars provided led to the invention of car racing. Onlookers enjoyed this new form of racing and often made car purchases based on car models and brands in the race. This was one way that automotive companies were able to advertise for their new cars. In 1922, a contestant named Noel Bullock participated in the Pikes Peak, Colorado championship race with his Model T, named "Old Liz." It was compared to a tin can due to its lack of paint and hood, which gave the car its nickname, "Tin Liz." Its sturdiness and speed led to its winning of the race against all other expensive cars of the time. From that point on, "Tin Lizzie" became the name for all Model T cars, as its win was reported in newspapers throughout the country. This further popularized Ford cars, as well as the sport of auto racing. Auto racing eventually led to the development of NASCAR.

At the start of World War II, the automotive industry began to center their focus on supplying materials for the war. New technologies like the armored car and advanced tanks were created. In addition, more roadways were paved to make transportation during the war more fast and efficient. As a result, ownership of cars decreased, and public transportation increased. People spent their savings on necessities rather than the personal freedom that cars gave. After World War II, the purchase of cars increased once more. This clearly exhibited the United States and Western European preference of the time towards the flexibility of cars.

Motor vehicle production (in thousands)

1. World History in Context. "Roaring Twenties: 1919-29." North Carolina Wiseowl. ^ http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/whic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?displayGroupName=Reference&disableHighlighting=false&prodId=WHIC&action=e&windowstate=normal&catId=&documentId=GALE%7CCX3425500471&mode=view (accessed December 21, 2011).

2. ^ Educator Programs. "Teaching the American 20s". Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin.

3. Delong, J. Bradford. "XIII. The Roaring Twenties." Slouching Towards Utopia? The Economic History of the Twentieth Century. ^ http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/tceh/slouch_roaring13.html (accessed December 21, 2011).

4. ^ Cowan, Ruth Schwartz (1983). More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave. United States of America: Basic Books, Inc. ISBN 978-0465047321.

5. Stanley K. Schultz, William P. Tishler. "The Politics of Prosperity: The 1920s." American History 102. ^ http://us.history.wisc.edu/hist102/lectures/lecture15.html (accessed December 27, 2011). Archived December 28, 2011, at the Wayback Machine

6. ^ Martha L. Olney (1989). "Credit as a Production-Smoothing Device: The Case of Automobiles, 1913-1938". The Journal of Economic History. 49: 377-391. doi:10.1017/S0022050700008007.

7. ^ Botkin, B. A. (1968). "Automobile Humor: From the Horseless Carriage to the Compact Car". The Journal of Popular Culture. I: 395-402. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.1968.0104_395.x.

8. ^ Lacivita, Robert (November 2004). "The Impact of Technology on Society: From 1865 - 1960" (PDF).

9. ^ John Dockendorf; Herbert S. Levinson; Donn Fichter; Ali Haghani; Ronald J. Hundenski; Charles E. Prestrud. "Bus Transportation - A Look Forward." A1E01 Committee on Bus Transit Systems" (PDF).

10. ^ Delong, J. Bradford. ""XIII. The Roaring Twenties." Slouching Towards Utopia? The Economic History of the Twentieth Century".

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From 1919 to 1929, primarily North America and parts of Europe experienced the rise of the Roaring Twenties. Social and economic circumstances underwent dramatic changes. The economic power and high employment of the United States allowed Americans to spend more extravagantly on entertainment.

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~What do you notice about the types of people who are driving cars during this era?

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Vintage automobiles of the 1920s and 30s in 1958

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~What was the "Black Sox Scandal"?

~What happened in the 1919 World Series?

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Table of Contents

This article was most recently revised and updated by

Black Sox Scandal, American baseball scandal centring on the charge that eight members of the Chicago White Sox had been bribed to lose the 1919 World Series to the Cincinnati Reds. The accused players were pitchers Eddie Cicotte and Claude ("Lefty") Williams, first baseman Arnold ("Chick") Gandil, shortstop Charles ("Swede") Risberg, third baseman George ("Buck") Weaver, outfielders Joe ("Shoeless Joe") Jackson and Oscar ("Happy") Felsch, and utility infielder Fred McMullin. Court records suggest that the eight players received $70,000 to $100,000 for losing five games to three.

Suspicions of a conspiracy were aired immediately after the World Series ended, principally by Hugh Fullerton and other sportswriters, but controversy over the allegations had died down by the beginning of the 1920 season. Then, in September, a grand jury was called to investigate various allegations of gamblers invading baseball. On September 28, 1920, after Cicotte, Williams, Jackson, and Felsch admitted to the grand jury that they had thrown the 1919 series in return for a bribe, Charles Comiskey, owner of the White Sox, suspended seven of the players. (Gandil was already on suspension in a salary dispute.) The indicted players stood trial in the summer of 1921 but on August 2 were acquitted on insufficient evidence-largely because key evidence, including the original confessions of the players, had disappeared from the grand jury files. (They probably were stolen.) On August 3 the new baseball commissioner, Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis, banned the eight players from the game for life.

Few of the alleged gamblers testified at the trial, and none were themselves ever brought to trial for the White Sox bribery, though the notorious New York racketeer Arnold Rothstein was mentioned in hearings as the probable banker of the bribery scheme.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Amy Tikkanen.

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Black Sox Scandal | Overview, Suspensions, & Facts

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Black Sox Scandal, American baseball scandal centring on the charge that eight members of the Chicago White Sox had been bribed to lose the 1919 World Series to the Cincinnati Reds.

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~What happens in the 1919 World Series?

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The 1919 World Series Fix that Tarnished America's Pastime

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~How did this scandal affect America's image of its favorite pastime?

~What does this scandal suggest about life in the 1920s?

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Black Sox Scandal | Research Starters | EBSCO Research

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The Black Sox Scandal refers to a major controversy in baseball history that emerged during the 1919 World Series, where eight members of the Chicago White Sox were accused of conspiring to fix the games against the Cincinnati Reds. The White Sox, heavily favored to win, unexpectedly lost the series, causing widespread rumors and speculation about game-fixing. In 1920, a grand jury indicted the players involved, leading to a trial that ultimately did not result in convictions due to missing evidence and recantations by key witnesses. Nonetheless, the newly appointed baseball commissioner, Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis, banned all eight players from the sport, a move aimed at restoring public trust in baseball.

The scandal had a profound impact on the landscape of American sports, leading to the establishment of stricter ethical guidelines for athletes and marking the transition of professional sports into a major enterprise. It also coincided with the rise of new sports heroes like Babe Ruth, whose influence helped to shift public attention away from the scandal. The Black Sox Scandal is often viewed as a pivotal moment that not only highlighted the vulnerabilities in professional sports but also initiated significant changes in how the industry operated, reflecting broader societal shifts in post-war America.

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~Name 2 key characteristics of jazz music

~How did jazz music reflect a cultural division that was growing in 1920s America?

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In fact, the 1920s was a decade of deep cultural division, pitting a more cosmopolitan, modernist, urban culture against a more provincial, traditionalist, rural culture. The decade witnessed a titanic struggle between an old and a new America as well as the rise of a modern consumer economy and mass entertainment. All of these themes were played out in the nation’s music.

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~How was jazz music a reaction to The Great War (World War I)?

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The Jazz Age | American Experience | PBS

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The Scopes trial was a signature event of the Jazz Age. It had that “ballyhoo” spirit so typical of the 1920s.

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~How did infrastructure change with the rise of the automobile in the 1920s?

~What were the economic effects of cars in the 1920s?

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Wheels of Change: The Automotive Industry’s Sweeping Effects on the Fifth District

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~How was jazz connected to race, class, and culture?