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Carries messages to and from the PNS

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- Part of the CNS
- Responsible for virtually everything we think, feel and do

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- Part of the CNS
- Connects the brain and PNS, initiates spinal reflexes

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Carries messages to and from the CNS

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- Part of the PNS
- Connects CNS to internal organs & glands, self regulating

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- Part of the PNS
- Carries messages from sensory receptors in the body to the CNS and motor messages from the CNS to skeletal muscles

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- Part of the autonomic nervous system
- Prepares the body for action

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-Part of the autonomic nervous system
- Calms the body after action

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Responsible for receiving information (from the pre-synaptic neuron) and transmitting (processing) info across the synapse (to the post-synaptic neuron)

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An extension of a neuron that detects & receives info from other neurons

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The white, fatty substance that surrounds and insulates the axon, much like the plastic tubing around copper wires in an electrical cord

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A single, tube-like extension that transmits neural info (electrical impulses) to other neurons

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The location where the neurotransmitter is released into the synapse

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Location: PNS
Role: Detect energy from the external environment and stimulation from the internal environment and carry info about it the the CNS

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Location: PNS
Role: Carry commands from the brain to the body's muscles, organs and glands to enable movement

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Location: Spinal cord
Role: Carry info directly between sensory and motor neurons. Involved in reflex actions

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- A chemical that is released by a pre-synaptic neuron that carries neural info across the synapse, and binds to a receptor site on the post-synaptic neuron

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- NTs that have a calming effect on the brain. The main inhibitory NT is GABA.
- GABA slows transmission
- Inhibitory effect - making it less likely to cause an action potential

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NTs that stimulate or activate post-synaptic neurons to function. The main excitatory NT in the CNS is glutamate.
- Glutamate aids in fast transmission of neural information, essential for memory formation.
- Excitatory effect - making it more likely to cause an action potential

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Receptor site of the post-synaptic neuron

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Neurotransmitters from the pre-synaptic neuron

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- The NT binds to the receptor site of the post-synaptic neuron if it has a complementary (matching) shape.
- Receptor sites in receiving neurons' dendrites recognise NTs by their particular shape. When the shape of the NT matches the shape of the receptor site, neurotransmission of the message has occurred.

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- Dopamine is a NT found in the CNS that is responsible for smooth, coordinated movements.
- In Parkinsons Disease, dopamine producing neurons decay, meaning that the brain doesn't produce enough dopamine to carry out smooth, controlled movements

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- Has very slow progression, lifespan not necessarily shortened.
- Begins with malfunction and deterioration to neurons in the substantia nigra of the brain. Substantia nigra is composed of nerve cells that produce and release dopamine.

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- The automatic psychological and physical arousal (or tension) a person feels in response to a change in their external or internal environment that challenges them or causes them to feel they do not have the personal or social resources to cope
- Stress activates the parasympathetic nervous system and triggers physiological changes

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Any person, object or event that challenges or threatens the person.
Internal: e.g. pain or a disturbing thought
External: e.g. a loud noise, relationship break-up

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- A positive psychological response to a stressor as indicated by the presence of positive psychological states.
- The physiological changes associated with stress energise and arouse us so we can perform at an optimal level to achieve our goal.

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- A negative psychological response to a stressor and is indicated by negative psychological states.
- Occurs when a person perceives a stressor to be a threat to their wellbeing that is beyond their capability to cope.

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Similarities and differences between eustress and distress

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Similarities and differences between eustress and distress

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Similarities: Both cause a non-specific physiological response/activation of the sympathetic NS.
Differences: The difference is in the psychological appraisal/response to the stressor.

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- The body's immediate response to a perceived stressor.
- Typically caused by the pressures we encounter in everyday life.

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- The body's response to a persistent or long-term stressor.
- Unlike acute stress, chronic stress often doesn't appear to be intense and is generally a continued feeling of unease, despair or hopelessness.

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Little annoyances /minor events that occur every day

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Opposite of daily pressures - major, significant but relatively rare events that require a change in behaviour within a relatively short time

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- Peoples identity (values, beliefs, behaviours and sense of self) is heavily influenced by the culture in which they live.
- Acculturation - when a person moves from one culture (their own) to a new culture, resulting in the need to modify aspects of their behaviour to fit the cultural traits/social patterns of the dominant culture they have moved to.

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- Catastrophe - a sudden, unpredictable, uncontrollable, intense event that is out of the control of an individual and causes intense and prolonged suffering.
- Disrupt and threaten people's lives, causing major stress.

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A real or imagined threat automatically activates our sympathetic nervous system (SNS). SNS increases our arousal levels and energises us so that our body is prepared for action.

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- The 2 branches of the autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system) work together to deal with threats and recover from them.

- SNS automatically activates, regardless of fight or flight:
- Increased heard rate/blood pressure
- Increased glucose for energy
- dilation of pupils to allow eyes to take in more light
- suppression of functions not immediately required in order to conserve energy (e.g. digestion and sexual drive)

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Once the perceived threat is gone, the parasympathetic NS activates the relaxation response.
- calms your body by reversing the effects of the SNS and returns the body to a normal level of functioning (homeostasis)

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We may go into freeze if we are unable to fight/flight.
- unable to move or act
- body movements and vocalisations stop
- racing heart slows significantly
- the freeze response is out last attempt to survive
- the SNS is activated initially, and then the parasympathetic NS activates and dominates our SNS responses, putting us in a freeze state

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Short term:
- Releasing glucose (sugar) in fight/flight scenarios, so you have more energy to deal with immediate threats.
- Controls your immune function.
- Essential for maintaining homeostasis
- A short-term increase in cortisol affects the body in a positive way.

Long term:
- Biochemical and hormonal imbalance that can have a number of negative effects.

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STAGE 1: Alarm-reaction state (with substages shock and countershock)

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STAGE 1: Alarm-reaction state (with substages shock and countershock)

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1. Shock
- When we first perceive a threat, we go into a state of shock.
- our resistance falls below normal and our body acts as if injured
- body temp and blood pressure drop.
- these physical effects of shock reduce our ability to deal with the stressor and you may feel helpless.

2. Countershock
- SNS is activated, meaning there is a higher than normal arousal level that increases the body's resistance in an attempt to deal with the stressor.
- also results in fight-flight response.
- body's resistance is above normal.

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- Body attempts to fight the stressor.
- Physiological arousal is still higher than normal = high cortisol  levels
- Chronic stress = ongoing high levels of cortisol (compromises your immune system) (your body puts all of its resources into fighting the current stressor, which means there is a reduced ability to resist additional stressors).

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- Body's resources are drained = stress hormones are triggered. The fight-flight response are depleted.
- Leaves us vulnerable to additional stressors such as infection and disease, and we may succumb to significant (chronic) physical illness, or mental illness.

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- First to suggest stress could weaken the body's ability to resist infection and increase chances of developing a physical disorder
- Stress and disease are linked

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- Results are based on research using rats, hot humans
- No differentiation between how one person may respond (physiologically or psychologically) to a particular stressor compared to someone else

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HOW SIGNIFICANT OR THREATENING IS THE EVENT?
- We evaluate the significance of the event and if anything is at stake.
- We appraise whether the event is irrelevant, benign-positive or stressful. Appraising the situation as irrelevant or benign positive = not stressful & no further appraisal.

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An assessment of how much damage has already occurred (e.g. 'I have lost my job')

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An assessment of harm/loss that has not yet occurred but could occur in the future (e.g. 'I mightn't be able to afford the rent')

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The situation is assessed as a potential for personal gain or growth (e.g. 'I'll get any other job I can and will learn to budget and save money')

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HOW CAN I COPE WITH THE EVENT?
- Person assesses internal resources (e.g. strength and determination) and external resources (e.g. money and support from family/friends) are available to them in terms of coping with the stressor.

- If we believe we do not have the resources to cope, we make a negative secondary appraisal and experience stress. If we believe we do have the resources to cope, we make a positive secondary appraisal and can reappraise the stressor as being less threatening or significant.

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- Used when we feel we have some sort of control over the situation.
- Includes reappraising the stressor from new perspectives, obtaining more info about the stressor, focusing on changing only what is changeable.
- Problem-focused coping is an example of an approach strategy.

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- Used when believe that we have little or no control over a situation and therefore we cant meaningfully change the circumstances.
- Focus on changing the emotional component of the stressor rather than the problem itself.
- Emotion-focused strategies include denial, distancing, minimising, acceptance and venting emotions.
- Emotion-focused coping is an example of an approach strategy.

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WHAT ADDITIONAL RESOURCES ARE NEEDED TO COPE WITH THE STRESSOR?
1. Reappraising the situation while taking account of the coping resources available.
2. Reappraising the coping resources while taking account of the reappraised threat.
- If the stressor is still percieved to be beyond our coping mechanisms, a stress response occurs.

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Pros and Cons of transactional model of stress and coping

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Pros and Cons of transactional model of stress and coping

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Positives of the transactional model of stress and coping

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Positives of the transactional model of stress and coping

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- Emphasises stress responses and appraisals are subjective.
- Views stress as an interaction with the environment in which we play an active role (have control).

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Criticisms of the transactional model of stress and coping.

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Criticisms of the transactional model of stress and coping.

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- Difficult to test (stress is subjective).
- People not always conscious of all the factors causing them a stress response.

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Behavioural and psychological responses a person makes to a stressor that are intended to manage the stressor and reduce the physical and psychological stress related to it.

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- Cognitively or behaviourally avoiding/escaping painful or threatening thoughts, feelings, memories, or sensations associated with the stressor.
- No attempt to confront the stressor, considered to be maladaptive.
- Used when we feel we have little or no control over our situation and cannot manage it.

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- Consists of behavioural or psychological responses designed to change (remove or diminish) the nature of the stressor or how you think about it.
- Includes problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies.

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- Aimed at managing emotional stress by changing the unpleasant emotions associated with the stressor, such as fear, embarrassment, anxiety, etc.
- Helps us feel better but does not solve the source of our distress.
- Generally used when we feel the situation is uncontrollable so we cannot change the stressor. Emotion-focused strategies include denial, distancing, minimising, acceptance, venting emotions.

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- Effective strategy as it reduces stress hormones, such as adrenaline and cortisol, which reduces the experience of stress.
- Helps reduce muscle tension associated with elevated SNS activity.

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A simple automatic process response hardwired into our nervous system. Involves communication only between neurons in the spinal cord and somatic nervous system.

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- An unconscious, involuntary and automatically occurring response to a certain stimuli initiated within the spinal cord without any involvement of the brain.
- The order of communication between neurons for the spinal reflex is as follows:
sensory neuron --> interneuron --> motor neuron