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Herman Mueller increased the mutation rate in fruit flies by exposing them to X-rays. The term ¨mutation¨ means changing the genetic code.

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They produced a human growth hormone along with two kinds of interferon. They manufactured and marketed both of these. They got approval from the FDA for Protropin, their first medicine, in October 1985.

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Lilly Cuts Insulin Prices by 70% and Caps Patient Insulin Out ...Eli Lillyhttps://investor.lilly.com › news-release-details › lilly-c...

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Eli Lilly became licensed to manufacture insulin in 1982. She created Humulin and KwikPen. She brought the first commericial insulin to people living with diabetes.

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DNA polymerase | Summary - WhatisBiotechnology.orghttps://www.whatisbiotechnology.org › polymerase › dn...    DNA Polymerase: Structure, Types and FunctionsB

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In 1958 Coenburg discovered DNA Polymerase that synthiaizes DNA through replication. This improved todays scientist understanding of DNA and how it is repaired and replicated

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In 1983 Kary Mulis invented the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) where a tiny amount of DNA can be made into large amounts in a short period of time. This is a very important process in the medical field and science today.

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Plants were used for food, and domesticated or selectively bred for desired characteristics such as larger fruits and vegetables. Animals were used for food and work, or selectively bred for desired characteristics such as sheep being selectively bred for wool. Microorganisms were used to make cheeses and beverages, and to ferment bread. For example, Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a yeast used in the making of bread.

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Edward Jenner used living microorganisms to create the smallpox vaccine.

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In 1985 the Supreme Court passed that plants could be patented. They validated that genetically engineered plants could be patented because of property rights in life science.

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Frederick Griffith noticed that a rough type of bacterium changed to a smooth type when some unknown ¨transforming principle¨ from the smooth type was present. He tested these virulent bacteria in little heat-inactivated virulent form. This was the first example of a human-controlled transformation.

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Molecular farming for new drugs and vaccines - PMC - NCBInih.govhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov › articles › PMC1369121

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Field trials of recombinant DNA plants were conducted for the first time in 1986. These plants were able to resist bugs, sickness, and bacteria. The first trials were on tobacco and potato plants.

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GFP: from jellyfish to the Nobel prize and beyond - PubMedNational Institutes of Health (.gov)https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov › ...

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1962 Green Fluorescent Protein is Isolated 

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1962 Green Fluorescent Protein is Isolated 

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In 1962 Osamu Shimomura discovered and isolated Green Fluorescent Protein. In 2008 he was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize for his discovery.

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Louis Pasteur proved the existence of microorganisms, such as anthrax bacteria in earthworms' feces. He showed that all living things are produced by other living things.

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Alexander Fleming discovered the antibiotic properties of certain mold called ¨Penicillium notatum¨.

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Gregor Mendel investigated how traits are passed from generation to generation. He called them "elementen." We know them as genes.

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Chymosin was the first ever genetically engineered substance used in food. They used it in the making of cheese. It was the newer alternative to rennet, which was used to curdle milk.

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In 1994, the first genetically modified food approved was the FLAVR SAVR. They said the tomato was just as safe as a regular tomato.

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How are plasmids classified? - BYJU'SBYJU'Shttps://byjus.com › question-answer › how-are-plasmids-...     plasmid / plasmids | Learn Science at Scitable - Natu

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In 1965 plasmids were able to be classified which means they had the ability to transfer to other bacteria. This is important because, it allows scientist to clone anf manipulate genes

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Proteins and DNA were studied by X-ray crystallography, which was used for determining the three-dimensional structures of proteins such as nucleic acids and viruses. The term ¨molecular biology¨ was coined.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4655606/#:~:text=Introduction,proteins%2C%20nucleic%20acids%20and%20viruses.

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Pasteur discovered and patented pasteurization after experimenting with heated wine.

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Dolly the sheep becomes first successfully cloned mammalHistory Channelhttps://www.history.com › This Day in History › July 5

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Dolly the Sheep was a Finn Dorset sheep that was cloned and born in 1996 and lived for 7 years. She was the first clone of an adult mammal. She was born at the Roslin Institute in Scotland.

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George Beadle/Edward Tatum proposed the ¨one gene produces one enzyme¨ hypothesis. That means each gene is responsible for producing a single enzyme that in turn affects a single step in a metabolic pathway.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_gene%E2%80%93one_enzyme_hypothesis#:~:text=The%20one%20gene%E2%80%93one%20enzyme,step%20in%20a%20metabolic%20pathway.

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Linus Pauling described sickle cell anemia calling it a molecular disease. He studied the structure of DNA. In his experiment, he discovered that sickle-cell hemoglobin carried more positive electric charges on its surface.
https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/spotlight/mm/feature/disease

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Max Delbruck organized a course to study a type of bacterial virus that consisted of a protein coat containing DNA. It's called bacteriophanges, which helped the Phage Group and Phage Course. He quoted from research that "The viruses produce in one step, not exponentially as do cellular organisms."
https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/max-ludwig-henning-delbruck-1906-1981#:~:text=In%20the%20mid%2Dtwentieth%20century,which%20further%20organized%20phage%20research.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Delbr%C3%BCck#:~:text=While%20at%20Caltech%2C%20Delbr%C3%BCck%20researched,exponentially%20as%20do%20cellular%20organisms.

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Alfred Hershey/ Margaret Chase used radioactive labeling ("phosphorus and sulphur"- to be specific) to determine that it is DNA not protein is the genetic material, that carried the instructions for assembling new phages. Thus, DNA was identified as the genetic material.

https://www.toppr.com/ask/en-us/question/hersheyand-chase-experimented-with-radioactively-labeled-phosphorus-and-sulphur-todetermine-that-dna-and-not-protein/#:~:text=experimented%20with%20radi-,Hershey%20and%20Chase%20experimented%20with%20radioactively%20labeled%20phosphorus%20and%20sulphur,protein%20is%20the%20genetic%20material.

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Watson and Crick determined the double helix structure of DNA.
https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/spotlight/sc/feature/doublehelix

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The discovery in 1953 of the double helix, the twisted-ladder structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), by James Watson and Francis Crick marked a milestone in the history of science and gave rise to modern molecular biology, which is largely concerned with understanding how genes control the chemical processes within cells. In short order, their discovery yielded ground-breaking insights into the genetic code and protein synthesis. During the 1970s and 1980s, it helped to produce new and powerful scientific techniques, specifically recombinant DNA research, genetic engineering, rapid gene sequencing, and monoclonal antibodies, techniques on which today's multi-billion dollar biotechnology industry is founded. Major current advances in science, namely genetic fingerprinting and modern forensics, the mapping of the human genome, and the promise, yet unfulfilled, of gene therapy, all have their origins in Watson and Crick's inspired work. The double helix has not only reshaped biology, it has become a cultural icon, represented in sculpture, visual art, jewelry, and toys.

Researchers working on DNA in the early 1950s used the term "gene" to mean the smallest unit of genetic information, but they did not know what a gene actually looked like structurally and chemically, or how it was copied, with very few errors, generation after generation. In 1944, Oswald Avery had shown that DNA was the "transforming principle," the carrier of hereditary information, in pneumococcal bacteria. Nevertheless, many scientists continued to believe that DNA had a structure too uniform and simple to store genetic information for making complex living organisms. The genetic material, they reasoned, must consist of proteins, much more diverse and intricate molecules known to perform a multitude of biological functions in the cell.

Crick and Watson recognized, at an early stage in their careers, that gaining a detailed knowledge of the three-dimensional configuration of the gene was the central problem in molecular biology. Without such knowledge, heredity and reproduction could not be understood. They seized on this problem during their very first encounter, in the summer of 1951, and pursued it with single-minded focus over the course of the next eighteen months. This meant taking on the arduous intellectual task of immersing themselves in all the fields of science involved: genetics, biochemistry, chemistry, physical chemistry, and X-ray crystallography. Drawing on the experimental results of others (they conducted no DNA experiments of their own), taking advantage of their complementary scientific backgrounds in physics and X-ray crystallography (Crick) and viral and bacterial genetics (Watson), and relying on their brilliant intuition, persistence, and luck, the two showed that DNA had a structure sufficiently complex and yet elegantly simple enough to be the master molecule of life.

Other researchers had made important but seemingly unconnected findings about the composition of DNA; it fell to Watson and Crick to unify these disparate findings into a coherent theory of genetic transfer. The organic chemist Alexander Todd had determined that the backbone of the DNA molecule contained repeating phosphate and deoxyribose sugar groups. The biochemist Erwin Chargaff had found that while the amount of DNA and of its four types of bases--the purine bases adenine (A) and guanine (G), and the pyrimidine bases cytosine (C) and thymine(T)--varied widely from species to species, A and T always appeared in ratios of one-to-one, as did G and C. Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin had obtained high-resolution X-ray images of DNA fibers that suggested a helical, corkscrew-like shape. Linus Pauling, then the world's leading physical chemist, had recently discovered the single-stranded alpha helix, the structure found in many proteins, prompting biologists to think of helical forms. Moreover, he had pioneered the method of model building in chemistry by which Watson and Crick were to uncover the structure of DNA. Indeed, Crick and Watson feared that they would be upstaged by Pauling, who proposed his own model of DNA in February 1953, although his three-stranded helical structure quickly proved erroneous.

The time, then, was ripe for their discovery. After several failed attempts at model building, including their own ill-fated three-stranded version and one in which the bases were paired like with like (adenine with adenine, etc.), they achieved their break-through. Jerry Donohue, a visiting physical chemist from the United States who shared Watson and Crick's office for the year, pointed out that the configuration for the rings of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen (the elements of all four bases) in thymine and guanine given in most textbooks of chemistry was incorrect. On February 28, 1953, Watson, acting on Donohue's advice, put the two bases into their correct form in cardboard models by moving a hydrogen atom from a position where it bonded with oxygen to a neighboring position where it bonded with nitrogen. While shifting around the cardboard cut-outs of the accurate molecules on his office table, Watson realized in a stroke of inspiration that A, when joined with T, very nearly resembled a combination of C and G, and that each pair could hold together by forming hydrogen bonds. If A always paired with T, and likewise C with G, then not only were Chargaff's rules (that in DNA, the amount of A equals that of T, and C that of G) accounted for, but the pairs could be neatly fitted between the two helical sugar-phosphate backbones of DNA, the outside rails of the ladder. The bases connected to the two backbones at right angles while the backbones retained their regular shape as they wound around a common axis, all of which were structural features demanded by the X-ray evidence. Similarly, the complementary pairing of the bases was compatible with the fact, also established by the X-ray diffraction pattern, that the backbones ran in opposite direction to each other, one up, the other down.

Watson and Crick published their findings in a one-page paper, with the understated title "A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid," in the British scientific weekly Nature on April 25, 1953, illustrated with a schematic drawing of the double helix by Crick's wife, Odile. A coin toss decided the order in which they were named as authors. Foremost among the "novel features" of "considerable biological interest" they described was the pairing of the bases on the inside of the two DNA backbones: A=T and C=G. The pairing rule immediately suggested a copying mechanism for DNA: given the sequence of the bases in one strand, that of the other was automatically determined, which meant that when the two chains separated, each served as a template for a complementary new chain. Watson and Crick developed their ideas about genetic replication in a second article in Nature, published on May 30, 1953.

The two had shown that in DNA, form is function: the double-stranded molecule could both produce exact copies of itself and carry genetic instructions. During the following years, Crick elaborated on the implications of the double-helical model, advancing the hypothesis, revolutionary then but widely-accepted since, that the sequence of the bases in DNA forms a code by which genetic information can be stored and transmitted.

Although recognized today as one of the seminal scientific papers of the twentieth century, Watson and Crick's original article in Nature was not frequently cited at first. Its true significance became apparent, and its circulation widened, only towards the end of the 1950s, when the structure of DNA they had proposed was shown to provide a mechanism for controlling protein synthesis, and when their conclusions were confirmed in the laboratory by Matthew Meselson, Arthur Kornberg, and others.

Crick himself immediately understood the significance of his and Watson's discovery. As Watson recalled, after their conceptual breakthrough on February 28, 1953, Crick declared to the assembled lunch patrons at The Eagle that they had "found the secret of life." Crick himself had no memory of such an announcement, but did recall telling his wife that evening "that we seemed to have made a big discovery." He revealed that "years later she told me that she hadn't believed a word of it." As he recounted her words, "You were always coming home and saying things like that, so naturally I thought nothing of it."

Retrospective accounts of the discovery of the structure of DNA have continued to elicit a measure of controversy. Crick was incensed at Watson's depiction of their collaboration in The Double Helix (1968), castigating the book as a betrayal of their friendship, an intrusion into his privacy, and a distortion of his motives. He waged an unsuccessful campaign to prevent its publication. He eventually became reconciled to Watson's bestseller, concluding that if it presented an unfavorable portrait of a scientist, it was of Watson, not of himself.

A more enduring controversy has been generated by Watson and Crick's use of Rosalind Franklin's crystallographic evidence of the structure of DNA, which was shown to them, without her knowledge, by her estranged colleague, Maurice Wilkins, and by Max Perutz. Her evidence demonstrated that the two sugar-phosphate backbones lay on the outside of the molecule, confirmed Watson and Crick's conjecture that the backbones formed a double helix, and revealed to Crick that they were antiparallel. Franklin's superb experimental work thus proved crucial in Watson and Crick's discovery. Yet, they gave her scant acknowledgment. Even so, Franklin bore no resentment towards them. She had presented her findings at a public seminar to which she had invited the two. She soon left DNA research to study tobacco mosaic virus. She became friends with both Watson and Crick, and spent her last period of remission from ovarian cancer in Crick's house (Franklin died in 1958). Crick believed that he and Watson used her evidence appropriately, while admitting that their patronizing attitude towards her, so apparent in The Double Helix, reflected contemporary conventions of gender in science.

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The Discovery of the Double Helix, 1951-1953

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The discovery in 1953 of the double helix, the twisted-ladder structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), by James Watson and Francis Crick marked a milestone in the history of science and gave rise to modern molecular biology, which is largely concerned with understanding how genes control the chemical processes within cells.

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Frederick Sanger sequenced insulin, a protein, from pork.

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Coenberg discovered DNA polymerase that functions to DNA replication.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2174742/

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Green Fluorescent protein is isolated by Osamu Shimomura, who shares the Nobel Prize in 2008 for the discovery of this protein.

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In 1966 Philip Leder and Nirenberg discovered that a sequence of just three nucleotide bases code for each of the 20 amino acids. They were names Codons. Codons allowed scientist to better understand the orgin for life on earth.

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In 1970 reverse transcriptase was isolated. The function of reverse transcriptases is to change RNA sequences into cDNA that is able to be inserted into different parts of the genome. This is signifigant because it laid the foundations for cancer biology and molecular biology.  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27482900/#:~:text=Abstract,for%20retrovirology%20and%20cancer%20biology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27482900/#:~:text=Abstract,for%20retrovirology%20and%20cancer%20biology.

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In 1971 restrictions enzymes were discovered. These cut DNA in specific locations and recognize sequences of nucleotides in double stranded DNA.

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Paul Berg cut sections of viral DNA and bacterial DNA with the same restriction enzyme. This was important because it allowed scientist to use DNA more efficiently.

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Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer produced the first rDNA organism that produced the human protien, humulin. Genetic engineering was applied in the industry.

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George Kohler and Cesar Milstein produced the first monoclonal antibodies. These "immortalized anibody producing cells by fusing them with tumor cells." This was signifigant because it was used for disease treatment and research.  https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1984/press-release/#:~:text=K%C3%B6hler%20and%20C%C3%A9sar%20Milstein%20described,monoclonal%20antibodies%20with%20predetermined%20specificity.

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The NIH guidelines were developed for the study of rDNA. This was important because it prevented the accidental release of human exposure to genetically modified organisms

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Human growth hormone was discovered through bacterial cells. This was the first practical application of genetic engineering. It is impoortant because it allowed scientist to use it for a veriety of different things, like maintining normal body structures and promote growth in children.

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A company called Genentech used genetic engineering to produce human insulin using the E coli bacteria. Genentechh was the first biotech company on the New York stock exchange.

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'Frankenstein's Cat' Explores Genetic Manipulation of AnimalsThe New York Timeshttps://www.nytimes.com › 2013/07/16 › science › frank...

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The first genetically engineered pet was the GloFish in 2004. It is a modified zebra fish that comes in many colors like red and purple. It was banned in California. This is because of regulations preventing manufacturing or marketing genetically modified animals.

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Snuppy the First Cloned Dog: What Happened to Him? | TimeTime Magazinehttps://time.com › snuppy

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The first ever cloned dog was in 2005. Scientists named him "Snuppy" and he was made by a team of South Koreans at the Seoul National University. He was created from a single cell from an Afghan Hounds ear.

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Fabrication of an anatomy-mimicking BIO-AIR-TUBE with ...ScienceDirecthttps://www.sciencedirect.com › science › article › pii

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In 2008, the Biotube was created by 3D bioprinting. It is supposed to be similar to the annular ligament and membranous part of the trachea. This helps with flexibility and absorbing pressure.

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Frederick Meischer isolated DNA, which stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid, from the nuclei of eukaryotic cells.

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The steam engine was used to drive combine harvesters.

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A Brief History of CRISPR-Cas9 Genome-Editing Tools - Bitesize Biobitesizebio.comhttps://bitesizebio.com › history-crispr

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In 2012 Jennifer Doudna and her team demonstrated the amazing potential of The CRISPR/ CAS9 system. They discovered that by making guide RNA to look for a specific genome region, the CRISPR/CAS9 can be used to change genomes like cut and paste.

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The CRISPR/CAS9 technology was used to research mice DNA, study diseases, and develop treatments. They eliminated muscular dystrophy in 2015 and cured a rare liver disease. They also made human cells immune to HIV.

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Ammonia, naturally produced only in cells, was synthesized in the lab.

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Robert Koch published his postulates to determine casual relationships between a causative microbe and a disease.

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German scientists from Lister Institute isolated the diphtheria antitoxin, which led to the development of a vaccine.

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Germans isolated and and used acetone produced by plants to make bombs. Yeast was grown in large quantities. Microorganism activated sludge was used for the sewage treatment process.

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Hungarian Karl Ereky coined the term "biotechnology" for the first time in print.

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In 2012 scientists discovered a new genome editing tool called, CRISPR-Cas9. CRISPR is basically a pair of molecualr scissirs that allow scientist to "edit" DNA. The application of CRISPR can be used for  things, such as the modification of sperm and eggs to remove any unwanted or harmful traits. In its prime CRISPR was somewhat controversal. Many believed incluuding scientist working with the tool that an embryo could not survive the trauma that CRISPR would cause while trying to fix a genome.
https://www.cnbc.com/2019/12/27/biomedical-breakthroughs-of-the-2010s-crispr-hep-c-treatment-prep.html#:~:text=The%20discovery%20of%20CRISPR%2FCas9&text=It's%20essentially%20a%20pair%20of,risks%20to%20making%20these%20modifications
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/31/health/crispr-genetics-embryos.html#:~:text=Crispr%2DCas9%20treatments%20have%20already,mistakes%20made%20along%20the%20way.
https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-crispr-cas9/

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In 2017 a compaany called AbbVie created a drug they claimed could cure Hepatitis C. Hepatitis is a virus. It maily targets the liver and causes it to become inflamated. The drug AbbVie created said to cure HCV in 8 weeks compared to the first approved hepatitis c drug Gilead in 12 weeks. The problem many people had with this drug was the price of it. Many users complained about how expensive the drug was and that treatmetn would be almost impossible for thoose that dont have health care or just simply cant afford it.
https://www.cnbc.com/2019/12/27/biomedical-breakthroughs-of-the-2010s-crispr-hep-c-treatment-prep.html#:~:text=The%20discovery%20of%20CRISPR%2FCas9&text=It's%20essentially%20a%20pair%20of,risks%20to%20making%20these%20modifications
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/hepatitis-c/symptoms-causes/syc-20354278

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The Ebola Virus is not just one thing. It is made up of several different ebola virus' that are dependent upon location and syptoms, treatments, and cures. In 2019 Europe approved and regualted the immunization for the Ebola Virus. The United States followed soon after. The company Mertek says it expected the vaccine to be mass produced in the summer of 2020.
https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/about.html
https://www.cnbc.com/2019/12/27/biomedical-breakthroughs-of-the-2010s-crispr-hep-c-treatment-prep.html#:~:text=The%20discovery%20of%20CRISPR%2FCas9&text=It's%20essentially%20a%20pair%20of,risks%20to%20making%20these%20modifications