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("Congenital heart disease and autism: A possible link?," 2020)

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Autism, or autism spectrum disorder (ASD), refers to a broad range of conditions characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech and nonverbal communication. According to the Centers for Disease Control, autism affects an estimated 1 in 36 children in the United States today  ("What is autism?," n.d.) .

Autistic people may act in a different way to other people

Autistic people may:

find it hard to communicate and interact with other people

find it hard to understand how other people think or feel

find things like bright lights or loud noises overwhelming, stressful or uncomfortable

get anxious or upset about unfamiliar situations and social events

take longer to understand information

do or think the same things over and over

There Are the 5 Types of Autism

1. Asperger’s Syndrome

2. Rett Syndrome

3. Childhood Disintegrative Disorder (CDD)

4. Kanner’s Syndrome

5. Pervasive Developmental Disorder – Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS)

Possible signs of autism at any age can include:

little eye contact

distinct reactions to:

lights

tastes

smells

sounds

colours

textures

very specific interests

repeating words or phrases (echolalia)

repetitive behaviours, such as spinning

nonverbal communication or delayed language development

intense reactions to minor changes in routine or surroundings (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2022).

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(Guy-Evans, 2022)

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A common disorder that affects the parts of the brain in regards to planning, sustained attention and impulse control due to chemicals in the brain that don’t perform adequately. (Wilmshurst & Brue, 2010). This condition usually begins during childhood and continues until adulthood.

Types of ADHD:

1. ADHD (predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type):

This type of ADHD  is generally characterized by the following symptoms: fidgeting, difficulty to remain seated or waiting their turn, blurting out answers, restlessness, intrusive behavior, excessively active and excessive talking.

Typical symptoms that can be observed in the classroom:

Disruptive behavior

Loud

Symptoms of Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)

Frequent movements

Impatience

Excessive talking

Lack of focus and concentration on tasks

Careless mistakes in schoolwork

Difficulty following instructions

Loses school materials

Poor organizational skills

1. ADHD (predominantly inattentive type):

This type of ADHD is less detectable since they appear to be unmotivated and lazy (Wilmshurst & Brue, 2010) because they struggle with paying attention. Although this type is different from the hyperactive-impulsive type, the symptoms are very similar.

Typical symptoms that can be observed in the classroom:

Easily distracted in class

Tune out

Difficulty following instructions

Appears to not pay attention

Struggles with completing work

Loses school materials

Poor organizational skills

1. ADHD (combined type):

This type of ADHD is when an individual has a combination of both hyperactive-impulsive and inattentive types that significantly affect learning, especially executive functioning skills such as organization, planning, perseverance, self control and working memory amongst others.

Typical symptoms that can be observed in the classroom:

Difficulty remaining focused

Difficulty following instructions

Difficulty completing tasks

Making careless mistakes

Disorganized

Poor time-management skills

Forgetful

Loses personal belongings

Hesitant when faced with sustained tasks

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Teaching Students with ADHD: Commonly Misunderstood Symptoms

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Understanding and Supporting Your Student With ADHD

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1968: in the DSM the term “Hyperkinetic Impulse Disorder” (Morin, n. d.)

1973: Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act protects individuals (between the ages of 3 and 22 years) with disabilities against discrimination in primary and secondary schools, allowing them to receive free public education and the necessary provisions based on their specific needs (Durheim, 2013).

The 504 Plan for children with ADHD: Your Therapy Source defines a section 504 plan for ADHD is an individualized document designed to help children with this disorder gain better access to learning opportunities and environments. It is built by a team of people, including teachers, administrators, and parents, who assess the student’s needs and develop strategies to meet them (yourtherapysource, 2023). This plan requires educational institutions to provide necessary accommodations such as extra time for assignments and assessments, shortened tasks, quiet area to work, frequent breaks and assistive technological tools depending on the specific needs of the child with ADHD.

1975: The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is passed ensuring that all students who require special education receive the necessary provisions based on their specific need and to be included in a least restrictive environment whether the child is enrolled in a private school or must be homeschooled. This act also gives parents of children with special educational needs rights such as being involved as a participatory member of their child’s educational program. It recognizes that children with ADHD are eligible for special education services and may also qualify for an IEP, as long as the disability affects the child’s academic performance.

1980: The term “Hyperkinetic Impulse Disorder” changes to “Attention Deficit Disorder” (ADD) which included challenges with inattention and hyperactivity (Morin, n. d.).

1987: The term “ADD” changes to “Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder” (ADHD)

1997: Some individuals who are diagnosed with having ADHD may be placed under the “Other Health Impairment” category as stated in the IDEA. This category includes acute and chronic conditions that might last a lifetime.

2013: DSM 5 (Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders) update criteria for ADHD (Applying a Developmental Perspective to ADHD Research, n.d.) and includes a list of comorbid conditions:

Criteria:

1. Significant and age-appropriate symptoms

2. Before age 12, symptoms persist over 6 months

3. Impairment in 2 or more settings

4. Difficulties in social, academic and occupational situations

5. Symptoms as not better accounted for by another mental disorder

Examples of comorbid conditions:

ODD (Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Intermittent Explosive Disorder

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Specific Learning Disorder

Anxiety Disorder

Depressive Disorder

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Laws and expectations for educational institutions (For ADHD and any other disabilities)

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Laws and expectations for educational institutions (For ADHD and any other disabilities)

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1. Section 504 protects all students with disabilities from discrimination and must be entitled to special education services (UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT of EDUCATION Office for Civil Rights, n.d.).

1. Under Section 504, the school must evaluate a student suspected of having ADHD free of charge (UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT of EDUCATION Office for Civil Rights, n.d.).

1. Parents have the right to ask a school district to evaluate their child.

1. Parents have the right to appeal any decision made by a school district in regards to their child’s education.

1. The school must inform the parents about the process system in regards to their child with ADHD.

1. If a school suspects a student has ADHD, the school must provide support or interventions accommodations for the student.

1. If the district determines that the student needs medical assessments, the assessments will be done free of charge.

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Support Services Offered in Educational Institutions

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Support Services Offered in Educational Institutions

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There are different types of support offered in schools for students with ADHD:

1. Behavioral Classroom Management: this may include a reward system as a positive reinforcement or a daily report that allows the student to keep track of his/her behavior

1.  Organizational Training: this allows students to learn how to develop self-management skills such as organizational, planning, affective and reflective skills to be able to optimize their learning.

1. Special Education Services and Accommodations regulated by IDEA and Section 504 laws.

How are children with ADHD diagnosed?

Checklist given from a physician

Observations from a school psychologist

Behavior rating scale

Family history questionnaire

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ADHD is the most commonly diagnosed disorder in children (Oehrlein et al., 2016)

The prefrontal cortex matures slower and slightly smaller.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) is a type of MRI that measures blood flow and changes in brain activity shows that there is irregular activity in many regions of the brain (Wilkins, 2023) in individuals with ADHD.

Unusual Default Mode Network (DMN) activity in the brain: new concept that represent areas of the brain that are more active when an individual is at rest (Default Mode Network - an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics, n.d.)

Methylphenidate hydrochloride: an extended-release stimulant that helps increase the ability to focus, attention span and concentration.

Often, individuals with ADHD have comorbid conditions such as anxiety, behavior problems and depression (CDC, 2020)

Boys are more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than girls (CDC, 2020)

In 2022, researchers at the National Institutes of Health have been able to identify differences in gene activity in individuals with ADHD (Pattern of Gene Activity for ADHD, n.d.). This leads scientists to believe that genomic differences might contribute to the symptoms of ADHD.

New study on Non-invasive Brain Stimulation Treatment:

According to a recent study published in August 2023 from University of Surrey, non-invasive brain stimulation, combined with cognitive training, could significantly improve symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children (Hope for Children with ADHD: New Study Finds That Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation Treatment Can Ease Symptoms | University of Surrey, n.d.).

Scientists have discovered that the gene called CDH2 apparently plays an important role in the development of ADHD (The Brighter Side News. 2015)   This gene mutation disrupts brain activity that may cause hyperactivity and lack of focus (Scientists Discover the Cause of ADHD, 2022). The gene mutation has an impact on the dopamine levels in the brain that are related to ADHD symptoms (Scientists Discover the Cause of ADHD, 2022).

The actigraph has been a method used for a few decades to record changes in sleep patterns. It is a computerized watch that records and detects changes in motor activity as well as sleep pattern during sleep (De Crescenzo et al., 2016). This objective method allows medical specialists to determine whether the disorder is linked to sleep disorders (“The Role of Actigraphy to Identify Sleep Disorders in Children with ADHD,” 2014, para. 7).

Advanced Tools for Organization Management (ATOM):

This is a new school-based platform and program to help Middle School students with attention or organizational difficulties such as ADHD develop better executive functions, organizational skills and improve motivation (Research and School Programs - ADHD & Learning Differences Program | Children’s National Hospital, n.d.). This program requires a joint partnership between the school and the parents. This program includes different skill modules to help the student develop skills such as time-management, organization and homework. The teacher, student and parents can set specific individualized goals with criteria. There is also a reward system to help motivate the student when goals are achieved (Advanced Tools for Organization Management (ATOM) Overview, n.d.).

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History of autism

Eugen Bleuler coined the word "autism" in 1908 among severely withdrawn schizophrenic patients.

In 1943 American child psychiatrist Leo Kanner studied 11 children. The children had features of difficulties in social interactions, difficulty in adapting to changes in routines, good memory, sensitivity to stimuli (especially sound), resistance and allergies to food, good intellectual potential, echolalia or propensity to repeat words of the speaker and difficulties in spontaneous activity.

In 1944 Hans Asperger, working separately, studied a group of children. His children also resembled Kanner’s descriptions. The children he studied, however, did not have echolalia as a linguistic problem but spoke like grownups. He also mentioned that many of the children were clumsy and different from normal children in terms of fine motor skills.

Next Bruno Bettelheim studied the effect of three therapy sessions with children who he called autistic. He claimed that the problem in the children was due to coldness of their mothers. He separated the children from their parents. Kanner and Bettelheim both worked towards making hypothesis that showed autistic children had frigid mothers

Bernard Rimland was a psychologist and parent of a child with autism. He disagreed with Bettelheim. He did not agree that the cause of his son’s autism was due to either his or his wife’s parenting skills. In 1964, Bernard Rimland published, Infantile Autism: The Syndrome and its Implications for a Neural Theory of Behavior.

Autism came to be better known in the 1970’s. The Erica Foundation started education and therapy for psychotic children in the beginning of the 80s. Many parents still confused autism with mental retardation and psychosis.

It was in 1980’s that Asperger’s work was translated to English and published and came into knowledge.

It was in the 1980’s that research on autism gained momentum. It was increasingly believed that parenting had no role in causation of autism and there were neurological disturbances and other genetic ailments like tuberous sclerosis, metabolic disturbances like PKU or chromosomal abnormalities like fragile X syndrome.

Lorna Wing, along with Christopher Gillberg at BNK (Children's Neuro-Psychiatric Clinic) in Sweden in the 1980’s found the Wing’s triad of disturbed mutual contact, disturbed mutual communication and limited imagination. In the 1990’s they added another factor making it a square. The factor was limited planning ability.

Ole Ivar Lovaas studied and furthered behavioural analysis and treatment of children with autism. Lovaas achieved limited success at first with his experimental behaviour analysis. He developed it to target younger children (less than 5 years of age) and implemented treatment at home and increased the intensity (a measurement of the amount of “therapy time”) to about 40 hours weekly. Lovaas wrote Teaching Developmentally Disabled Children: The Me Book in 1981. In 2002, Lovaas wrote, Teaching Individuals With Developmental Delays: Basic Intervention Techniques (Autism history, 2019).

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Strategies and accommodations to support students with ADHD in the classroom

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Strategies and accommodations to support students with ADHD in the classroom

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Strategically sit student near the teacher during direct instruction

Sit student away from possible distractions such as the doorway and window

Have a clear class routine during lessons and transitions

Consider the student’s strengths and interests in planning

Allow extra time during assignments and assessments

Allow student to choose how he/she wants to show his/her learning (oral presentation, slideshow, video,...)

Allow frequent breaks during the day

Allow student to work in a quiet space with minimal distractions

Physical sign to let the teacher know that the student needs a break

Constant positive reinforcement and praise

Teaching student to focus on their strengths

Provide a checklist for the student to follow during lessons (or create the checklist with student)

Frequent reminders

Have instructions written or projected on a screen

Ask student to repeat spoken instructions

Separate longer tasks into smaller, manageable chunks

Allow student to use a word processor for writing tasks

Allow student to use online graphic organizers for mind maps and to organize information

Teaching student to be self aware of his/her limitations

Teach student to become self aware when talking with others so that he/she can focus on his/her key thoughts

Strengths of individuals with ADHD: As often as possible, teachers should make use of the following strengths students with ADHD might have in order to optimize their learning experiences

Highly creative

Energetic

Risk takers

Spontaneous

Humorous

Hyper Focused

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According to (Your child's rights: Autism and school, n.d.) all special needs kids have the right to a free and appropriate education. The individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), which was first enacted in 1975 and most recently revised in 2004, mandates that each state provide all eligible children with a public education that meets their individual needs. The Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) was most recently revised in 2004 (and, in fact, renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, but most people still refer to it as IDEA). The law mandates that the state provide all eligible children with a free and appropriate public education that meets their unique individual needs (Your child's rights: Autism and school, n.d.).
IDEA specifies that children with various disabilities, including autism, are entitled to early intervention services and special education (Your child's rights: Autism and school, n.d.).
The IDEA legislation has established an important role for parents in their children's education. Parents, are entitled to be treated as an equal partner with the school district in deciding on an education plan for their child and his or her individual needs. This enables parents to be a powerful advocate for their child. It also means that they must be an informed, active participant in planning and monitoring your child's unique program and legal rights (Your child's rights: Autism and school, n.d.)

The ADA provides civil rights protections to people with Autism similar to those provided to individuals on the basis of race, color, sex, national origin, age, and religion. It guarantees equal opportunity for individuals with Autism in public accommodations, employment, transportation, state and local government services, and telecommunications. The ADA was signed into law on July 26, 1990, by President George H.W. Bush. The law was amended in 2008 by the ADA Amendments Act of 2008 (P.L. 110-325) to restore the original intent of who is eligible.

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School Strategies for Children with ADHD and Autism (2017)

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Teachers and educators are in a unique position to help children and adolescents achieve their full academic potential. Most teachers are looking for additional training or resources on ADHD and improving the classroom experience for their students. CHADD offers a Teacher Training Program crafted by teachers to provide other teachers with the strategies and tips to help…

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Classroom Management

Good classroom managers have efficient classrooms that meet the educational and psychological needs of their students. Classrooms are structured so that rules and routines are well known by the students and consistently followed. Transitions among lessons and activities are smooth. The teacher is able to give the impression that the he or she is aware of all activities by students in the classroom.Teachers with good classroom management skills meet the educational and personality needs of their students, regardless of their students' abilities and special needs. Student misbehavior especially misbehavior related to ADHD symptoms, can be prevented by careful attention to the following:

the physical environment of the classroom (including minimizing distracting classroom displays)

establishing and practicing with the students rules and procedures for routines and classroom tasks

organizing lesson plans and instruction in a way that minimizes interruptions

increasing teacher awareness in the classroom by letting students know you are aware of their actions at all times

Accommodations are intended to help students with ADHD learn the same information as other students. They are changes to the structures and/or the environment that provide support to help students access the curriculum. Accommodations work best when they are tailored for the individual needs of the student based on the severity and symptoms of their ADHD and any other co-occurring conditions. It is important to observe the student to see which accommodations are effective - and effectiveness of accommodations can change over time. Students can also be enlisted in figuring out what helps them the most. This will also ensure that the accommodations are seen as support instead of punishment. Teachers, parents, and students should partner together to address needs and supports.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fifth Edition lists two categories of symptoms of ADHD-inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive. Students may have only one type, or they may have both types of symptoms. The accommodations that are appropriate for each student depend on the symptoms and on how much they impact the student.

Social Skills

Accommodating ADHD in the Classroom
ADHD: Inattentive Symptoms
Students with inattentive symptoms are easily distracted and have trouble focusing. Everything competes for their attention. They often struggle to follow through with instructions and have difficulty with organization.

To help students with managing inattentive symptoms, the following accommodations can be effective:

Seating the student in an area with fewer distractions where he or she can focus on the lesson. For example, near the teacher's desk, away from windows and the doorway, or in another area that has few distractions.

Seating the student next to positive role models, peers who are less likely to provide distractions and can help them stay on task.

Breaking long assignments into smaller parts. This allows students to see both the start and end of the task.

Making sure all assignments are clear and provided in writing in addition to giving them out loud.

Checking with the student before they complete an assignment to see if they heard and understood instructions. Ask them to repeat it back to verify understanding.

Allowing them to take tests in a different room, one that is quiet and has few distractions. Or using aids such as headphones or privacy boards to create quiet spaces in the classroom.

Giving more time to complete assignments, projects, and tests.

Using a timer or alarm to help with time management.

Providing breaks. Depending on the student, these could include stretching, walking to the board to complete a task, or handing out assignments or materials.

Limiting repetitive assignments, particularly those the students has already mastered, or tasks that are too far above the student's level. Students are most able to pay attention to tasks that present some challenge but are within their current learning zone.

Making sure that the student has the opportunity for physical activities because active movement increases the ability to focus. Recess should never be taken away as a punishment for misbehavior.

Providing tools to help with organization, such as different colored folders, a notebook with dividers, or a homework assignment book.

Using computers or tablets for work. Computers are visually stimulating and allow for more engagement and also help students organize their thoughts.

ADHD: Hyperactive-Impulsive Symptoms
Students with hyperactive-impulsive symptoms move a lot. They fidget, squirm, and have difficulty staying seated. They often talk excessively, blurt out answers, and have trouble taking turns.

To help students manage their hyperactive-impulsive symptoms, the following accommodations can be effective:

Seating the student in an area of the room where there will be the least disruption. This might be towards either side of the classroom rather than the center.

Allowing for the student to move around. You could allow the student to do their work while standing, sitting on the floor, or moving between desks.

Pairing the student with a peer who is a good role model and can model appropriate behavior.

Providing activity breaks. Depending on the student, these could include stretching, walking to the board to complete a task, or handing out assignments or materials.

Ignoring minor misbehavior.

Allowing the student to move or fidget in a non-distracting manner. They might tap their foot in the air or rotate their pen back and forth in their hands. Asking the student to offer suggestions is always a great way to get more ideas.

Allowing them to take tests in a different room. One that is quiet, has few distractions, and lets them move around without interrupting other students.

Praising when they exhibit appropriate behavior such as raising their hands and waiting to be called.

Limiting repetitive assignments, particularly those the students has already mastered, or tasks that are too far above the student's level. Fidgeting is often a symptom of boredom or overstimulation.

Making sure that the student has the opportunity for physical activities. Recess should never be taken away as a punishment for misbehavior.

Using a speaking stick or other object that gets passed around during class discussions as a cue to indicate whose turn it is to speak.

ADHD: combined symptoms
Many students with ADHD show a combination of inattention and hyperactive-impulsive behaviors. You can use a combination of accommodations from both lists. One of the best ways to identify which accommodations might work best is to observe the student's natural behavior.

Some sample behaviors and accommodations include:

Constantly moving in their seat

Try giving them options for how they can do their work and provide breaks.

Attention wavers, but when focused blurts out answers

Try consistent praise for raising their hands and seating them in an area with minimal distractions.

Has trouble completing assignments and tests in the allotted time because of distractions

Try an alternative test setting or breaking up assignments and tests into smaller sections. Allow extra time to complete tests.

Taps a pen constantly that is distracting to other students

Let the student know privately that tapping their pen is a distraction. Ask them if they have other suggestion for how they could focus. You might offer that they could wave their pen in the air, wiggle it between their fingers, or replace the pen with a soft object to tap that won't make noise.

References
Barkley, R. (2008). Classroom Accommodations for Children with ADHD. ADHD Report.

Dendy, C., Durheim, M., & Ellison, A. (2006). CHADD Educator's Manual. Lynchburg, VA: Progress Printing.

Parker, H. (2012). Accommodations Help Students with Attention Deficit Disorders. A.D.D. WareHouse.

Zentall, S. (2006). ADHD and Education Foundations, Characteristics, Methods, and Collaboration. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Chaban, P., McAuley, T., & Tannock, R. (2009). ADHD and Social-Emotional Abilities. www.AboutKidsHealth.ca.

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Classroom Management Good classroom managers have efficient classrooms that meet the educational and psychological needs of their students. Classrooms are structured so that rules and routines are well known by the students and consistently followed. Transitions among lessons and activities are smooth. The teacher is able to give the impression that the he or she...

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Support Services Offered in Educational Institutions

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Support Services Offered in Educational Institutions

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Educational Services
By law, schools must provide a Free and Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) for all children. This law is in place to ensure your child with autism receives academic instruction, participation opportunities, and appropriate supports in a setting he or she can handle (SDCAadmin, 2019).

Individualized Educational Plan

An individualized educational plan (IEP) includes personalized goals, objectives, services, and benchmarks for your child.
Academic Modifications

To reach his or her potential, your child may require strategies and tools that are not implemented in a typical school setting.
Collaboration

Through regular dialogue, communication, and collaboration, you and the school can create an educational program that meets your child’s unique needs and promotes learning.

Case Management

A teacher, social worker, or another adult from the school will coordinate your child’s academic support.

Behavioral Services

Classroom Accommodations

Speech Services

Specialized Classrooms

Every child with autism has unique needs. Specialized classrooms in an autism school are designed to provide the autism support, emotional support, or life skills your child needs to succeed academically and in life (SDCAadmin, 2019).

A specialized classroom features a high adult to child ratio. Additional support may consist of:

Positive behavior plan

ABA behavior therapy

Visual teaching tools

Assistive technology devices

Sensory tools and toys

Calming corners

Social skills training and practice opportunities

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Parents' Educational Expectations for Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

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Parents' Educational Expectations for Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

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References

Autism history. (2019, February 26). News-Medical.net. https://www.news-medical.net/health/Autism-History.aspx#:~:text=The%20term%20autism%20first%20was,admiration%20and%20withdrawal%20within%20self

Congenital heart disease and autism: A possible link? (2020, January 2). Harvard Health. https://www.health.harvard.edu/blog/congenital-heart-disease-and-autism-a-possible-link-2020010218552

Public Health Agency of Canada. (2022, April 7). Autism: Signs and symptoms. Canada.ca. https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/autism-spectrum-disorder-asd/signs-symptoms-autism-spectrum-disorder-asd.html

SDCAadmin. (2019, December 19). 5 essential autism school services every parent should look for. Sarah Dooley Center for Autism. https://www.sarahdooleycenter.org/news/autism-school-services-everyone-should-look-for/

Signs & symptoms | Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) | NCBDDD | CDC. (2022, March 28). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/signs.html#:~:text=Autism%20spectrum%20disorder%20(ASD)%20is,or%20repetitive%20behaviors%20or%20interests

Super User. (n.d.). What is autism spectrum disorder. Autism Connect Association - Autism Connect. https://www.autismconnect.com/what-is-autism-spectrum-disorder

What is autism? (n.d.). Autism Speaks. https://www.autismspeaks.org/what-autism

Your child's rights: Autism and school. (n.d.). Autism Speaks. https://www.autismspeaks.org/autism-school-your-childs-rights

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(2015). Thebrighterside.news. https://www.thebrighterside.news/post/groundbreaking-new-study-identifies-the-cause-of-adhd

ADHD and the DSM-5: Update on Revisions to Diagnostic Criteria. (2013, October 23). Consultant360. https://www.consultant360.com/articles/adhd-and-dsm-5-update-revisions-diagnostic-criteria#:~:text=In%20past%20DSMs%2C%20the%20requirements

ADD and ADHD News. (n.d.). ScienceDaily. https://www.sciencedaily.com/news/mind_brain/add_and_adhd/#:~:text=Feb.

Applying a Developmental Perspective to ADHD Research. (n.d.). Www.youtube.com. Retrieved November 16, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8NN0RD3kns

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD) | Center for Parent Information and Resources. (2017). Parentcenterhub.org. https://www.parentcenterhub.org/adhd/

Board, A. E. (2006, October 6). Does Your Child Qualify for Special-Education Accommodations? ADDitude. https://www.additudemag.com/special-education-accommodations/

CDC. (2020, September 4). Other Concerns and Conditions with ADHD | CDC. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/conditions.html#:~:text=Many%20children%20with%20ADHD%20have

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, August 9). ADHD in the Classroom. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/school-success.html

CHADD. (n.d.). Classroom Accommodations. CHADD. https://chadd.org/for-educators/classroom-accommodations/

De Crescenzo, F., Licchelli, S., Ciabattini, M., Menghini, D., Armando, M., Alfieri, P., Mazzone, L., Pontrelli, G., Livadiotti, S., Foti, F., Quested, D., & Vicari, S. (2016). The use of actigraphy in the monitoring of sleep and activity in ADHD: A meta-analysis. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 26, 9–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2015.04.002

Default Mode Network - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved August 25, 2023, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/default-mode-network#:~:text=The%20default%20mode%20network%20(DMN)%2C%20which%20represents%20areas%20that

Durheim, M. (2013, September 26). A parent’s guide to Section 504 in public schools. Parenting; GreatSchools. https://www.greatschools.org/gk/articles/section-504-2/

Guy-Evans, O. (2022, May 20). ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder): What Is It? Www.simplypsychology.org. https://www.simplypsychology.org/ADHD.html

Hope for children with ADHD: new study finds that non-invasive brain stimulation treatment can ease symptoms | University of Surrey. (n.d.). Www.surrey.ac.uk. Retrieved August 25, 2023, from https://www.surrey.ac.uk/news/hope-children-adhd-new-study-finds-non-invasive-brain-stimulation-treatment-can-ease-symptoms#:~:text=Non%2Dinvasive%20brain%20stimulation%2C%20combined

Living with ADHD: Nancy’s Story (2018). (n.d.). Www.youtube.com. Retrieved August 25, 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0IWKxts3miQ

Miller, C. (2016, February 26). What’s ADHD (and What’s Not) in the Classroom. Child Mind Institute; Child Mind Institute. https://childmind.org/article/whats-adhd-and-whats-not-in-the-classroom/

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Advanced Tools for Organization Management (ATOM) Overview