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The age of Charlemagne

Charlemagne assumed rulership at a moment when powerful forces of change were affecting his kingdom. By Frankish tradition he was a warrior king, expected to lead his followers in wars that would expand Frankish hegemony and produce rewards for his companions. His Merovingian predecessors had succeeded remarkably well as conquerors, but their victories resulted in a kingdom made up of diverse peoples over which unified rule grew increasingly difficult. Complicating the situation for the Merovingian kings were both the insatiable appetite of the Frankish aristocracy for wealth and power and the constant partitioning of the Frankish realm that resulted from the custom of treating the kingdom as a patrimony to be divided among all the male heirs surviving each king. By the early 8th century these forces had reduced the Merovingian rulers to what their Carolingian successors dubbed "do nothing" kings. Real power had been assumed by an aristocratic dynasty, later called the Carolingians after Charlemagne, which during the 7th century clawed its way to dominance by utilizing the office of mayor of the palace to establish control over the royal administration and royal resources and to build a following strong enough to fend off rival Frankish families seeking comparable power. During the 8th century the Carolingian mayors of the palace Charles Martel (714-741) and (prior to becoming king) Pippin III (741-751) increasingly turned their attention to activities aimed at checking the political fragmentation of the Frankish kingdom. Charlemagne was thus heir to a long tradition that measured a king by his success at war, which in turn required him to devise means of governance capable of sustaining control over an increasingly polyglot population.

New forces were at work in the mid-8th century to complicate the traditional role of Frankish kingship. As a result of Pippin's reliance on the ecclesiastical authority to legitimate his deposition of the Merovingian dynasty and his usurpation of the royal office, the Carolingians had become, in the idiom of the time, rulers "by the grace of God," a role that imposed on them new, not yet clearly defined powers and responsibilities. The assumption of that new burden came at a time when religious renewal was gathering momentum to add a new dimension to the forces defining, directing, and sustaining the Christian community. The 8th century witnessed intellectual and artistic stirrings throughout Latin Christendom which focused on reestablishing contact with the Classical and patristic past as a crucial requirement for the renewal of Christian society. The Frankish social system, which had been based on kinship ties, on bonds linking war leaders and their comrades in arms, and on ethnicity, was being overlaid by social bonds created when one individual commended himself to another, thereby accepting a condition of personal dependence that entailed the rendering of services to the superior in return for material considerations granted to the dependent party. Moreover, the world beyond Francia was being reshaped politically and economically by the decline of the Eastern Roman Empire, the triumphal advance of Arab forces and their Islamic religion across the Mediterranean world, and the threat posed by new Scandinavian, Slavic, and Central Asian invaders.

The distinguishing mark of Charlemagne's reign was his effort to honour the age-old customs and expectations of Frankish kingship while responding creatively to the new forces impinging on society. His personal qualities served him well in confronting that challenge. The ideal warrior chief, Charlemagne was an imposing physical presence blessed with extraordinary energy, personal courage, and an iron will. He loved the active life-military campaigning, hunting, swimming-but he was no less at home at court, generous with his gifts, a boon companion at the banquet table, and adept at establishing friendships. Never far from his mind was his large family: five wives in sequence, several concubines, and at least 18 children over whose interests he watched carefully. Although he received only an elementary level of formal education, Charlemagne possessed considerable native intelligence, intellectual curiosity, a willingness to learn from others, and religious sensibility-all attributes which allowed him to comprehend the forces that were reshaping the world about him. These facets of his persona combined to make him a figure worthy of respect, loyalty, and affection; he was a leader capable of making informed decisions, willing to act on those decisions, and skilled at persuading others to follow him.

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Charlemagne - Charlemagne - King of the Franks: Charlemagne assumed rulership at a moment when powerful forces of change were affecting his kingdom. By Frankish tradition he was a warrior king, expected to lead his followers in wars that would expand Frankish hegemony and produce rewards for his companions.

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Charlemagne's Early Years

Charlemagne-sometimes referred to as Charles the Great-was born around 742, the son of Bertrada of Laon (d.783) and Pepin the Short (d.768), who became king of the Franks in 751.

Charlemagne's exact birthplace is unknown, although historians have suggested Liege in present-day Belgium and Aachen in modern-day Germany as possible locations. Similarly, little is known about the future ruler's childhood and education, although as an adult, he displayed a talent for languages and could speak Latin and understand Greek, among other languages.

Did you know? Charlemagne served as a source of inspiration for such leaders as Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) and Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), who had visions of ruling a unified Europe.

After Pepin's death in 768, the Frankish kingdom was divided between Charlemagne and his younger brother Carloman. The brothers had a strained relationship; however, with Carloman's death in 771, a 24-year-old Charlemagne became the sole ruler of the Franks.

Charlemagne Expands his Christian Empire

Once in power, Charlemagne sought to unite all the Germanic peoples into one kingdom, and convert his subjects to Christianity. In order to carry out this mission, he spent the majority of his reign engaged in military campaigns. Soon after becoming king, he conquered the Lombards (in present-day northern Italy), the Avars (in modern-day Austria and Hungary) and Bavaria, among others.

Charlemagne waged a bloody, three decades-long series of battles against the Saxons, a Germanic tribe of pagans, and earned a reputation for ruthlessness. In 782 at the Massacre of Verden, Charlemagne reportedly ordered the slaughter of some 4,500 Saxons. He eventually forced the Saxons to convert to Christianity, and declared that anyone who didn't get baptized or follow other Christian traditions be put to death.

Charlemagne's Family

In his personal life, Charlemagne had multiple wives and mistresses and perhaps as many as 18 children. He was reportedly a devoted father, who encouraged his children's education. He allegedly loved his daughters so much that he prohibited them from marrying while he was alive.

Einhard, a Frankish scholar and contemporary of Charlemagne, wrote a biography of the emperor after his death. In the work, titled "Vita Karoli Magni (Life of Charles the Great)," he described Charlemagne as "broad and strong in the form of his body and exceptionally tall without, however, exceeding an appropriate measure...His appearance was impressive whether he was sitting or standing despite having a neck that was fat and too short, and a large belly."

Holy Roman Emperor

In his role as a zealous defender of Christianity, Charlemagne gave money and land to the Christian church and protected the popes. As a way to acknowledge Charlemagne's power and reinforce his relationship with the church, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor of the Romans and first ruler of the vast Holy Roman Empire on December 25, 800, at St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.

As Holy Roman Emperor, Charlemagne proved to be a talented diplomat and able administrator of the vast area he controlled. He promoted education and encouraged the Carolingian Renaissance, a period of renewed emphasis on scholarship and culture.

Charlemagne also instituted economic and religious reforms, and was a driving force behind the Carolingian minuscule, a standardized form of writing that later became a basis for modern European printed alphabets.

Carolingian Empire

Charlemagne ruled from a number of cities and palaces throughout the Carolingian Empire, but spent significant time in Aachen. His palace there included a school, for which he recruited the best teachers in the land.

In addition to learning, Charlemagne was interested in athletic pursuits. Known to be highly energetic, he enjoyed hunting, horseback riding and swimming. Aachen held particular appeal for him due to its therapeutic warm springs.

He was also no stranger to elegant indulgence: According to Einhard, "On great feast-days Charles made use of embroidered clothes, and shoes bedecked with precious stones. His cloak was fastened by a golden buckle, and he appeared crowned with a diadem of gold and gems."

Charlemagne's Death and Succession

Einhard wrote that Charlemagne was in good health until the final four years of his life, when he often suffered from fevers and acquired a limp. However, as the biographer notes, "Even at this time...he followed his own counsel rather than the advice of the doctors, whom he very nearly hated, because they advised him to give up roasted meat, which he loved, and to restrict himself to boiled meat instead."

In 813, Charlemagne crowned his son Louis the Pious, king of Aquitaine, as co-emperor. Louis became sole emperor when Charlemagne died in January 814 at the age of 72, ending his reign of more than four decades. At the time of his death, his empire encompassed much of Western Europe.

Charlemagne was buried at the cathedral in Aachen. In the ensuing decades, his empire was divided up among his heirs, and by the late 800s, it had dissolved.

Nevertheless, Charlemagne became a legendary figure endowed with mythical qualities. In 1165, under Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, Charlemagne was canonized for political reasons; however, the Catholic Church today does not recognize his sainthood.

Charlemagne's Skull

Years after his burial in Aachen, authorities believe that pieces of Charlemagne's skull and some of his bones were exhumed for placement in church reliquaries throughout Europe. Most of his skeleton, however, is believed to have stayed at his cathedral in Aachen.

In 2014, researchers determined that Charlemagne's skull and other bones in Aachen were indeed the remains of a singularly tall, large man who died in his 70s and had bony deposits in the knee and heel bones, giving credence to the story of Charlemagne's limp. The top of the skull remains visible in an ornate golden bust securely housed in the cathedral.

Sword of Charlemagne

Another remnant from Charlemagne's reign has achieved near-mythic status: La Joyeuse, or "the Joyous," a medieval sword, is believed by some authorities to be the sword Charlemagne carried into battle.

Armory experts debate whether the sword - a 38-inch weapon with a gold hilt - is actually the sword of Charlemagne, or a later creation that was used primarily for ceremonies. Currently on display at the Louvre Museum in Paris, the sword had been used for the coronations of French kings since Philip the Bold was crowned in 1270.

Sources

Charlemagne lived on. Route Charlemagne Aachen.
Charlemagne in Aachen 2014. Medieval Histories.
Charlemagne's Bones Are Likely Authentic, Scientists Say. LiveScience.com.
The Sword of Charlemagne. MyArmoury.com.

Fact Check

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Charlemagne: Facts, Empire & Holy Roman Emperor - HISTORY

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Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, was a medieval king who established a vast Carolingian empire and was eventually crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the pope.

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Charlemagne was one of Medieval Europe's most famous Kings. He became king of the Franks at age 26, in 768 CE, when his father died. He inherited his kingdom from his father, Pepin the Short, who had inherited from his grandfather, Charles Martel, also known as Charles the Hammer. Pepin and Charles Martel were good kings, but Charlemagne was a far better one, and much more colorful. His subjects loved to brag about him!

He was over 6 feet tall, with long blonde hair that seemed to glow in the sun. He was always seen laughing, joking, or singing. Charlemagne was not one to sit on a throne and rule. He was always roaming about, either in one of his castles or through the countryside. He never just plain walked, He always strode. His dogs were his constant companions, playing and barking, wherever he went. If you wanted the king to do something, you had to walk with him. Charlemagne was reputed to have a great memory. He always addressed everyone by name. He seemed to know everyone from the top princes down to the lowliest peasant.

Charlemagne always led his troops into battle. He always wore a bright blue cape over his armor so that he could be easily seen. He was a great warrior and even though he fought in many battles he managed to survive them all and live into his seventies. Since most people died much younger during the medieval times this was another wonder and part of his mystique.

Expansion: The Franks were a great warrior tribe. Charlemagne and the Franks defeated most of the other tribes in Europe and expanded the Frankish Empire to cover Germany, France, Italy, and parts of Spain. This also included Belgium, Holland, Luxembourg and Denmark.

Charlemagne means Charles the Great and he certainly was. Some of the things he accomplished:

Trial by Ordeal / Trial by Panel: One of the most important things Charlemagne did for his people was do away with the old system of trial by ordeal and replaced it with trial by panel in place of trial by ordeal.

Education & Preservation: Another change Charlemagne introduced was his learning center at his main castle. Charlemagne brought scholars from all over the world to his new learning center. He put them to work teaching others how to read and write. He also had them copy all the old manuscripts he could find. During this copying, a system of illustrating and painting with gold foil was developed. These copies were known as illuminated manuscripts. Charlemagne could read, but he could not write. His fingers were too knarled and battered from war to hold a pen. He used to keep writing materials under his pillow. When he couldn't sleep, he would practice writing, hoping to exercise his fingers enough to hold a pen, without success. He also opened schools around his empire. Many of the sons of nobles who were sent to these schools thought they would not have to work very hard. They were wrong! Charlemagne himself visted his schools and saw to it that the boys realized they had a great deal of work to do.

Government: Charlemagne created a new system to rule the huge empire he had created. He created a new class of Nobles called counts. Each count was responsible for his district (usually the size of a small country). The counts ruled in the name of Charlemagne. To ensure that the counts were ruling wisely Charlemagne made surprise visits to each of them at least once a year and sometimes more.

Standardized Money: Each count appointed tax collectors to collect the yearly taxes. The amount of the tax was set based upon the population. Everyone knew how much tax they owed. But there was a problem. Since most people paid their taxes through barter, the local tax collector could set the value for the barter. Charlemagne came up with a better system. He created silver coins, each with a set value to use instead. Thus a farmer could sell his crops for silver coins and then pay his tax with the silver coins. There was no way to cheat on this. Everyone, especially the peasants, loved the new system.

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The Middle Ages for Kids - Charlemagne - Middle Ages for Kids

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Charlemagne was one of Medieval Europe's most famous Kings. He became king of the Franks at age 26, in 768 CE, when his father died. He inherited his kingdom from his father, Pepin the Short, who had inherited from his grandfather, Charles Martel, also known as Charles the Hammer.

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Kids learn about Charlemagne's biography. King of the Franks and Holy Roman Emperor during the Middle Ages.

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In the 9th Century, Charlemagne rules over most of Europe and brings a renaissance of religion and culture to the continent.

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Aachen, Charlemagne's Capital City today!

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September 17, 2018

Over the course of history, Aachen has gained a reputation by transforming itself from an ancient city of power into a modern hub of education. DW's Eesha Kheny checked it out for us.

Located in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, Aachen is Germany's westernmost city. Well-known for its architecture, markets and spas, it had been on my to-do-list for a long time. Finally, as the train drew closer, my curiosity was piqued and I was certain that there were some surprises in store.
Imperial Aachen Cathedral
This year Aachen Cathedral is celebrating 40 years since it was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site, making it the first in Germany, back in 1978. It is most famous for having been built on the orders of Emperor Charlemagne - also known as King Charles the Great - during his lifetime, and it has also served as his resting place since his death in 814. Expecting to see a grand, yet fairly standard, cathedral, I was pleasantly surprised by the real deal. The mix of Gothic, Ottonian and Carolingian architecture gave the cathedral a captivating look inside and out.My favorite was the Palatine Chapel ordered by Charlemagne himself. Marble stone pillars with gold and blue mosaics adorned every inch of the high octagonal room. Although there was a lot going on, the Carolingian harmony was indisputable. From every angle, the one thing I couldn't help but notice was the stunning four-meter-wide golden Barbarossa chandelier hanging from the roof of the Palatine Chapel. It was donated by Emperor Frederick I after canonizing Charlemagne in 1165.The importance of the cathedral is further magnified by it having been the coronation venue until 1531 for 31 German kings and 12 queens. I looked around, from the marble patterned floor to the deeply embellished ceiling, trying to imagine just how elaborate those coronations must have been. Even today, the marble coronation throne is housed here.What began simply as a vision of Charlemagne, Aachen Cathedral is now considered as an important pilgrimage church. Since 1349, every seven years faithful devotees from all over the world gather for the Aachen Pilgrimage known as "Heiligtumsfahrt," during which the holy relics - usually stored in St. Mary's shrine are displayed. These include what is thought to be the robe Mary wore the night Jesus was born as well as the loincloth worn by Jesus on the cross. With such a valuable past and remarkable architecture, the cathedral has rightfully earned its place as the first UNESCO World Heritage Site in Germany.
The medieval Aachen quarter
The city is marked with a prominent old town, full of traditional bars, whimsical fountains and local shops selling the locally-produced Aachener Printen. I tasted these spicy flavored cookies which reminded me of gingerbread. Buying a few packets as gifts for friends and family, I continued on with my exploration. One of the highlights in the area is the 'Fountain of Puppets,' a bronze installation featuring movable characters, depicting the history of Aachen. Interestingly, this is only one of many fountains spread across the city.Following the narrow alleys, I found my way to the main Market Square which is flanked on one side with Aachen Town Hall. Open to the public since 2009, the town hall stands on the very foundation of Charlemagne's King's Hall. The further I ascended the staircase, the more the imposing gothic exterior and street noise was left behind. On entering the Coronation Hall, I found it empty, because of the lateness of the hour, and in its deserted state appearing bigger than usual. While the replicas of imperial jewels are definite crowd-pleasers, the descriptive frescoes painted by artist Alfred Rethel give insight into the life of Charlemagne. From the glass windows, I gazed out at Aachen Cathedral, wondering if Charlemagne had done the same as he governed over his beloved capital city. In those times, this location was a seat of power which even today serves as the office of the mayor and the city council of Aachen.
The fascinating Three-Country-Point
With summer swiftly fading away and autumn creeping in, there was a slight chill in the air. Nevertheless, I joined lots of other people, mainly students, in the outdoor cafes and restaurants. Aachen University, founded in 1870, is the largest technical university in Germany and renowned worldwide. With thousands of students, it has put Aachen on the map as a student-friendly city.

On the recommendation of one such student I caught a bus to the 'Dreiländerpunkt,' or Three-Country-Point as it would be called in English. It is a meeting point of the German, Belgian and Dutch borders located on Vaalserberg, which at 322 meters (1057 ft.) is the highest mountain of the Netherlands.A short bus ride to Vaals, located 5.3 kilometers (3.2 miles) from Aachen, brought me to the border. From here, I hiked for approximately four kilometers to reach the 34 meter-high Balduin Observation Tower located on top of the Vaalserberg. The viewing terrace of the tower is accessible by a glass elevator for an entry fee of four euros ($4.65). On a clear day, the 360-degree panoramic view can stretch all the way to Maastricht in Holland, High Venn in Belgium and the Eifel in Germany. Unfortunately the cloudy sky was disrupting my view, but it could not affect my enthusiasm nor that of others. This point is a popular attraction, usually crowded with tourists and families. While adults love the idea of standing in three countries at once, children enjoy the play area with its labyrinth and other fun activities. As for me, with three countries in sight and new travel plans in mind, I bade Aachen goodbye, hoping to return in the winter to explore its Christmas markets and thermal springs, which are what attracted the ancient Celts and Romans to Aachen long before it became Charlemagne's capital city.

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Discover Aachen, Charlemagne's capital city - DW - 09/17/2018

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Over the course of history, Aachen has gained a reputation by transforming itself from an ancient city of power into a modern hub of education. DW's Eesha Kheny checked it out for us.

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What is the relationship of Charlemagne to Charles Martel and Clovis? | Socratic

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These three men were the rulers of France ruing the medieval ages. Charles Martel was the grandfather of Charlemagne. Clovis was the first king of the Franks. Clovis established a kingdom in the area of what had been Gaul after the disintegration of the Western Roman Empire.

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Charlemagne (Charles the Great, also known as Charles I, l. 742-814) was King of the Franks (r. 768-814), King of the Franks and Lombards (r. 774-814), and Holy Roman Emperor (r. 800-814). He is among the best-known and most influential figures of the Early Middle Ages for his military successes which united most of Western Europe, his educational and ecclesiastical reforms, and his policies which laid the foundation for the development of later European nations.

He was the son of Pepin the Short, King of the Franks (r. 751-768, first king of the Carolingian Dynasty). Charlemagne ascended to the throne at his father's death, co-ruling with his brother Carloman I (r. 768-771) until the latter's death. As sole ruler afterwards, Charlemagne rapidly expanded his kingdom, styled himself the head of the Western Church - superseding the popes of the time in power - and personally led military campaigns to Christianize Europe and subdue unrest almost continuously for the 46 years of his reign.

His death in 814 of natural causes was considered a tragedy by his contemporaries, and he was mourned throughout Europe; more so after the Viking raids began shortly after he died. He is often referred to as the Father of Modern Europe.

Early Life & Rise to Power

Charlemagne was born, probably at Aachen (in modern-day Germany) during the final years of the Merovingian Dynasty, which had ruled the region since c. 450. The Merovingian king had been steadily losing power and influence for years while the supposedly subordinate royal position of Mayor of the Palace (equivalent to a Prime Minister) had grown more powerful. By the time of King Childeric III (r. 743-751), the monarch had virtually no power and all administrative policies were being decided by Pepin the Short, Mayor of the Palace.

Pepin understood that he could not simply usurp the throne and expect to be recognized as a legitimate king and so he appealed to the papacy, asking, "Is it right that a powerless ruler should continue to bear the title of King?" (Hollister, 108). The papacy at this time was dealing with a number of problems ranging from the hostile Lombards in Northern Italy to the iconoclasm controversy with the Byzantine Empire.

The Byzantine Emperor had recently condemned any representation of Christ in churches as idolatry and ordered them removed. Further, he had tried to dictate this same policy to the pope and have it followed in Western Europe. As the scholar C. Warren Hollister phrases it, "the papacy had never been in such desperate need of a champion" when Pope Zachary (served 741-752) received Pepin's letter. He more or less instantly agreed with Pepin.

Pepin was crowned King of the Franks in 751 and, in keeping with royal precedent, named his two sons as his successors. Among his earliest acts as king, Pepin defeated the Lombards and donated a significant amount of their land to the papacy (a grant known as the "Donation of Pepin"). The papacy, for their part, hoped to control Pepin and his successors and claimed authority over the Frankish crown by virtue of a document known as the Donation of Constantine, allegedly drawn up by the first Christian Roman emperor Constantine I himself, stating that a Christian monarch gave his rule up voluntarily to the papacy and the pope then graciously handed it back.

According to the document, the Church was actually the power behind every throne and could take that power as easily as it had been given. The document was a forgery - and there is no evidence that Constantine ever made any such statement in any way - but there was no way Pepin could have known that and, being illiterate, he had little choice but to believe whatever the clergy told him was on the paper they waved in front of his face. Pepin accepted the stipulation of the Donation of Constantine; his son would not.

Charlemagne ruled from the start by force of his personality which embodied the warrior-king ethos combined with Christian vision.

King Pepin died in 768 and his sons ascended to the throne. Co-rule with Carloman was far from harmonious as Charlemagne favored direct action in dealing with difficulties while his brother seems to have been less decisive. The first test of their rule was the rebellion of the province of Aquitaine, which Pepin had subdued, in 769. Charlemagne favored a military campaign, which Carloman did not support.

Charlemagne marched on Aquitaine and defeated the rebels, also subduing neighboring Gascony, while Carloman refused to participate in any of it. In 770, Charlemagne married and then repudiated a Lombard princess, daughter of the king Desiderius (r. 756-774) to marry the teenage Hildegard (future mother of Louis the Pious, r. 814-840). Following overtures by Desiderius to Carloman to topple Charlemagne and avenge his daughter's honor, the two brothers were on a direct course to civil war when Carloman died in 771.

Military Campaigns & Expansion

As sole ruler of the Franks, Charlemagne ruled from the start by force of his personality which embodied the warrior-king ethos combined with Christian vision. Hollister describes the king:

Charlemagne towered over his contemporaries both figuratively and literally. He was 6 ft. 3 ½ in. tall, thick-necked, and pot bellied yet imposing in appearance for all that. He could be warm and talkative, but he could also be hard, cruel, and violent, and his subjects came to regard him with both admiration and fear...Above all else, Charlemagne was a warrior-king. He led his armies on yearly campaigns as a matter of course. Only gradually did he develop a notion of Christian mission and a program of unifying and systematically expanding the Christian West. (109)

After building up his army, he launched his first campaign into Saxony in 772, beginning a long and bloody conflict known as the Saxon Wars (772-804) in an effort to root out Norse paganism in the region and establish his authority there. Leaving troops in Saxony, he turned to Italy where the Lombards were asserting themselves again. He conquered the Lombards in 774 and brought their lands into his kingdom, thereafter calling himself "King of the Franks and Lombards", and then turned back to Saxony.

Basque unrest in the Pyrenes drew Charlemagne and his army in that direction for a number of engagements including the famous Battle of Roncevaux Pass in 778 (the inspiration for the later epic poem The Song of Roland) in which Charlemagne's rearguard was ambushed and massacred, including the count Roland of the Breton March. This defeat did nothing but further Charlemagne's resolve to bring the region completely under his control.

Between 778 and 796, Charlemagne campaigned every year in the Pyrenes, Spain, and Germania winning repeated victories. In 795, he accepted the surrender of the Avars of Hungary but, refusing to trust them, attacked their stronghold (known as The Ring) and defeated them completely in 796, effectively ending them as a people. He had also defeated the Saracens of northern Spain, establishing a buffer zone called the Spanish March, and taken the island of Corsica. His kingdom now extended through the region of modern-day France, northern Spain, northern Italy, and modern-day Germany except for Saxony in the north.

Each time Charlemagne thought he had subdued the Saxons and put their struggle to rest, they rebelled again. Prior to the Saxon Wars, the region of Saxony had been on good terms with Francia and regularly interacted with them, serving as a trade conduit to Scandinavian countries. In 772, a Saxon party was said to have raided and burned a church in Deventer (in the modern-day Netherlands, then part of Charlemagne's kingdom) and this gave Charlemagne his excuse to invade the region. Why the Saxons would have burned the Deventer church, and even whether they really did, is unknown. Knowing Charlemagne's intolerance for pagan beliefs and practices, it is likely the Christian king was behind the church's destruction to justify an invasion of the Germanic tribe he would have undertaken anyway.

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In retribution for the burned church, Charlemagne marched on Westphalia and destroyed the Irminsul, the sacred tree representing Yggdrasil (the Tree of Life in Norse mythology), and slaughtered a number of Saxons on his first campaign. His second, third, and the rest (totaling 18) followed the same model of destruction and massacre. In 777 a Saxon warrior-chief named Widukind led the resistance and, although an able leader, he was as helpless to seriously challenge Charlemagne's war machine as anyone else in Europe had been. He did, however, negotiate with King Sigfried of Denmark to allow Saxon refugees into his kingdom.

In 782, Charlemagne ordered the execution of 4,500 Saxons in an atrocity known as the Massacre of Verden to break the Saxon's will to fight, but they still would not surrender their autonomy or repudiate their religion. Widukind offered himself for baptism soon after (either in 784 or 785) in a gesture of peace and it is recorded that he was baptized but then disappears from the historical record soon after.

Charlemagne put an end to the refugee train to Denmark in 798, and the Saxon rebellions continued after Widukind's disappearance. Charlemagne responded as he had for the past 30 years, with the same results. Finally, in 804, Charlemagne deported over 10,000 Saxons to Neustria in his kingdom and replaced them in Saxony with his own people, effectively winning the conflict but earning the enmity of the Scandinavian kings, particularly Sigfried who attacked the Frankish region of Frisia shortly afterwards. This conflict could have become another prolonged event but Sigfried died and his successor sued for peace.

Holy Roman Emperor

Throughout the Saxon Wars and his other campaigns, Charlemagne was acting entirely on his own initiative and paying very little attention to the papacy. None of the popes were complaining, however, because Charlemagne's various enterprises coincided with their own interests or benefited them directly. It was clear by 800, however, that Charlemagne's power exceeded that of the papacy and there was nothing anyone could do about it.

This became clear when Pope Leo III (served 795-816) was attacked by a mob in the streets of Rome and was forced to flee. The mob had been stirred up by Roman nobles who, hoping to replace Leo III with one of their own, had accused him of immorality and abusing his office. Leo went to Charlemagne for protection and, on the advice of his learned counselor, the scholar Alcuin (l. 735-804), Charlemagne agreed to accompany Leo back to Rome to clear his name, which he then did. Scholar Norman Cantor describes the events:

On December 23, at a trial at which Charlemagne presided, Leo finally purged himself of the accusations against him. This course of events had signified a dreadful humiliation for the pope and his abnegation before the Carolingian ruler and he determined to try to regain the prestige and authority of his office by carrying out the imperial coronation of Charlemagne. On Christmas day, 800, as Charlemagne rose from prayer before the tomb of St. Peter, Pope Leo suddenly placed the crown on the king's head and the well-rehearsed Roman clergy and people shouted, "Charles Augustus, crowned great and peace-giving emperor of the Romans, life and victory!" (181)

Charlemagne allegedly did not want to be crowned by Leo and reportedly said he would never have entered the church if he had known it would happen. However that may be, it is well-established that the crown was clearly visible in the church when Charlemagne entered and the man was certainly intelligent enough to realize it had not been left there accidentally. Most likely, Charlemagne welcomed the prestige of the title but was not about to allow the papacy an upper hand to wield their Donation of Constantine pseudo-leverage over him.

Ecclesiastical & Educational Reforms

There seems little doubt that the coronation was an attempt by the papacy at establishing some measure of control over Charlemagne. Hollister notes how "the popes believed that the emperors ought to be papal stewards - wielding their secular political authority in the interests of the Roman Church" (112). Even so, there was no practical need to do this as Charlemagne had been consistently combining his own interests with those of the Church since he came to power.

Aside from his regular military victories, Charlemagne had also engaged in ecclesiastical and educational reform, improving the function of churches, monasteries, and educational institutions throughout his kingdom - now his empire. Technological advances during the Merovingian Dynasty and the reign of Pepin the Short had already provided a foundation for greater prosperity. Agricultural advances - such as crop rotation between three fields, the invention and use of the compound plow which replaced the earlier scratch plow, and encouraging peasants to pool their resources and labor in farming - all led to increased food production and better care of the land. Charlemagne improved on the improvements by encouraging further development of mechanization such as the water mill for grinding grain instead of the previous method of grinding by human labor.

Pepin the Short had initiated a reform of the Frankish Church spearheaded by St. Boniface (l. 672-754) who established order in religious houses and developed monastic schools. He also divided regions into parishes for easier administration. Charlemagne capitalized on these advances by furthering their development and surrounding himself with the brightest minds of his era, such as the scholar Alcuin of York who emphasized literacy as an important aspect of piety. This policy was advanced in the monastic schools throughout Charlemagne's empire, improving literacy rates and producing better students. The earlier reforms of Boniface were continued as Charlemagne sent out commissioners from his capital at Aachen to the various districts and parishes to make sure his decrees were being implemented properly and that all aspects of his administration were functioning toward a single goal. However, it seems there was no real reason for these commissioners as those whom Charlemagne trusted with positions of authority performed their duties out of personal loyalty to him, not to the state.

Legacy

Charlemagne ruled his empire for 14 years until his death from natural causes in 814. Loyn notes how his "force and dynamic personality were needed to create the empire and, without him, disintegrating elements quickly gained the ascendancy" (79). He had already crowned Louis the Pious as successor in 813 but he could do nothing to ensure his legacy would endure after he died. Cantor comments:

The death of only a few enlightened leaders, or even the sudden loss of one great personality, can cause the whole system to collapse and open the way for an equally rapid reversion to chaos and barbarism. Surrounding the enlightened group of leaders in such a preindustrial society are a mass of wild warriors and bovine peasants who lack any comprehension of what the leaders are trying to do. Consequently, as the central direction falters, there is an immediate backsliding into barbarism. (172)

The initial troubles for the empire, however, were due not to any backsliding or disintegrating elements but to Charlemagne's own choices regarding Saxony decades earlier. The Saxon Wars destroyed the region, killed thousands of people, and did little else except enrage the Scandinavian kings who bided their time until Charlemagne's death and then unleashed the Viking raids on Francia. During Louis' reign, between 820 and 840, the Vikings struck repeatedly at Francia. Louis did his best to fend off these attacks but found it easier to appease the Norse through land grants and negotiations.

When Louis died in 840, the empire was divided among his three sons who fought each other for supremacy. Their conflict was concluded by the Treaty of Verdun of 843 which divided the empire between Louis I's sons. Louis the German (r. 843-876) received East Francia, Lothair (r. 843-855) took Middle Francia, and Charles the Bald (r. 843-877) would rule West Francia. None of these Frankish kings were interested in helping the others, and the empire's infrastructure, as well as most of the reforms advanced by Charlemagne, deteriorated. The Viking raids continued from 843 to c. 911 when they were finally ended by Charles the Simple (r. 893-923) through a treaty with the Viking chieftain Rollo (later Rollo of Normandy, r. 911-927).

Although Charlemagne himself was never affected by the church's absurd Donation of Constantine fraud, his descendants were not as strong, and the later Carolingian Dynasty would suffer accordingly as the popes asserted their supposed political authority. The separate kingdoms of Charlemagne's empire would eventually form the modern nations of Europe and, for all his faults, could not have done so if not for his vision of purpose and natural abilities to lead in such a way that others were eager to serve him.

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Charlemagne (Charles the Great, also known as Charles I, l. 742-814) was King of the Franks (r. 768-814), King of the Franks and Lombards (r. 774-814), and Holy Roman Emperor (r. 800-814). He is among...

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Charlemagne's prodigious range of activities during the first 30 years of his reign were prelude to what some contemporaries and many later observers viewed as the culminating event of his reign: his coronation as Roman emperor. In considerable part, that event was the consequence of an idea shaped by the interpretation given to Charlemagne's actions as ruler. Over the years, some of the king's chief political, religious, and cultural advisers became convinced that a new community was taking shape under the aegis of the king and the Frankish people, whom, as one pope avowed, "the Lord God of Israel has blessed." They spoke of that community as the imperium Christianum, comprising all who adhered to the orthodox faith proclaimed by the Roman church. This community accepted the dominion of a monarch increasingly hailed as the "new David" and the "new Constantine," the guardian of Christendom and executor of God's will. Concern for the welfare of the imperium Christianum was heightened by the perceived unfitness of the heretical emperors in Constantinople to claim authority over the Christian community-especially after a woman, Irene, became Eastern emperor in 797. In a larger sense, developments in the 8th century produced the perception in the Carolingian world that the Latin West and the Greek East were diverging in ways that negated the universalist claims of the Eastern emperors.

Then, in 799, an even greater threat to the well being of imperium Christianum emerged. The pope's capacity to lead God's people came into question when Pope Leo III was physically attacked by a faction of Romans, including high functionaries in the papal curia, who believed that he was guilty of tyranny and serious personal misconduct. Leo fled to the court of his protector, whose role as rector of Christendom was now dramatically revealed. Charlemagne provided an escort that restored Leo III to the papal office; then, after extensive consultation in Francia, he went to Rome in late 800 to face the delicate issue of judging the vicar of St. Peter and of restoring order in the Papal States. After a series of deliberations with Frankish and Roman clerical and lay notables, it was arranged that, in lieu of being judged, the pope would publicly swear an oath purging himself of the charges against him; some hints in the record suggest that these deliberations also led to a decision to redefine Charlemagne's position. Two days after Leo's act of purgation, as Charlemagne attended mass on Christmas Day in the basilica of St. Peter, the pope placed a crown on his head, while the Romans assembled for worship proclaimed him "emperor of the Romans."

Historians have long debated where responsibility for this dramatic event should be placed. Despite the claim of Einhard, Charlemagne's court biographer, that the king would not have gone to St. Peter's on that fateful day had he known what was going to happen, the evidence leaves little doubt that king and pope collaborated in planning the coronation: the restoration of the Roman Empire in the West was advantageous to both. Given the pope's tenuous position at that moment and the king's penchant for bold action, it seems highly likely that Charlemagne and his advisers made the key decision involving a new title for the king, leaving it to the pope to arrange the ceremony that would formalize the decision. The new title granted Charlemagne the necessary legal authority to judge and punish those who had conspired against the pope. It also provided suitable recognition of his role as ruler over an empire of diverse peoples and as guardian of orthodox Christendom, and it gave him equal status with his tainted rivals in Constantinople. By once again sanctioning a title for the Carolingians, the pope strengthened his ties with his protector and added lustre to the papal office by virtue of his role in bestowing the imperial crown on the "new Constantine."

On the assessment of Charlemagne's years as Holy Roman emperor, historians are not in full accord. Some have seen the period as one of emerging crisis, in which the activities of the aging emperor were increasingly constricted. Because Charlemagne no longer led successful military ventures, the resources with which to reward royal followers declined. At the same time, new external enemies appeared to threaten the realm, especially seagoing Northmen ( Vikings) and Saracens. There were also signs of structural inadequacy in the system of government, which constantly took upon itself new responsibilities without a commensurate increase in human or material resources, and growing resistance to royal control by lay and ecclesiastical magnates who began to grasp the political, social, and economic power to be derived from royal grants of land and immunities. Other historians, however, have stressed such things as increased royal concern for the helpless, continued efforts to strengthen royal administration, active diplomacy, the maintenance of religious reform, and support of cultural renewal, all of which they see as evidence of vitality during Charlemagne's last years.

Within this larger context there were developments that suggest that the imperial title meant little to its recipient. Indeed, in 802, when he first formally used the enigmatic title "Emperor Governing the Roman Empire," he retained his old title of "King of the Franks and of the Lombards." He continued to live in the traditional Frankish way, eschewing modes of conduct and protocol associated with imperial dignity. He relied less on the advice of the circle that had shaped the ideology that led to the revival of the Roman Empire. Indeed, the emperor seemed oblivious to the idea of a unified political entity implicit in the imperial title when, in 806, he decreed that on his death his realm would be divided among his three sons.

Other evidence, however, indicates that the imperial title was important to him. Charlemagne engaged in a long military and diplomatic campaign that finally, in 812, gained recognition of his title from the Eastern emperor. After 800 his religious reform program stressed changes in behaviour that implied that membership in the imperium Christianum required new modes of public conduct. He attempted to bring greater uniformity to the diverse legal systems prevailing in his empire. The terminology and the symbols employed by the court to set forth its policies and the artistic motifs employed in the building complex at Aachen reflected an awareness of the imperial office as a source of ideological elements capable of buttressing the ruler's authority. In 813 Charlemagne assured the perpetuation of the imperial title by bestowing with his own hands the imperial crown on his only surviving son, Louis the Pious. The coronation of 813 suggests that Charlemagne believed that the office had some value and that he wished to exclude the papacy from any part in its bestowal. In its entirety the evidence leads to the conclusion that Charlemagne saw the imperial title as a personal award in recognition of his services to Christendom, to be used as he saw fit to enhance his ability and that of his heirs to direct the imperium Christianum to its divinely ordained end.

Legacy

In January 814 Charlemagne fell ill with a fever after bathing in his beloved warm springs at Aachen; he died one week later. Writing in the 840s, the emperor's grandson, the historian Nithard, avowed that at the end of his life the great king had "left all Europe filled with every goodness." Modern historians have made apparent the exaggeration in that statement by calling attention to the inadequacies of Charlemagne's political apparatus, the limitations of his military forces in the face of new threats from seafaring foes, the failure of his religious reforms to affect the great mass of Christians, the narrow traditionalism and clerical bias of his cultural program, and the oppressive features of his economic and social programs. Such critical attention of Charlemagne's role, however, cannot efface the fact that his effort to adjust traditional Frankish ideas of leadership and the public good to new currents in society made a crucial difference in European history. His renewal of the Roman Empire in the West provided the ideological foundation for a politically unified Europe, an idea that has inspired Europeans ever since-sometimes with unhappy consequences. His feats as a ruler, both real and imagined, served as a standard to which many generations of European rulers looked for guidance in defining and discharging their royal functions. His religious reforms solidified the organizational structures and the liturgical practices that eventually enfolded most of Europe into a single "Church." His definition of the role of the secular authority in directing religious life laid the basis for the tension-filled interaction between temporal and spiritual authority that played a crucial role in shaping both political and religious institutions in later western European history. His cultural renaissance provided the basic tools-schools, curricula, textbooks, libraries, and teaching techniques-upon which later cultural revivals would be based. The impetus he gave to the lord-vassal relationship and to the system of agriculture known as manorialism (in which peasants held land from a lord in exchange for dues and service) played a vital role in establishing the seignorial system (in which lords exercised political and economic power over a given territory and its population); the seignorial system in turn had the potential for imposing political and social order and for stimulating economic growth. Such accomplishments certainly justify the superlatives by which he was known in his own time: Carolus Magnus ("Charles the Great") and Europae pater ("father of Europe").
Richard E. Sullivan

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Charlemagne - Emperor, Franks, Holy Roman Empire

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Charlemagne - Emperor, Franks, Holy Roman Empire: Charlemagne's prodigious range of activities during the first 30 years of his reign were prelude to what some contemporaries and many later observers viewed as the culminating event of his reign: his coronation as Roman emperor.

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Why is Charlemagne famous?

How did Charlemagne become emperor of the Holy Roman Empire?

What lands did Charlemagne conquer?

What was the Carolingian Renaissance?

What was Charlemagne's family life like?

Charlemagne, also called Charles I, byname Charles the Great, (born April 2, 747?-died January 28, 814, Aachen, Austrasia [now in Germany]), king of the Franks (768-814), king of the Lombards (774-814), and first emperor (800-814) of the Romans and of what was later called the Holy Roman Empire.

Early years

Around the time of the birth of Charlemagne-conventionally held to be 742 but likely to be 747 or 748-his father, Pippin III (the Short), was mayor of the palace, an official serving the Merovingian king but actually wielding effective power over the extensive Frankish kingdom. What little is known about Charlemagne's youth suggests that he received practical training for leadership by participating in the political, social, and military activities associated with his father's court. His early years were marked by a succession of events that had immense implications for the Frankish position in the contemporary world. In 751, with papal approval, Pippin seized the Frankish throne from the last Merovingian king, Childeric III. After meeting with Pope Stephen II at the royal palace of Ponthion in 753-754, Pippin forged an alliance with the pope by committing himself to protect Rome in return for papal sanction of the right of Pippin's dynasty to the Frankish throne. Pippin also intervened militarily in Italy in 755 and 756 to restrain Lombard threats to Rome, and in the so-called Donation of Pippin in 756 he bestowed on the papacy a block of territory stretching across central Italy which formed the basis of a new political entity, the Papal States, over which the pope ruled.

When Pippin died in 768, his realm was divided according to Frankish custom between Charlemagne and his brother, Carloman. Almost immediately the rivalry between the two brothers threatened the unity of the Frankish kingdom. Seeking advantage over his brother, Charlemagne formed an alliance with Desiderius, king of the Lombards, accepting as his wife the daughter of the king to seal an agreement that threatened the delicate equilibrium that had been established in Italy by Pippin's alliance with the papacy. The death of Carloman in 771 ended the mounting crisis, and Charlemagne, disregarding the rights of Carloman's heirs, took control of the entire Frankish realm.

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Charlemagne | Biography, Accomplishments, Children, & Facts

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Charlemagne, king of the Franks (768-814), king of the Lombards (774-814), and first emperor (800-814) of what was later called the Holy Roman Empire. His feats as a ruler, both real and imagined, served as a standard to which many European rulers looked for guidance in defining and discharging their royal functions.

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Newsela | Instructional Content Platform

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Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

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Newsela | Instructional Content Platform

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Newsela is an Instructional Content Platform that supercharges reading engagement and learning in every subject.

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(music) Male: Between the ancient Roman world and the modern world, between the ancient Roman emperors and Napolean, there was really only one ruler that controlled most of Western Europe. Female: The person you're referring to is Charlemagne or Charles the Great or Carolus Magnus. He's a legend, really, Charlemagne. Male: In fact, historians struggle because there are so few fragments of information. This is so long ago. Female: We're talking about the late eighth and ninth century. This is a really long time ago. Male: On Christmas Day, in the year 800 exactly, Charlemagne is crowned emperor by the Pope in Rome. Female: This is a huge deal. Male: The Roman emperors in the ancient world had ruled from Rome until Constantine moved the empire to Constantinople, what is now Istanbul. So the center of power had shifted to the East and now, in 800, 500 years after Constantine, we have now an emperor in the West. Female: But there's still an emperor in the East who has moral authority. People still look to that emperor in the East in the Byzantine Empire. Let's think about what happened in Western Europe that allowed for Charlemagne to become the new emperor. Male: The first thing that's important to understand, the Western Roman Empire basically fell apart. Female: What we see beginning especially in the fifth century is the dissolution of the institutions of the Roman Empire. The idea of the Roman Empire hangs on, but its ability to govern comes apart. Male: In order to understand what happened in the Roman Empire in the West, you have to recognize the pressure from a series of invasions from people that the Romans thought of as barbarians. Female: These are a people who migrated into the lands that were part of the Roman Empire. You might know them as the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths and the Huns. One of those peoples were the Franks. Male: This is not Franks as in France. These are people that actually settled in what is now Germany, what is now France. Charlemagne was a Frank and if we go back several centuries, we can see the beginning of the kingdom of the Franks. In addition to the Franks, there were also the Lombards. This was another Germanic people, another group who the Romans would have considered barbarians, who had conquered Northern Italy. Female: They were often threatening what was the heart of the old Roman Empire, and that was Rome, the Papal States. Now when I say Papal States I mean the areas governed by the Pope. We think about the Pope as a spiritual leader, but back in the ninth century and actually for many centuries, the Pope was also a political leader. Male: What's so interesting is that the Pope, the papacy, would have traditionally looked to the Byzantine emperor for protection from people like the Lombards, but by the time the Lombards were threatening Rome, the Byzantine Empire was not strong enough to defend Rome. So instead, the papacy looked North to the kingdom of the Franks. Female: Charlemagne, early in his career, had been called on by the Pope at the time, Pope Hadrian, to protect him and the papal lands. Charlemagne was successful and actually Charlemagne became king of the Lombards. This dependence between the papacy and the king of the Franks started with Charlemagne's father, Pepin, who was given the authority to rule by the Pope. Male: There's this really interesting reciprocal relationship between the Pope in Rome and this Frankish king, Charlemagne, and his father, and that is that the Pope is getting military protection, and at the same time he's offering a kind of legitimacy. Female: What ends up happening is that you have two very powerful figures in Western Europe, and there will be a contest between these two offices; later what will become the Holy Roman emperor and the Pope, actually for centuries to come. But back to the story. Male: To recap. We have the Byzantine Empire in the East. We have the Pope ruling from Rome over the Papal States in Central Italy. We have Charlemagne, who's the king of the Franks, ruling over a very large area encompassing largely what is now France, what is now Germany, and Northern Italy. Then surrounding all of these players in the East, in North Africa to the South, and even in the majority of Spain, you have Islam, which is advancing quickly. In order to understand how it is that this barbarian, this king of the Franks, Charlemagne, is crowned as the emperor in 800, we have to go back one year earlier, back to 799. In 799 the Pope in Rome was Leo III. He was not a particularly strong Pope. Part of the problem was that he did not come from one of the traditional powerful aristocratic families in Rome. Female: Two men, officials in the church, accused Pope Leo III of very serious charges. They ambushed him and had the intention of actually hurting him. They were going to gouge out his eyes and cut off his tongue. Male: In fact, according to some accounts, they did, and somehow they were miraculously restored. Female: There was a question. How would this issue of the Pope being accused of these serious crimes be resolved? The way to do that was to go to Charlemagne. Male: Right. Remember Charlemagne was the real power in the region. He had ousted the Lombards and he was in control of Northern Italy. In order for them to put another Pope on the throne of St. Peter, they needed Charlemagne's agreement. We're not quite sure how this happens but it seems likely that some of Charlemagne's emissaries in Rome made it possible for the Pope to be released and to have an audience with Charlemagne in the North. Female: Interestingly, Charlemagne, who was a brilliant politician sent everybody back to Rome for a kind of hearing. Pope Leo III declared his innocence on an oath. The people who accused him were exiled. Leo III was established, legitimately, on the throne of St. Peter's as Pope. Male: When Charlemagne enters into St. Peter's Basilica on Christmas Day in the year 800 and Pope Leo III puts the crown of the emperor on his head, we know that everybody is getting a good deal. The king of the Franks has become an emporer and, of course, Leo is cementing his bond with his protector. Female: Obviously, the two men needed each other. In fact, Leo III, when he was first made Pope a few years earlier, sent Charlemagne the keys to the relics of St. Peter and the banner of the city of Rome. Male: All of Europe was being realigned. Now the capital of the Empire was not a Mediterranean city, it was now in the North, it was now in the city of Aachen. We see this important shift as focus moves from the Eastern Mediterranean to the North of Europe. We begin to see the outlines of the modern Europe that we know today. Female: Charlemagne was not just a brilliant warrior and politician, but also was a very serious reformer and began what some historians call the Carolingian Renaissance. The word Carolingian refers to the reign of Charlemagne and his successors. This is no Renaissance on the scale of the Renaissance that will happen in the 1400s in Italy and Northern Europe, but it is a small flowering, renewal, a looking back to the traditions of ancient Rome, particularly looking back to the time of Constantine, the first Christian Roman emperor. Male: The West now had a Christian emperor who in the West was establishing a Christian empire. (music)

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Charlemagne: an introduction (video) | Khan Academy

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(music) Male: Between the ancient Roman world and the modern world, between the ancient Roman emperors and Napolean, there was really only one ruler that controlled most of Western Europe. Female: The person you're referring to is Charlemagne or Charles the Great or Carolus Magnus. He's a legend, really, Charlemagne.