# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What Is An Element, Mixture And Compound? | Properties of Matter | Chemistry | FuseSchool

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Elements, Compounds & Mixtures Elements Microscopic view of the atoms of the element argon (gas phase). Microscopic view of the molecules of the element nitrogen (gas phase). Note that an element: consists of only one kind of atom, cannot be broken down into a simpler type of matter by either physical or chemical means, and can exist as either atoms (e.g.

# data[].attributes.headline
Matter: Physical and Chemical Properties

# data[].attributes.subject
Matter: Physical and Chemical Properties

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Matter: Physical and Chemical Properties

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Visit Study.com for thousands more videos like this one. You'll get full access to our interactive quizzes and transcripts and can find out how to use our videos to earn real college credit. YouTube hosts only the first few lessons in each course. The rest are at Study.com.

# data[].attributes.headline
Difference Between Physical and Chemical Change

# data[].attributes.subject
Difference Between Physical and Chemical Change

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
There are many differences between physical and chemical changes and it is important to understand them to be able to understand these concepts clearly. The comparisons and differences between physical and chemical changes are given below along with their examples. To understand physical and chemical properties and changes better, it is important to know what they are. Visit physical and chemical changes to know more about them in detail. In this article, the differences between physical changes and chemical changes are provided in a tabular format.

Table of Contents

Differences Between Physical and Chemical Change

When a substance undergoes a physical change, its composition remains the same despite its molecules being rearranged.

When a substance undergoes a chemical change, its molecular composition is changed entirely. Thus, chemical changes involve the formation of new substances.

Thus, it can be understood that the primary difference between physical and chemical changes is that physical changes are reversible whereas chemical changes are usually not. To learn more about how physical and chemical changes are different, register with BYJU'S now!

Recommended Videos

Frequently Asked Questions - FAQs

How can you tell the difference between physical and chemical changes?

The appearance or form of matter changes during a physical change, but the type of matter in the substance does not. A chemical change, on the other contrary, results in the creation of at least one new substance with new properties.

Why is it important to know the difference between physical and chemical changes?

It's essential to recognise the difference between chemical and physical changes. Several changes are obvious, but there are some fundamental concepts to be aware of. Physical changes usually refer to changes in the physical state of stuff. When two or more molecules interact, chemical changes occur on a molecular level.

What are the examples of physical and chemical changes?

Examples of chemical changes would be burning, cooking, rusting, and rotting.
Examples of physical changes could be boiling, melting, freezing, and shredding.
Most physical changes can be reversed if sufficient energy is provided.

How to tell whether it's a physical or chemical change?

Check for indications that a chemical change has taken place. The following are indications of a chemical change:

Gas is created. Bubbles can occur in liquids.

An odour is created.

The colour of the substance changes.

Sound is generated.

There is a shift in the temperature. The environment either heats up or cools down.

Light is generated.

A precipitate develops.

Reversing the change is difficult or impossible.

What are three forces that can cause a physical change?

Forces such as motion, temperature, and pressure can create physical changes. Oxygen in the air reacts with sugar, and the chemical bonds are destroyed.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Difference Between Physical And Chemical Change With Examples

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
There are many differences between physical and chemical changes and it is important to understand them to be able to understand these concepts clearly. The comparisons and differences between physical and chemical changes are given below along with their examples. To understand physical and chemical properties and changes better, it is important to know what they are.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Atomic number

26

Electronic shell

[ Ar ] 3d ⁶ 4s ²

Standard potential

- o.44 V (Fe ²⁺/ Fe ) ; 0.77 V ( Fe ³⁺/ Fe ²⁺ )

Iron

Iron is a lustrous, ductile, malleable, silver-gray metal (group VIII of the periodic table). It is known to exist in four distinct crystalline forms. Iron rusts in damp air, but not in dry air. It dissolves readily in dilute acids. Iron is chemically active and forms two major series of chemical compounds, the bivalent iron (II), or ferrous, compounds and the trivalent iron (III), or ferric, compounds.
Applications
Iron is the most used of all the metals, including 95 % of all the metal tonnage produced worldwide. Thanks to the combination of low cost and high strength it is indispensable. Its applications go from food containers to family cars, from scredrivers to washing machines, from cargo ships to paper staples.
Steel is the best known alloy of iron, and some of the forms that iron takes include: pig iron, cast iron, carbon steel, wrought iron, alloy steels, iron oxides.
Iron in the environment
Iron is believed to be the tenth most abundant element in the universe. Iron is also the most abundant (by mass, 34.6%) element making up the Earth; the concentration of iron in the various layers of the Earth ranges from high at the inner core to about 5% in the outer crust. Most of this iron is found in various iron oxides, such as the minerals hematite, magnetite, and taconite. The earth's core is believed to consist largely of a metallic iron-nickel alloy.
Iron is essential to almost living things, from micro-organisms to humans.
World production of new iron is over 500 million tonnes a year, and recycled iron add other 300 million tonnes. Economically workable reserves of iron ores exceed 100 billion tonnes. The main mining areas are China, Brazil, Australia, Russia and Ukraine, with sizeable amounts mined in the USA, Canada, Venezuela, Sweeden and India.

Health effects of iron

Iron can be found in meat, whole meal products, potatoes and vegetables. The human body absorbs iron in animal products faster than iron in plant products. Iron is an essential part of hemoglobin; the red colouring agent of the blood that transports oxygen through our bodies.

Iron may cause conjunctivitis, choroiditis, and retinitis if it contacts and remains in the tissues. Chronic inhalation of excessive concentrations of iron oxide fumes or dusts may result in development of a benign pneumoconiosis, called siderosis, which is observable as an x-ray change. No physical impairment of lung function has been associated with siderosis. Inhalation of excessive concentrations of iron oxide may enhance the risk of lung cancer development in workers exposed to pulmonary carcinogens. LD50 (oral, rat) =30 gm/kg. (LD50: Lethal dose 50. Single dose of a substance that causes the death of 50% of an animal population from exposure to the substance by any route other than inhalation. Usually expressed as milligrams or grams of material per kilogram of animal weight (mg/kg or g/kg).)

A more common problem for humans is iron deficency, which leads to anaemia. A man needs an average daily intake pf 7 mg of iron and a woman 11 mg; a normal diet will generally provided all that is needed.

Environmental effects of iron

Iron (III)-O-arsenite, pentahydrate may be hazardous to the environment; special attention should be given to plants, air and water. It is strongly advised not to let the chemical enter into the environment because it persists in the environment.

Read more on iron in water

Back to the periodic table of elements.
Recommended daily intake of iron

Lenntech (European Head Office)

Distributieweg 3
2645 EG Delfgauw
The Netherlands
Phone: +31 152 610 900
fax: +31 152 616 289
e-mail: info@lenntech.com

Lenntech USA LLC (Americas)

5975 Sunset Drive
South Miami, FL 33143
USA
Phone: +1 877 453 8095
e-mail: info@lenntech.com

Lenntech DMCC (Middle East)

Level 6 - OFFICE #101-One JLT Tower
Jumeirah Lake Towers
Dubai - U.A.E.
Phone: +971 4 429 5853
e-mail: info@lenntech.com

Copyright © 1998-2022 Lenntech B.V. All rights reserved

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Atomic number 26 Electronic shell [ Ar ] 3d 6 4s 2 Standard potential - o.44 V (Fe 2+/ Fe ) ; 0.77 V ( Fe 3+/ Fe 2+ ) Iron is a lustrous, ductile, malleable, silver-gray metal (group VIII of the periodic table).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
... and its Properties?

When you think of salt, the chances are its table salt that you picture - the kind of salt you'd find in the kitchen cupboard at home, the kind that you shake on your chips.

And while that is salt - Common Salt - NaCl - there's also a lot more to it than that.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
and its Properties? When you think of salt, the chances are its table salt that you picture - the kind of salt you'd find in the kitchen cupboard at home, the kind that you shake on your chips. And while that is salt - Common Salt - NaCl - there's also a lot more to it than that.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Silicon Dioxide is a natural compound of oxygen and silicon, found mostly in the sand. It is also known as Silica, composed of silicon and oxygen, having chemical formula \[SiO_{2}\], or silicon dioxide. There are various forms of Silica, and all silica forms are identical in chemical composition but contain different atom arrangements.

Silica has three primary crystalline varieties, quartz, tridymite, and cristobalite. Silica dust from fine particulate quartz rock causes a long-term progressive lung injury, silicosis. (\[NCIO_{4}\]). The \[SiO_{2}\] chemical name is Silicon Dioxide.

Silica compounds are further divided into amorphous Silica (a-silica or non-crystalline Silica) and crystalline (or c-silica).

c-Silica compounds have structures with repeating patterns of both silicon and oxygen.

a-Silica chemical structures are more randomly linked to that of c-silica.

All silica forms are odourless solids composed of silicon and oxygen atoms obtained as transparent to grey in its crystalline or amorphous powdered form. Silica particles get suspended in air and form non-explosive dust. Silica can be combined with oxides and other metallic elements for the formation of silicates.

Silicon dioxide is otherwise called silicon (IV) oxide.

There exist three different silicon dioxide crystal forms. The easiest one to draw and remember depends on the diamond structure.

The crystalline silicon has a similar structure as diamond. To turn it into silicon dioxide, all we are supposed to do is modify the silicon structure by adding some oxygen atoms.

The simple \[SiO_{2}\] structure is represented in the following way.

If we notice properly, each silicon atom is bridged to its neighbour by an oxygen atom. Remember that this is just a tiny part of a giant \[SiO_{2}\] structure that extends on all three dimensions.

Silicon Dioxide Properties

The basic \[SiO_{2}\] properties of both physical and chemical are given below.

Physical Properties of \[SiO_{2}\]

Silicon dioxide is transparent to grey, crystalline, odourless, or an amorphous solid. They have melting and boiling points as 1713º C and 2950º C, respectively. The density is about 2.648 g/cm3. It is insoluble in both acid and water and soluble in hydrofluoric acid. Its molecular weight is about 60.08 g/mol.

Chemical Properties of \[SiO_{2}\]

Silicon dioxide is not a very reactive compound because the polarity of the molecule is zero. The 'Si' forms two double bonds with the oxygen. Therefore, it's a very stable molecule. Moreover, it has high dielectric strength, so that it is used as an insulator and semiconductor.

Production of Silicon Dioxide

The acidification sodium silicate solutions obtain precipitated Silica or amorphous Silica. Its gel is washed and dehydrated to make colourless microporous Silica. The reaction involving a trisilicate along with sulfuric acid is provided below.

\[Na_{2}Si_{3}O_{7} + H_{2}SO_{4} \rightarrow 3SiO_{2} + Na_{2}SO_{4} + H_{2}O\]

Silicon Dioxide Reactions

Silica is converted into silicon by reducing carbon.

When fluorine reacts with silicon dioxide, it produces \[O_{2}\] and \[SiF_{4}\].

Silicon dioxide also reacts with hydrofluoric acid to form hexafluorosilicic acid (\[H_{2}SiF_{6}\]).

\[SiO_{2} + 6HF \rightarrow H_{2}SiF_{6} + 2H_{2}O\]

Preparation of Silicon Dioxide

Most of the silicon dioxide is extracted even from quartz mining, it can also be prepared using acid neutralisation of an aqueous alkali metal - silicate solution. This kind of method is known as a wet process and forms amorphous \[SiO_{2}\] particles.

\[Na_{2}Si_{3}O_{7} + H_{2}SO_{4} \rightarrow 3SiO_{2} + Na_{2}SO_{4} + H_{2}O\]

The other methods form pyrogenic Silica, having silanes combustion like silicon tetrachloride, in an oxygen-hydrogen burner. These are the fine particle product aggregates of 100 - 400 nm in diameter.

\[SiCl_{4} + 2H_{2} + O_{2} \rightarrow SiO_{2} + 4HCl\]

Applications of Silicon Dioxide

Silica exists as fluffy, and white powders produced through a wet process, yielding a thermal route, Silica, or silica gel, yielding a pyrogenic (fumed) silica.

In powdered foods, the Silica clings to the food particles and prevents them from clumping. Doing this allows powdery products to remain free-flowing, and to separate other products easily.

Also, Silicon dioxide functions as a defoaming agent, conditioning agent, carrier, chill proofing agent in malt beverages like beer and filter aid.

Besides, it is used in material manufacture like paper and adhesives for food-packaging materials.

As per the U.S. FDA regulation's direct additive, the SAS levels cannot exceed 2% by the food weight, and as an indirect additive, it can be used only in the required amount to produce the intended functional effect.

Silicon Dioxide Uses

There is various Silicon dioxide used in electronic, chemical, and pharmaceutical industries. In the chemical industry, it is used in the production of adhesives and sealants, adsorbents, ceramic, porcelain, corrosion inhibitors, anti-adhesives, dyes, and paint additives. In addition, silicon dioxide production occurs in agricultural chemicals. Coming to pharmaceutical industries, it helps as an additive of food and medicines to absorb water. For telecommunication, \[SiO_{2}\] is the main component of optical fibres. Silicon dioxide is extensively used as a precursor to obtaining glass and silicon by the reaction given below.

\[SiO_{2} + 2C \rightarrow Si + 2CO\]

Furthermore, Silicon dioxide is also used in the construction industry to produce concrete. Used in hydraulic fracturing in its crystalline form, and in glass production, as a Sedative, production to produce elemental silicon, as an anti-caking agent in powdered foods such as spices, as a fining agent in beer, juice, and wine, in pharmaceutical tablets, and in toothpaste to remove the tooth plaque.

Health Hazards

Orally Silica is non-toxic when ingested. According to a study report conducted in 2008, the higher the rates of Silica in water, the lower the likelihood of dementia. As a result, the dosage was raised to 10 mg/day of silica in drinking water as the incidence of dementia reduced. When silica dust of finely divided crystalline is inhaled, it may lead to lung cancer, bronchitis, or silicosis, because of the lodging of dust in the lungs. Also, when fine particles of Silica are inhaled in excessive quantities, it increases the risk of lupus and rheumatoid arthritis.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Silicon Dioxide is a natural compound of oxygen and silicon, found mostly in the sand. It is also known as Silica, composed of silicon and oxygen, having chemical formula \[SiO_{2}\], or silicon dioxide. There are various forms of Silica, and all silica forms are identical in chemical composition but contain different atom arrangements.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Description

Paraffin wax is mostly found as a white, odorless, tasteless, waxy solid, with a typical melting point between about 46 and 68°C (115 and 154°F) and a density of approximately 900, is insoluble in water, but soluble in ether, benzene, and certain esters. Paraffin wax is often classed as a stable chemical since it is unaffected by most common chemical reagents but burns readily.
Paraffin wax is the common name for the mixture of solid higher alkanes, the molecular formula is CnH2n+2, where n=20-40. The excess oil residue in the wax is removed through the process of petroleum refining. It is then deoiled and separated by vacuum distillation. The main component of refined paraffin is saturated normal alkanes with carbon number of about 20-40, containing a small amount of isomers and alkanes.

Physical properties

Paraffin wax, also known as crystalline wax, is usually a white, odorless waxy solid. It melts at 47°C-64°C and has a density of about 0.9g/cm3. It is soluble in gasoline, carbon disulfide, xylene, ether, benzene, chloroform, and tetrachloride. Non-polar solvents such as carbon, naphtha, etc., are insoluble in polar solvents such as water and methanol. Pure paraffin is a good insulator, its resistivity is 1013-1017 ohm·m, which is higher than most materials except some plastics (especially Teflon).

Fully refined paraffin waxes are a hard, white crystalline material derived from petroleum. Paraffin waxes are predominately composed of normal, straight-chain hydrocarbons. The water-repellent and thermoplastic properties of paraffin waxes make them ideal for many applications. Typical end uses include cereal, delicatessen, and household wrap, corrugated containers, candles, cheese and vegetable coatings, and hot melt adhesives.

Composition

Paraffin wax is a mixture of solid higher alkanes, the molecular formula of the main component is CnH2n+2, where n=17～35. The main components are straight-chain alkanes, a small amount of alkane with individual branches and monocyclic cycloalkanes with long side chains; straight-chain alkanes are mainly n-docosane (C22H46) and n-octadecane (C28H58) .

Wax

Wax is of two general types: (i) paraffin wax in petroleum distillates and (ii) microcrystalline wax in petroleum residua.
Paraffin wax is a solid crystalline mixture of straightchain (normal) hydrocarbons ranging from 20 to 30 carbon atoms per molecule, and even higher.
Paraffin wax is a solid crystalline mixture of straightchain (normal) hydrocarbons ranging from C20 to C30 and possibly higher, that is, CH3(CH2)nCH3 , where n≥18. It is distinguished by its solid state at ordinary temperatures (25°C, 77°F) and low viscosity (35-45 SUS at 99°C, 210°F) when melted. However, in contrast to petroleum wax, petrolatum (petroleum jelly), although solid at ordinary temperatures, does in fact contain both solid and liquid hydrocarbons. It is essentially a low-melting, ductile, microcrystalline wax.
Microcrystalline waxes form approximately 1-2% w/w of crude oil and are valuable products having numerous applications. These waxes are usually obtained from heavy lube distillates by solvent dewaxing and from tank bottom sludge by acid clay treatment. However, these crude wax products usually contain appreciable quantity (10-20% w/w) of residual oil and, as such, are not suitable for many applications such as paper coating, electrical insulation, textile printing, and polishes.

Microcrystalline waxes

Microcrystalline waxes are a type of wax produced by de-oiling petrolatum, as part of the petroleum refining process. In contrast to the more familiar paraffin wax, which contains mostly unbranched alkanes, microcrystalline wax contains a higher percentage of iso-paraffin (branched) and naphthene hydrocarbons. It is characterized by the fineness of its crystals in contrast to the larger crystal of paraffin wax. It consists of high-molecular-weight saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons. It is generally darker, more viscous, denser, tackier, and more elastic than paraffin waxes, and has a higher molecular weight and melting point. The elastic and adhesive characteristics of microcrystalline waxes are related to the non-straightchain components that they contain. Typical microcrystalline wax crystal structure is small and thin, making them more flexible than paraffin wax.

Microcrystalline waxes when produced by wax refiners are typically produced to meet a number of ASTM specifications, which include congealing point (ASTM D938), needle penetration (D1321), color (ASTM D6045), and viscosity (ASTM D445). Microcrystalline wax is also a key component in the manufacture of petrolatum. The branched structure of the carbon chain backbone allows oil molecules to be incorporated into the crystal lattice structure. The desired properties of the petrolatum can be modified by using microcrystalline wax bases of different congeal points (ASTM D938) and needle penetration (ASTM D1321).

Uses

Used in the production of candles, crayons, wax paper, rubber, wires, cables, plates, waterproof materials, electrical insulation, food packaging, precision casting, general telecommunications equipment, textiles, printing, metal rust prevention, and other chemicals required by various industrial sectors raw material.Paraffin wax can also be used for oxidation to generate synthetic fatty acids. Paraffin wax can also be made into detergents, emulsifiers, dispersants, plasticizers, greases, etc.As a kind of latent heat storage material, paraffin wax has the advantages of large latent heat of phase change, small volume change during solid-liquid phase change, good thermal stability, no supercooling phenomenon, and low price. It is used in aviation, aerospace, microelectronics, etc. Various fields such as scientific and technological systems and house energy saving have been widely used.

Occurrence

Paraffin wax is a hydrocarbon mixture extracted from certain distillates of petroleum, shale oil or other bituminous mineral oils. The main component is solid alkanes, which is odorless and tasteless, and is a white or light yellow translucent solid. Paraffin wax has many uses, mainly used in the manufacture of matches, fiberboard, tarpaulin and so on.

Application

1. Paraffin wax can be made into flake or needle crystals obtained by solvent dewaxing or freezing crystallization of wax, pressing dewaxing to obtain wax paste, and then solvent deoiling and refining. Used to make higher fatty acids, higher alcohols, matches, candles, waterproofing agents, ointments, electrical insulating materials, etc.2. Paraffin wax is divided into food grade (food grade and packaging grade, the former is excellent) and industrial grade. Food grade is non-toxic and industrial grade is not edible.3. Because of its high oil content, crude paraffin is mainly used to make matches, fiberboards, tarpaulins, etc. After adding polyolefin additives to paraffin wax, its melting point increases, adhesion and flexibility increase, and it is widely used in moisture-proof and waterproof packaging paper, cardboard, surface coating of certain textiles and candle production.4. After immersing the paper in paraffin wax, various wax papers with good waterproof performance can be prepared, which can be used in food, medicine and other packaging, metal rust prevention and printing industries; after paraffin wax is added to cotton yarn, the textiles can be soft, smooth and smooth. It is elastic; paraffin wax can also be used to make detergents, emulsifiers, dispersants, plasticizers, greases, etc.5. Fully refined paraffin and semi-refined paraffin have a wide range of uses. They are mainly used as components and packaging materials for food, oral medicines and certain commodities (such as wax paper, crayons, candles, carbon paper), coating materials for baking containers, and Fruit preservation, insulation of electrical components, improvement of rubber aging resistance and flexibility, etc.

Description

Paraffin wax, also commonly called 'paraffin', is a colourless or white, tasteless, odourless, translucent waxy solid. Paraffin wax has a typical melting point between about 46°C and 68°C. Pure paraffin wax is a combustible substance and insoluble in water but soluble in petroleum solvents and stable under normal conditions of use. Paraffin has been identified as an excellent electrical insulator. It is also used in the manufacturing of paraffin papers, candles, food packaging materials, varnishes, floor polishes, to extract perfumes from flowers, in lubricants, and cosmetics. It is also used in water-proofing wood, and cork.

Chemical Properties

Paraffin wax is colorless or white with an odorless mass. It consists of a mixture of solid aliphatic hydrocarbons. Paraffin is used in the manufacture of paraffin papers, candles, food packaging materials, varnishes, floor polishes, to extract perfumes from flowers, in lubricants, and cosmetics. It is also used in waterproofing wood and cork.

Uses

Paraffin wax can be used as a phase changing material in a wide range of applications which include solar based water heaters, microcapsules and thermal energy devices (TEDs).

Uses

Paraffin Wax is used to embed tissues to be used in research.

Uses

Paraffin wax, or hard wax, is a mixture of solid hydrocarbons, mainly alkanes. Paraffinwaxcan beadded to medicinal agents. Petroleumwax and petrolatum are the only hydrocarbons permitted for use in food products. Paraffin wax is used as a household wax and extensively as a coating for food containers and wrappers.

Definition

A solid mixture of hydrocarbons, obtained from petroleum.

Production Methods

Paraffin is manufactured by the distillation of crude petroleum or shale oil, followed by purification by acid treatment and filtration. Paraffins with different properties may be produced by controlling the distillation and subsequent congealing conditions.
Synthetic paraffin, synthesized from carbon monoxide and hydrogen is also available;

General Description

White translucent tasteless odorless solids. Density 0.88- 0.92 g / cm3. Insoluble in water. Melting range 47-65°C. Used in candles, lubricants, crayons, floor polishes, cosmetics, chewing gum.

Air & Water Reactions

Insoluble in water.

Reactivity Profile

Paraffin wax, may be incompatible with strong oxidizing agents. Charring may occur followed by ignition of unreacted portion and other nearby combustibles. In other settings, mostly unreactive. Not affected by aqueous solutions of acids, alkalis, most oxidizing agents, and most reducing agents. When heated sufficiently or when ignited in the presence of air, oxygen or strong oxidizing agents, they burn exothermically.

Health Hazard

Exposures to paraffi n for a prolonged period cause several types of skin disorders, The adverse health effects to skin include chronic dermatitis, wax boils, folliculitis, comedones, papules, melanoderma, and hyperkeratoses. Studies of Hendricks et al. indicated the development of carcinoma of the scrotum in workers exposed to crude petroleum wax. Carcinoma of the scrotum in occupational workers began with a normal hyperkeratotic nevus-like lesion, which subsequently resulted in a squamous cell carcinoma.

Flammability and Explosibility

Notclassified

Pharmaceutical Applications

Paraffin is mainly used in topical pharmaceutical formulations as a component of creams and ointments. In ointments, it may be used to increase the melting point of a formulation or to add stiffness. Paraffin is additionally used as a coating agent for capsules and tablets, and is used in some food applications. Paraffin coatings can also be used to affect the release of drug from ion-exchange resin beads.

Safety Profile

A skin and eye irritant. Questionable carcinogen with experimental tumorigenic data by implant route. Many paraffin waxes contain carcinogens. Fumes cause lung damage. See also PARAFFIN HYDROCARBONS.

Safety

Paraffin is generally regarded as an essentially nontoxic and nonirritant material when used in topical ointments and as a coating agent for tablets and capsules. However, granulomatous reactions (paraffinomas) may occur following injection of paraffin into tissue for cosmetic purposes or to relieve pain. Long-term inhalation of aerosolized paraffin may lead to interstitial pulmonary disease. Ingestion of a substantial amount of white soft paraffin has led to intestinal obstruction in one instance.

Synthesis

Synthesized by the Fischer-Tropsch process from carbon monoxide and hydrogen, which are catalytically converted to a mixture of paraffin hydrocarbons. The lower molecular weight fractions are removed by distillation and the residue is hydrogenated and further treated by percolation through activated charcoal.

storage

Paraffin is stable, although repeated melting and congealing may alter its physical properties. Paraffin should be stored at a temperature not exceeding 40°C in a well-closed container.

Regulatory Status

Accepted in the UK for use in certain food applications. Included in the FDA Inactive Ingredients Database (oral capsules and tablets, topical emulsions, and ointments). Included in nonparenteral medicines licensed in the UK. Included in the Canadian List of Acceptable Non-medicinal Ingredients.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
paraffin wax cas no cas number 8002-74-2

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Visit ChemicalBook To find more Paraffin wax(8002-74-2) information like chemical properties,Structure,melting point,boiling point,density,molecular formula,molecular weight, physical properties,toxicity information,customs codes. You can also browse global suppliers,vendor,prices,Price,manufacturers of Paraffin wax(8002-74-2). At last,Paraffin wax(8002-74-2) safety, risk, hazard and MSDS, CAS,cas number,Use,cas no may also be you need.

# data[].attributes.headline
Enamel is mainly made of the mineral hydroxyapatite, which is crystalline calcium phosphate. It has a glossy surface and varies in color from light yellow to grayish white. It is the hardest tissue in the human body because it contains almost no water.

# data[].attributes.subject
Enamel is mainly made of the mineral hydroxyapatite, which is crystalline calcium phosphate. It has a glossy surface and varies in color from light yellow to grayish white. It is the hardest tissue in the human body because it contains almost no water.

# data[].attributes.headline
The average density of Enamel is 2.72 g/cm3

# data[].attributes.subject
The average density of Enamel is 2.72 g/cm3

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In addition we have added more rigorous disinfecting techniques and sterilize common areas more often. Our office has added a sanitizing system directly to our HVAC which "cleans" the air continuously for an added safety measure.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
If you're planning a beach vacation, you'd better get to it soon. An alarming statistic for you: 67% of Southern California beaches? GONE by 2100. All because of sand. Even if you don't think about the grainy stuff, you use it daily. You're reading this off something made with sand, looking at it through a screen made with sand, surrounded by buildings made with concrete. I could let you guess what's in concrete, but I suspect you're already catching onto a theme here. The following is a transcript of the video.

I'll try to make this quick since we don't have a lot of time. The world is running out of sand.

Crazy right? We literally have tons of it on beaches, deserts, and under the ocean, but we're using it up faster than the planet can make it.

We use sand way more than you'd expect. Worldwide, we go through 50 billion tons of sand every year. That is twice the amount produced by every river in the world.

After air and water, sand is our most used natural resource. We use it even more than oil.

It's used to make food, wine, toothpaste, glass, computer chips, breast implants, cosmetics, paper, paint, plastics.

So where does it all come from? Well, let's ask Vince Beiser! He wrote a book on the subject, called The World in a Grain.

Vince Beiser: "So the sand that we use, is what you call 'marine sand.' It's the sand that you find at the bottom of rivers, and on beaches and at the bottom of lakes and oceans."

I know what you're thinking, and no, we can't use sand from the desert. Wind erosion makes the grains too round for most purposes. We need angular sand that interlocks like pieces to a puzzle. Like the sand generated from mountain rocks, pelted by rain, wind, and rivers for over 25 thousand years.

The major player for sand usage is concrete. Okay, just to clarify: cement is the lime and clay based glue that holds everything together, and concrete is the finished product that you walk on, drive on, and live inside.

Concrete is made of 10% cement (lime and Clay) 15% water and -yup: 75% sand. The concrete required to build a house takes on average 200 tons of sand, a hospital uses 3,000 tons, and a mile of a highway requires 15,000 tons.

It makes sense that the world makes over 4 billion tons of concrete annually. We need more every year. The number and size of our cities is exploding, especially in the developing world.

This change is most noticeable in China, now home to the largest urban area in the world, the Pearl River Delta. Between 42 and 60 million people call the delta home. China now has 102 cities with a population of over a million. Europe has 38. For all those new cities, they need a lot of concrete.

Between 2011 and 2013, China used more concrete than the US did in the entire 20th century. Again: in Three years, China built the equivalent to every highway, road bridge in the US. And the Hoover Dam

So it's not outrageous to hear that China also outpaces the world in cement production. By a LOT: 2500 metric tons a year.

All that cement is going to need a lot of sand to make concrete. Most of it comes from dredging Poyang Lake. An estimated 236 cubic metes of sand are taken from it every year, making it the largest single sand mine in the world.

But concrete isn't the only use for sand. China is also using tons of sand to build up islands in the South China Sea, expanding its foothold in the region.

And China's not the only nation building islands from nothing. You've seen these before. The Palm Islands and The World were major island building projects in Dubai, and required 186.5 million meters of sand. This depleted the sea floor around the United Arab Emirates, leaving importing sand from Australia as the only option when constructing the world's tallest building, the Burj Khalifa.

It's no surprise then that the sand extraction is a $70 billion industry.

Vince Beiser: "The easiest, cheapest and best quality sand actually comes from riverbeds. It's very easy to get, you just send a boat out into the middle of a river, with a big suction pump on it. Its basically like a big straw that you drop down to the bottom of the river, suck all that sand up off the bottom."

Problem Solved? Nope! The ocean floor isn't miles of sand deep. It's a thin layer over rock, and that layer is home to microorganisms, which feed the base of the food chain. Collecting that sand disrupts fishing in the area and the landscape on shore. When removing sand from the seabed, the shore above water slides into the valley to even itself out. This still leaves shore communities open to flooding and erosion.

Vince Beiser: "The recent floods in Houston were actually made worse by sand mining in the San Jacinto River. The San Jacinto is one of the rivers that borders Houston. It's also an excellent source of sand. It has been mined very heavily for sand for the past ten, twenty years."

Up to 90% of the world's beaches have shrunk an average of 40 meters since 2008. If you haven't noticed a change in your favorite beach, you're not alone. Popular shores replenish their dying beaches with even more sand, imported from elsewhere. And if we keep it up: Almost 70% of Southern California's spectacular beaches could be completely eroded by 2100.

Governments worldwide have begun to regulate and restrict sand mining and concrete production. Now Problem solved, right? Actually, It's caused an entirely new problem: The Black Market of Sand Illegal sand mining has lead to the rise of the Sand Mafia, India's strongest criminal organization.

This interconnected group of businessmen, drivers and criminals use their influence, and if that fails, violence and murder to keep the sand flowing illegal sand generates $2.3 billion a year, employing 75,000 of India's impoverished to dive for sand in rivers. Divers work 12-hour days, diving up to 200 times and making only $15 a boatload. Many suffer from bleeding ears and headaches. Deaths and drownings go unreported.

Worldwide, illegal sand mining has destroyed entire islands. Two dozen Indonesian islands have disappeared around the same time Singapore imported 17 million tons for it's massive 50-mile land expansion. It wasn't until 2010 that dozens of Malaysian officials were charged with accepting bribes and sexual favors for importing the illegal sand.

Vince Beiser: "The first thing that we're going to see in this country, the sort-of canary in the coal mine, that will really let us know that things are starting to get bad, is prices. I believe this is one of the reasons that housing prices have gone up so much, in pretty much all of America's big cities, because the price of sand has about quintupled in the past 30-40 years. And that's one of the critical inputs whenever you're building a house, of course, is sand for the concrete."

We do have some alternatives. While crushing rocks and recycled concrete is expensive, it can be used to create concrete-quality sand. Glass bottles can be ground to make 'recycled glass sand' to replenish beaches. Yes, it's totally safe, and no, it won't cut you.

Finally, UN Environmental Program suggests better pricing and taxing on sand mining to encourage these alternatives. They also recommend an immediate need for creating regulations in all countries, as well as international waters.

Vince Beiser: "The questions isn't 'how can we use less sand?', it's 'How can we use less everything?' Trees, water, fish, we're overusing all of those things, and sand is just another thing we should be adding to the list. Well, we're on track to be a planet of at least 9 billion people in the next 20 years. Most of them are going to want to consume resources the way we do in the Western world, and that is just physically impossible."

If we want to enjoy these things, while still enjoying this thing, we need to protect this thing, before we run out of time.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The world is running out of sand - and there's a black market for it now

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Do you like beaches? Who doesn't!? Well, enjoy them now, because we're using up sand at such an alarming rate, that your favorite shore won't be around much longer. We may see most of California's beaches disappear in our lifetime!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Upcoming Trends in the Industrial Wax Market - Blended Waxes

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In today’s market the wax industry is experiencing a more upward growth trend. Read more about the growth and applications of the wax industry.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
We work with a large variety of metals here at Morecambe Metals, as we specialise in both non-ferrous and ferrous metal recycling. We have talked about some of these metals in the previous article " Different Metals and Their Properties ", but we are now going more in-depth and discussing them in more detail.

After all, it's important to know the properties and uses of a metal to know whether or not it can be recycled! In this article, we are looking into iron.

What is Iron?

First of all, it's important to know what iron really is. This substance has the symbol Fe and the atomic number 26 and is the most common element on Earth by mass, seeing as it constitutes a large part of the planet's core and inner core. Iron is also found in abundance in space and is the last component to be produced with release of energy before the collapse of a supernova.

This element is the fourth most abundant on the Earth's surface, and can be easily found in quarries and mines, for example. It oxidises (or rusts) when it comes into contact with oxygen, so we rarely see it in its pure form because of it; it is also a brittle and hard substance.

Iron oxides can come from hematite, limonite, magnetite, pyrite, goethite, and more, and approximately 90% of all metal that is refined nowadays is iron, which clearly showcases its importance.

History of Iron

It's estimated that people have been using iron for more than 5,000 years. Iron items that can be traced back to around 3,500 BC have been found in Egypt - they contain approximately 7.5% nickel, an indication that they had meteoric origin.

Iron was smelt from its ores around 1,500 BC, which created a stronger metal that offered economic and political power and started the Iron Age.

In 1722, René Antoine Ferchault the Réaumur wrote a book about the different types of iron, and how steel, wrought iron and cast iron could be distinguished by the amount of carbon they possessed. This element was key during the Industrial Revolution, which began soon after, and was vital to the development of machinery, buildings and tools.

What Are the Properties of Iron?

Iron has many properties that make it incredibly useful in a wide range of industries, from metallurgy to recycling. The list below is far from comprehensive, but it does provide insight into some of the properties of iron:

Ferromagnetic ability - this means that iron can form magnets or be attracted to magnets, which means it's easier to separate it from non-ferrous materials.

Softness - one of the most well known mechanical properties of iron is its level of hardness. Iron is a soft metal but, combined with other components, becomes very strong and can be used for a large number of applications and in a variety of sectors.

Low cost - this element is also affordable, making it invaluable for many industries around the world.

Malleability - iron can also deform under pressure, such as hammering, meaning it's easy to work with and shape.

Dissolvable - iron dissolves in dilute acids.

Conductivity - this element is a conductor of electricity and heat and, as mentioned, it's easy to magnetise as well.

Iron Alloys

Iron is a very important and essential substance to our everyday lives (as it's found virtually everywhere), and it's also a vital component of many alloys. Some of the most commonly used iron alloys are:

Steel - the combination of iron and carbon, this material is massively used in construction, weapons and transportation.

Stainless steel - created by the addition of, at least, 10.5% of chromium, stainless steel has extremely high resistance to corrosion, making it the perfect choice for challenging environments.

Carbon steel - this alloy is not too brittle or ductile, is malleable and has low tensile strength.

Cast iron - derived from pig iron and alloyed with carbon (3% to 5%) and silicon, cast iron is lightweight, strong and has good resistant to wear.

Iron and nickel - creates an alloy that is more resistant to heat and acids.

Iron and manganese - this alloy is incredibly durable.

Iron and tungsten - the addition of tungsten to iron makes it an alloy capable of maintaining hardness at high temperatures.

What is Iron Used For in Everyday Life?

Iron, in general, was heavily used for tools and weapons in the past; for example, iron ore that contained vanadium was used to create Damascene steel, perfect for sword-making (if you want more interesting facts about iron, including its role in medieval weaponry, our Game of Tonnes infographic may be right up your alley!).

Nowadays, we tend to use iron to create steel, often used in manufacturing and civil engineering. Stainless steel, which is highly resistant to corrosion, it's commonly used in kitchen cutlery, appliances and cookware - it's also used for hospital equipment.

Uses of iron in daily life include machinery and tools, as well as vehicles, hulls of ships, structural elements for buildings, bridges and aircraft.

Recycling Iron

As we've mentioned in this article, iron is used as a component in vehicles, especially in steel alloys, from cars to ships and airplanes. But can iron be recycled? The answer is yes; recycling your vehicle, including the iron in it, has many environmental benefits.

By doing this, you are actively helping to reduce the use of natural resources, contributing to lower levels of carbon emissions, and reducing the amount of energy needed to make more metal from virgin ore. More specifically, for every tonne of steel recycled, you can save 1.5 tonnes of iron ore, reduce emissions by 86% and reduce water pollution by 76%.

This means that, by scrapping end-of-life vehicles, you are contributing to less air pollution, less water pollution and less mining waste, which means increased sustainability.

At Morecambe Metals, we love everything metal, and we also love recycling it! Being aware of the properties of metals that you make use of in your day-to-day can help you to gain a deeper understanding of their applications and carbon footprint, for example.

This is crucial, especially in a society where sustainability has gained more importance in recent decades. If you have any questions about which metals can be recycled or you're looking to have your vehicle scrapped, get in touch with us today. Alternatively, feel free to follow us on Facebook and LinkedIn to keep on top of our latest news.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
We work with a large variety of metals here at Morecambe Metals, as we specialise in both non-ferrous and ferrous metal recycling. We have talked about some of these metals in the previous article " Different Metals and Their Properties ", but we are now going more in-depth and discussing them in more detail.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Hey! Are shark teeth found in the Gainesville area technically fossils (bone replaced w stone)? I have a bet for a lunch with a buddy regarding this 🙂
- Twitter User

We get questions like this a lot. This question came by tweet. We turned to Richard Hulbert, Florida Museum's vertebrate paleontology collection manager, for a concise answer.

The short version: The shark teeth found in Gainesville creeks are true fossils as that term is used by paleontologists. Most are about 9-10 million years old, and there are a few places where even older specimens, from 18-20 million years old, are found in local creeks.

The long version is a little more technical: After the tooth is shed, or the animal dies and the tooth is buried in sediment at the floor of the ocean, the organic portion decays away, and some, if not all, of the space it occupied is filled with minerals.

Over hundreds to a few thousand years, the original arrangement of the atoms in the crystals changes into a more stable pattern, and during this phase, some replacement of calcium atoms by those of iron, manganese and other elements occurs.

These metallic elements cause the color change observed in most fossils from their appearance in the living animal.

Because the thin outer layer of enamel on the crown of the tooth starts out as nearly 100% mineral, it is less altered than the root portion of the tooth, along with bone and dentin. It still has changed but mostly at the submicroscopic, or atomic level.

For this reason, the enamel portion of a fossil is often a different color than the root or dentin - or bone if the tooth is implanted in a jaw.

So we're not sure who wins the bet. Yes, the shark teeth in the local creeks are true fossils but they have not been 100% replaced with new minerals. Only to a limited degree, and mostly at the atomic level.

More

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Hey! Are shark teeth found in the Gainesville area technically fossils (bone replaced w stone)? I have a bet for a lunch with a buddy regarding this 🙂 - Twitter User We get questions like this a lot. This question came by tweet.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Shifting sands

From Shanghai to Seattle, the world's cities are built on sand - massive amounts of sand. It's in the cement and concrete that make the bulk of most buildings. The glass in those buildings' windows is made with sand, too. So is the tarmac laid onto the roads around them.

Sand is the planet's most mined material, with some 50 billion tons extracted from lakes, riverbeds, coastlines and deltas each year, according to the United Nations Environment Programme. Per person, that's about 6,570 kilogrammes (14,500 pounds) per year - more than an elephant's weight in sand.

Over a year demand is the equivalent of around 6,570 kg per person.

According to the UN, the global daily demand for sand is around 18 kg per person on average.

Demand for sand is only expected to grow, as the global population continues to climb, cities expand and countries further develop. But in much of the world, sand mining faces little to no government scrutiny. There are scant regulations for protecting the environment, or workers' safety. And few entities monitor or document the trade for its impact.

The result is that sand is being extracted far more quickly than it can naturally be replaced. That's causing environmental damage and, in some cases, jeopardising livelihoods.

"This isn't an issue that's relevant for only some places. Sand is a critical material for every country," said ecologist Aurora Torres at the Universite Catholique de Louvain in Belgium. She researches how sand mining can affect both the natural world and people's well-being.

But many people still "don't know about these problems," Torres said. "The number of extraction sites is just huge, which makes it hard to monitor. And we researchers still don't know many things about the magnitude of the impacts."

Demand for sand has surged in the last two decades, thanks to urbanisation and construction in China, India and other fast-developing countries.

In just the last 10 years, China's cities went from housing 51% of the national population to about 60%, according to the National Bureau of Statistics of China. To handle the housing pressure, cities have expanded, adding new structures and building out roads.

China already has used more cement since 2006 than was used in the United States during the entire 20th century.

China is not alone in its drive to build infrastructure and housing. In fact, sand is in such demand that cargoes are regularly shipped around the world. In 2018, those trades were worth some $1.9 billion, according to Harvard's Atlas of Economic Complexity.

The vast majority of mined sand, however, gets used in the country where it was extracted. In parts of Africa, sand mining has helped people build sturdier homes. But in some cases it has also left the ground pocked with open pits, which can fill up in rainy seasons, providing breeding ponds for disease-carrying mosquitoes.

People have suffered directly from illegal activity as well. In India, 193 people died in accidents related to sand mining operations or sites in 2019-2020, according to a January report by the rights group South Asia Network on Dams, Rivers and People. About half of those deaths occurred from drowning in mining pits, including 76 "minor kids or young children or teenagers who entered the river to have a bath, unaware of deep pits in the riverbed".

The right kind of sand

It's hard to imagine a shortage of sand. It covers millions of square kilometers across the world's many deserts, piled in some places into towering dunes.

But desert sand is useless for construction. The wind-weathered grains are too small and smooth for binding in concrete. Sea sand has similar properties from being tossed by ocean currents. But it can be used in land reclamation projects, such as in China, Singapore and Hong Kong.

The sand that's ideally sized, shaped and cut out for construction comes from shorelines and the beds of rivers and lakes. This is also where to find silica sand, which is melted down to make glass for everything from windshields to smartphone screens.

Some countries, including China and the United States, have begun producing "crushed rock" as an alternative, blasting into rock beds and then grinding the rubble down to cement-suitable aggregates. But that requires investment in both equipment and power to run the machinery, which many small, informal mining operations don't have.

Desert sand

Sand grains from the desert are fine and rounded, giving low cohesion if used in concrete.

Sharp sand

Sharper grains, like those from rivers or beaches, have more cohesion and make for a stronger concrete mix.

Scientists have called for a global programme to monitor and manage the industry as a first step to controlling the plunder. Standardising the industry would also mean miners don't have to become criminals to operate.

Experts also note a need for more materials recycling. Already, the mass of all human-made materials is greater than that of all living things on Earth, according to research published in December in the journal Nature.

"Some people talk about a global sand scarcity, which doesn't make sense since we don't have any data that could prove that," said researcher Torres. What's needed is more research to map out where sand exists and determine mining volumes "to ensure supply on an increasingly crowded planet without compromising biodiversity".

SILT, too small

Grains under 0.5mm in diameter are considered silt and are too small

SAND, optimal size

The ideal grain should measure between 0.6mm and 2mm in diameter

PEBBLES, too big

Measuring between 3mm and 64mm, these grains are too big to bind with cement, leaving voids within the concrete mix

SILT

Grains under 0.5mm in diameter are considered silt and are too small

SAND

The ideal grain should measure between 0.6mm and 2mm in diameter

PEBBLES

Measuring between 3mm and 64mm, these grains are too big to bind with cement, leaving voids within the concrete mix

PEBBLES

Measuring between 3mm and 64mm, these grains are too big to bind with cement, leaving voids within the concrete mix

SILT

Grains under 0.5mm in diameter are considered silt and are too small

SAND

The ideal grain should measure between 0.6mm and 2mm in diameter

PEBBLES

Measuring between 3mm and 64mm, these grains are too big to bind with cement, leaving voids within the concrete mix

SILT

Grains under 0.5mm in diameter are considered silt and are too small

SAND

The ideal grain should measure between 0.6mm and 2mm in diameter

Mining hot spots

Sand mining took off only decades ago. The method of extraction depends on where the sand is located. On land or along rivers, it is often dug up with backhoes, shovels or bare hands. Along coastlines, miners use dredging boats or suction pumps.

The damage from sand extraction can be seen clearly in satellite images, with coastlines eroded, ecosystems destroyed, and even entire small islands in Southeast Asia wiped off the map. Rivers can see major environmental disruption, including the erosion of river banks to the point where they collapse, and the destruction of breeding habitats for riverine animals including birds and crocodiles.

Rivers

Small-scale mining operations along Vietnam's Mekong River and its tributaries have robbed the region of sand, while upstream dams prevent it from being replenished. As a result, the delta is sinking about 2 centimetres (0.75 inches) each year, according to local officials and Duong Van Ni, an expert on the Mekong River at the College of Natural Resources Management of Can Tho University, the largest city in the Mekong delta region.

Rapid erosion, meanwhile, is destroying homes and threatening livelihoods across the Southeast Asian country's largest rice-growing region.

The impact of sand mining is clear in this stretch of the Da Dang River, in the Vietnamese province of Lam Dong. River banks have badly degraded over a five-year period, illustrated in these satellite images released by Digital Globe and Airbus and analysed by Earthrise Media.

Da Dang River - Vietnam

Many places around the world bear the scars of rampant sand extraction. In southern India, for example, extensive sand mining along the Palar River fed a construction boom in the city of Chennai. In the images below, the dry, sandy river bed appears to have been scraped and excavated over the years, leaving a large depression now filled with water.

A state court intervened in 2013 to ban mining in the Palar. But that ban expired in 2018.

Palar River - India

Palar River

Palar Anaicut Bridge

200 m

Satellite images: Google, ©2003, 2005, 2014, 2018 Maxar Technologies.

When rivers are dredged, the evidence can be hidden beneath the water until disaster occurs.

Local politicians near India's Phalguni River blame the extraction of sand for undermining the foundations of the Mullarapatna Bridge, causing it to collapse just 30 years after it was built. The bridge was located near Mangaluru in the southern state of Karnataka, one of India's top spots for rampant sand mining, according to the Indian Bureau of Mines.

Mangaluru - India

In the rivers of Azad Kashmir in northern Pakistan, at least seven different sand mining operations can be seen in this satellite snapshot from May last year.

Azad Kashmir - Pakistan

Beaches

Near the southwest Indian town of Alappad, beaches have been eroding gradually for six decades. But sand mining has caused wide stretches to vanish in the last decade alone.

Satellite images from 2003 to 2019 reveal deep cuts into the sand on the beach, as well as watery space where sand, trees and other vegetation were removed entirely.

Alappad - India

Lakes

Just like rivers, freshwater lakes can hold vast amounts of coarse sand, ideal for construction. One of the most obvious examples of sand extraction is in Poyang Lake, the largest freshwater lake in China, located in Jiangxi Province.

The lake's inflow and outflow of water have been disrupted in recent years by sand mining, as well as by dams and landscape changes. In 2020 the lake filled to its highest recorded level, prompting authorities to declare a "red alert" as flooding threatened surrounding areas.

This 2017 image of just a portion of the lake shows dozens of ships dredging sand or carrying it away.

Poyang Lake - China

At sea

Since June, Chinese dredgers have swarmed around the Taiwan-administered Matsu Islands, dropping anchor and scooping up vast amounts of sand from the ocean bed for land reclamation projects in China.

Aside from Matsu, where 13,300 people live, Taiwan's coast guard says China also has been dredging in the shallow waters near the median line of the Taiwan Strait, which has long served as an unofficial buffer separating China and Taiwan.

Last year, Taiwan expelled nearly 4,000 Chinese sand-dredgers and sand-transporting vessels from waters under its control, most of them in the area close to the median line, according to the coast guard. That's a 560% surge from the 600 Chinese vessels repelled in all of 2019.

Chinese sand mining vessels
expelled from Taiwanese waters

At one point last year, more than 200 Chinese sand-dredging and transport boats were spotted operating south of Nangan, the main Matsu islet, three Taiwanese officials told Reuters. Lin Chie-ming, the coast guard commander, recalled encountering a similar scene with about 100 Chinese boats on Oct. 25. His team expelled seven Chinese vessels that breached Matsu waters that day.

Matsu Islands - Taiwan

While scientists advocate for more oversight of the sand industry, and more effort by industries to recycle old materials, they are also exploring other solutions.

Two years ago, a group of researchers noted that, as climate change speeds the melting of ice in Greenland, more water is flowing toward the ocean carrying sediments that are deposited at the coastline - sediments that could potentially be used in the island's construction industry or sold to boost the Greenland economy.

Within days of the study's publication in the journal Nature, Greenland's politicians "decided they wanted to investigate this", said co-author Mette Bendixen, who researches how climate change is impacting the Arctic landscape at the University of Colorado Boulder's Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research.

It's still unclear if the sand is even suitable for construction. Bendixen tried once to row out in a dinghy to collect samples, but turned back after getting caught in the currents.

But while mining Arctic sand might help Greenlanders, it's far from a solution to meet the global sand appetite. "The key is really to find ways to monitor the way we're using sand right now," she said.

By

Marco Hernandez, Simon Scarr and Katy Daigle

Editing by

Kenneth Maxwell

Sources:

Earthrise Media; Maxar Technologies; Airbus; Landsat, NASA.
U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
U.S. Geological Survey.
National Bureau of Statistics of China.
China's Ministry of Natural Resources.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Shifting sands From Shanghai to Seattle, the world's cities are built on sand - massive amounts of sand. It's in the cement and concrete that make the bulk of most buildings. The glass in those buildings' windows is made with sand, too. So is the tarmac laid onto the roads around them.