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Here is my causal loop diagram. This diagram shows how ocean pollution leads to rising sea levels which lead to the islands disappearing. Because the islands are disappearing, as much as 10% of the population has fled. Those that have left continue to support their families on the islands.

This brings us back to ocean pollution since travel and waste contribute to the climate issue. Ocean pollution is also causing dying ecosystems, mainly the coral reefs upon which the islands were built. Because the islands were built on hard corals, the soil is incredibly porous and is nutrient deficient. This leads us to limited agriculture which also leads residents to relying on imported goods.

This once again brings us back to ocean pollution, which contributes to a lack of fresh water, which also contributes to the islands' limited agriculture. As groundwater becomes overly salinated, residents rely on caught rainwater as the only natural source of clean water available to them. As the groundwater becomes salinated and the islands continue to flood, the soil becomes poisoned by sodium and is less capable of producing healthy foods.

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What can be done to save Tuvalu from climate change?

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What can be done to save Tuvalu from climate change?

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According to the Borgen Project, we can help Tuvalu as well.

We can encourage our local representatives to support cutting carbon emissions. Cut down on our own personal waste and help keep the oceans clean. Donate supplies to Tuvalu such as water and emergency kits. Last, spread the word and continue taking climate change seriously.

Sources: https://borgenproject.org/how-to-help-people-in-tuvalu/
https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2018/08/a-visit-to-tuvalu-surrounded-by-the-rising-pacific/567622/

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What makes Tuvalu susceptible to climate change?

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What makes Tuvalu susceptible to climate change?

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The islands of Tuvalu as mentioned before, are very low lying. The highest point on any of the islands is no more than 3-4 meters high. The country is also incredibly isolated as it sits almost evenly between Australia and Hawaii. At the widest, Tuvalu reaches 200 meters. The islands also have very little natural resources, some of which are being destroyed by erosion and salination.

Other natural events such as high tides and seasonal hurricanes are known to inflict irreparable damage every year.

Sources: https://www.adaptation-undp.org/explore/polynesia/tuvalu
https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2018/08/a-visit-to-tuvalu-surrounded-by-the-rising-pacific/567622/

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How this potential climate disaster ended up empowering women and girls.

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How this potential climate disaster ended up empowering women and girls.

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The Tuvalu Costal Adaptation Project is using climate change to empower girls and women who live on the islands. This project has helped clean and protect the island from pollution and climate related disasters, and it does so by aiming to empower women by educating them and teaching them important skills in order to maintain jobs. The project also works as a bridge between the government and the island citizens in order to create change in multiple facets of island life in Tuvalu.

Source: https://www.adaptation-undp.org/Tuvalu-Coastal-Adaptation-Project-empowering-women-and-girls

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Over the past years, there has been a great shift in the roles of Tuvaluan women at home, in the community, and at the national and international levels. Now, women are engaged as lawyers, magistrates, patrol boat pilots, and carpenters. They hold more than 40 percent of top government positions. They also successfully run their own businesses or alongside their husbands and families.

Spaces have opened up in workplaces that allow women to progress, while opportunities have emerged for them to be involved in economic empowerment activities in Funafuti, a hub for domestic migration. Meanwhile, on the islands, Falekaupule (traditional assemblies of elders) and Kaupule (island councils) are increasingly progressive - women clan heads now join Falekaupule meetings.

Men are taking part in chores that used to be solely carried out by women. Many are superheroes in looking after children, cooking, weaving and sewing. Thus, sharing roles and responsibilities in Tuvalu is less frequently a gendered source of conflict.

Despite these positive developments, there are still opportunities to enhance equality and women's empowerment in Tuvalu. At the macro government level, this can be achieved by raising awareness of gender issues; integrating women and their concerns into policymaking and on-the-ground program implementation; and by consulting widely and hearing diverse voices.

Temoulima, 30, from Nanumaga said in her island, there have been big changes in household roles and responsibilities relative to 10 years ago. Traditionally, men hardly washed dishes or clothes, and never cooked, though they have held certain roles in the home - feeding pigs, cutting toddies and fishing while women do domestic chores, weave mats, or make handicrafts for a living. Nowadays, you can see men helping women with cooking, washing and even with weaving. "There is a big change in men and women's roles in our community, including in decision-making: in the past, island leaders made final decisions without getting women's views. Now, they more widely take into account women's and other views in island development plans."
How the Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project is empowering women and girls
Aimed at increasing resilience to climate change by enhancing coastal protection on the islands of Funafuti, Nanumaga and Nanumea, the Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project (TCAP) has a strong focus on inclusion, with gender equality considerations built into its initial design, and an ongoing Gender Strategy and Action Plan in place. Principles of meaningful participation and responsibilities underpin TCAP with local knowledge and skills-building as two key elements.

Since its inception, TCAP has undertaken discussions with government entities on maximizing women's participation in the project. While discussions were fruitful, they highlighted some gaps: a need for greater understanding of gender work, training on gender mainstreaming, and improved consideration on gender issues in work undertaken.

To address the issues, the project has implemented strategies including engaging government partners, implementation operators and civil society in gender empowerment programs; aligning with Tuvalu's national government policies and strategies on gender; conducting assessments of conditions that affect gender-responsive project design; integrating gender considerations into the project indicators, targets and activities; and facilitating women's participation in areas where women are under-represented.

Key stakeholders, including youth, have been consulted on issues to be addressed when it comes to women and men working together on-the-ground.

Consultations with project stakeholders highlighted the importance of equitable distribution of roles and responsibilities and resolving conflicts without gender bias. Coordinator of Tuvalu's National Youth Council, Nanoua Lilivau Ewekia, emphasized that training in mutually respectful behavior would also be important on construction sites where men and women will work alongside each other.

" Traditionally, we do not involve women and girls in hard labor, that's why their role is to do chores in the house and weaving and handicraft work. As society and life changes, and the capacity of women and girls expands, the council agrees they may be trained to drive machinery while men concentrate on [coastal protection] construction work." - Taukimua Tipeni, Assistant Secretary to Nanumaga Kapule
Creating opportunities
When it comes to economic opportunities, TCAP is seeking to create short- and medium-term jobs for local labor, especially youth and women.

Short-term openings will be created during the construction of coastal protection measures. Further jobs will also be created after construction, with monitoring and maintenance needs to be filled by local labor (financed by island administrations). Six individuals for each of the three targeted islands will be trained for this purpose.

In total, the project is expected to create more than 100 short- and medium-term jobs, with a target of 50-50 gender balance. While positions will be open to anyone who wishes to apply, youth and women's groups will be given priority. This will provide formal employment and cash-income opportunities for low-skilled and vulnerable people and have a substantial impact on the unemployment rate of Tuvalu, currently around 8.4 percent.

As well as training women in relevant skills, including commanding machinery, TCAP will also present women with opportunities to boost their income in relation to existing enterprise, for example selling handicrafts and traditional food. The project's proposed participation of women in some activities, and to take on additional responsibilities, will directly lead to increased economic opportunities, an important condition for gender equality.

" Once the dredging of sand starts, women who make traditional necklaces with shells will have the opportunity to collect more shells and businesses selling necklaces will be boosted. The last time sand was dredged, new shells were found, prompting women to create new kinds of traditional necklaces. As such, I believe women will be looking forward to collecting more shells following dredging. " - Apiseka Fousaga, female representative from Funafuti Council

" With the arrival of contractors working on TCAP construction sites, we will have the opportunity to cook and sell food, while also offering them the opportunity to taste traditional food. Alongside selling traditional handicrafts, it will provide revenue to our families, as few of us will work on construction. " - Akoakoga Kalala, Nanumea island

Meanwhile, TCAP's scholarship programme which started in 2018 is designed to support local students to study disciplines such as environmental science, civil and coastal engineering, and meteorology aims for equal representation. So far, the programme has placed two female recipients at universities abroad, including Lisepa Fianta Seve Paeniu, who is enrolled to study environmental law at the University of New South Wales in Australia once the COVID-19 restriction is lifted.

Capacity development for government partners, anticipated to commence in 2021 aims to ensure equal opportunity for male and female officers to be trained in coastal monitoring processes, coastal assessments (including hazard & risk assessment), and data processing and analysis.

A TCAP gender mainstreaming training and consultation workshop included a wide range of government, NGO and community representatives. More than 60 percent of the 24 participants were women. Exercises on gender roles highlighted how traditionally-defined roles, for example in fishing and other activities, have changed, along with shifts in household dynamics and employment.

Increasingly, Tuvaluan women are utilizing their capabilities across a range of areas. Projects such as TCAP can help drive that process, supporting women to engage, but also working with women and men to see the benefits of inclusive development.

Current and future generations of women and girls - and society at large - stand to benefit.

*****
About the Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project With US$36 million financing from the Green Climate Fund and US$2.9 million co-financing from the Government of Tuvalu, the 7-year Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project will contribute to strengthening the resilience of one of the world's most vulnerable countries to climate change and sea-level rise. Implemented by the UN Development Programme in partnership with the Government, the project will improve coastal protection in key locations on the islands of Funafuti, Nanumea and Nanumaga. While new measures will act as a buffer during storms, the project also strives to build the capacity of national and island governments and local communities in adapting to climate change in the longer term. Learn more at TCAP.tv

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Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project empowering women and girls

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By Puanita Ewekia, Communications Officer, Tuvalu Coastal Adaptation Project Over the past years, there has been a great shift in the roles of Tuvaluan women at home, in the community, and at the national and international levels. Now, women are engaged

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Why does 10% of the population live overseas?

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Why does 10% of the population live overseas?

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As sea levels rise, corals die, and soil and water become over salinated, many who live on the Tuvalu Islands are fleeing.  Unsure about the future of the islands combined with a lack of jobs, and many other socioeconomic issues, some residents of the islands are leaving for places such as New Zealand, Australia, and Hawaii.

Many times they leave for school or work opportunities and send help to their families still on the islands. The families on the islands rely on this help.

The average family size is six people. Many on the outer islands of Tuvalu also live in multi-generational homes. As jobs and other money making opportunities becomes more scarce, residents are choosing to either move to Funafuti, which already holds about 50% of the total population of Tuvalu, or they can leave.

Source: https://borgenproject.org/facts-about-tuvalu-refugees/

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It isn't only the government in Tuvalu fighting against pollution.

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It isn't only the government in Tuvalu fighting against pollution.

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Miriama Uluiviti Taukiei is the Waste Operational Officer in Tuvalu. Her goal is to have a plastic use tax implemented and eventually lead to a complete plastic ban in the Tuvalu islands.

According to Miriama, Tuvalu doesn't have a landfill or adequate recycling plant so a lot of the waste produced on the islands ends up right in the ocean. While clean up efforts help highlight the problem trash is creating, if they don't work to end the cause of the problem, it'll only continue to get worse.

Source: https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2019/05/31/meet-the-innovator-battling-plastic-waste-in-tuvalu-miriama-uluiviti-taukiei

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Miriama Uluiviti Taukiei is working towards an innovative plastic waste tax and a complete single-use plastic ban with the Department of Waste Management in Tuvalu. Tuvalu is an atoll nation of limited landmass, making waste and plastic management very difficult. The waste tax will ensure producers contribute to the removal of all the plastic waste they import.
Tell us about yourself, and your work.
My name is Miriama Uluiviti Taukiei, I'm 32 years old, married and have 3 handsome boys. I am the Waste Operational Officer on Funafuti. I deal with the waste operations for the whole of Tuvalu - Funafuti and the outer island. I design waste plans, and manage waste collection, recycling, composting, and mechanical maintenance.
How is plastic waste an issue for oceans/waterways in Tuvalu?
The plastic problem is a big issue in Tuvalu. Plastics are consumed by all living things in the ocean and that affects the food chain and sometimes we find fish and turtles that have died from the plastics they have consumed.

Since we don't have a well-operated landfill, the plastics from our dump site sometimes blow out into the ocean. We are working towards plans and ideas to rehabilitate the dump site to better compact and bury all our waste.

Last year we organized a program for children to paddle to an islet to do a cleanup campaign and we collected 25 bags of JUST plastic bottles and bags.

We could just keep doing clean up campaigns on the islands to remove waste - but at the dump site there is a lack of equipment, a lack of land and a lack of topsoil to cover the waste. So this is a huge issue. We are trying to battle this issue and we have a lot of work to do to find a solution to this.
What solutions are you working towards in Tuvalu?
Plastic is one of the fastest growing threats to our oceans. Since marine pollution originates on land this requires a solution that will focus on the plastic life cycle, so we need to emphasize this problem and get it solved as soon as possible - the best way to do that is through the single-use plastic ban.

Our single use plastic ban is currently with the Attorney General and before August we should have banned all single use plastic coming into the country.

We're also working on a waste tax, meaning every item that comes into the country will have a tax attached to it that will be used at the end of the life of the item to take it from Tuvalu to wherever it can be recycled.

The department is also working on a recycling station, clean up campaigns on the islands to remove waste with students, youths and communities, and we are leading awareness and education programs in schools that show the effects of not handling plastic waste properly.

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Meet the Innovator Battling Plastic Waste in Tuvalu: Miriama Uluiviti Taukiei

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Miriama Uluiviti Taukiei is working towards an innovative plastic waste tax and a complete single-use plastic ban with the Department of Waste Management in Tuvalu. Tuvalu is an atoll nation of limited landmass, making waste and plastic management very difficult. The waste tax will ensure producers contribute to the removal of all the plastic waste they import.

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Between January and March each year, Tuvalu becomes terribly flooded during high tide. It's reported by the residents of Tuvalu that the water comes up from the ground and covers even the airstrip at times. They also claim, it's only getting worse.

As sea levels rise, more and more of the shoreline in the islands disappears. With it, they risk having their farmlands poisoned by salt water and potentially their groundwater sources as well.

A study done in 2018 however, says that the size of the islands is actually increasing as the coral reefs adapt to rising sea levels. This could spell good news for the future of the islands. However, this good news won't slow down the Tuvalu Islands Government in their cries for help to end this climate crisis.

Source: https://www.cnn.com/interactive/2019/05/world/tuvalu-climate-change-cnnphotos/

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Tuvalu: Sea Level Rise in the Pacific, Loss of Land and Culture

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According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, coral reefs are like the rain forests of the Ocean. Reefs provide homes and protection for all kinds of sea-life. The Papahānaumokuākea National Marine Monument, in Hawaii for example, supports more than 7,000 ocean life species.

Coral also have a symbiotic relationship with some types of algae. The algae in question, zooxanthellae, uses the coral as a safe environment in order to photosynthesize. The coral also provides certain compounds needed for the algae to do so. In return, the algae provides the coral with carbohydrates and oxygen, while removing coral waste.

If the coral reef which contains the Tuvalu islands dies, the islands may not recover.

Source: https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/marine-life/coral-reef-ecosystems

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According to gadder.org, the Tuvalu islands were formed on a rigid framework of coral reefs. These reefs were constructed utilizing hermatypic corals. Hermatypic corals are corals that deposit hard calcareous material, and are considered "hard" corals.

Coral reefs also never break the water surface, therefore the islands are formed by sand and debris that has been pushed upwards from the tides. This creates an above water "land" area that can be inhabited by humans.

The survivability of the Tuvalu islands greatly depends on the health of the coral reefs that make up the base of the islands. Unfortunately the coral in question have been undergoing coral bleaching due to pollution.

Sources: https://www.gfdrr.org/sites/default/files/documents/Kayanne_et_al_2014_The%20Coastal%20Ecosystem%20in%20Tuvalu%20and%20Geo-ecological%20Management%20against%20Sea-Level%20Rise.pdf
https://coralreef.noaa.gov/education/coralfacts.html

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To put it simply, and atoll is a "ring shaped coral reef" that surrounds a lagoon. These lagoons are typically shallow, and this is the last stage of an evolving coral reef. About 500 atolls exist on Earth. About 400 hundred exist in the Pacific Ocean alone, and nine of those make up the Tuvalu islands.

Source: https://www.gfdrr.org/sites/default/files/documents/Kayanne_et_al_2014_The%20Coastal%20Ecosystem%20in%20Tuvalu%20and%20Geo-ecological%20Management%20against%20Sea-Level%20Rise.pdf

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Khaled bin Sultan Living Oceans Foundation

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Due to the effects of climate change on the islands, the Tuvalu government decided to "develop indigenous forms of energy" and put and emphasis on sustainable practices. Tuvalu used to gain their energy from sources such as fossil fuels. With the increasing costs of importing fuel, a lack of reliability,  and associated pollution, Tuvalu needed a change.

On February 21, 2008 the e8 Tuvalu Solar Power Project was launched in Funafuti. Funafuti is located on the island of Fongafale which is a 3km^2 coral island. Funafuti is also home to about half of Tuvalu's total population, one airstrip, and is the hub of government offices.

Source: https://www.globalelectricity.org/content/uploads/Tuvalu_Solar_Power_Project_FINAL.pdf

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Access to electricity and energy uses in Tuvalu.

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Access to electricity and energy uses in Tuvalu.

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According to worldbank.org, it wasn't until 2019 that Tuvalu could provide electricity to 100% of its population. Even still, only the island of Funafuti has reliable and consistent access. The other islands experience blackout related to a lack of an efficient fuel/energy source.

Luckily the government in Tuvalu is committed to growing their use of solar and wind power, as part of an effort to save their islands from climate change. They're also committed to sustainable farming practices and work to raise awareness about the likelihood that someday Tuvalu might not exist.

Sources: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?end=2019&locations=TV&start=2002&view=chart
https://www.globalelectricity.org/content/uploads/Tuvalu_Solar_Power_Project_FINAL.pdf

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Soil quality and why it matters in Tuvalu.

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Soil quality and why it matters in Tuvalu.

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The soil in the Tuvalu islands is considered porous and makes agriculture difficult. According to pacificwater.org, the soils in the islands are made up of the surrounding corrals and skeletal reef material. This makes the soil fairly carbonate and nutrient deficient. Because the islands stretch out over a large area the soils on the islands vary some. Different types of soils include light soils, dark soils, phosphatic soils, soils of the Pulaka pit, mangrove muck, saline soils, and air field soils.

Because the islands are so low, when tides become high groundwater resources can more easily become polluted or salinated. This causes the water to become non-potable, but can also lead to the already nutrient lacking soil to become salinated as well.

According to the Borgen Project, due to the harsh agricultural climate nearly 62% of children under the age of five were considered anemic in 2007. This was caused by fruits and vegetable grown on the island being nutrient deficient. As the country became even more dependent on imported food inflation also hiked considerably in 2008.

In order to combat high prices and such a high reliance on imported goods, the government in Tuvalu started focusing on bringing subsistence farming back to the countries islands. With rising tides and a disappearing shoreline though, more will need to be done for the islands of Tuvalu to continue on.

Sources: https://borgenproject.org/sustainable-agriculture-in-tuvalu/
http://www.pacificwater.org/userfiles/file/GEF%20IWRM%20Final%20Docs/SOPAC%20Diagnostic%20Report%20Tuvalu%2022_10_07.pdf

For more information, attached is an article which talks about what soil salinity is and why it's harmful.

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Salinization of soil negatively impacts plant development and induces land degradation. Saline earths show lower agricultural productivity, worsen farmers' wellbeing, and the economic situation in the region.
Managing soil salinity at early stages helps to reverse it. However, heavy contamination leads to complete loss of farmlands and desertification due to the negative effect of salinity on soil properties. The United Nations University states that about 5,000 acres have been lost daily all over the world because of salinization since the 1990s, as of 2014. In this regard, the problem requires immediate addressing.

What Is Soil Salinization?

Salinization of soil is an excessive accumulation of water-soluble salts. Typically, it is table salt NaCl. The list is far more extensive and includes various compounds of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfates, chlorides, carbohydrates, and bicarbonates. In general, salt-affected earths are categorized as saline, sodic and saline-sodic, depending on the content.

The major soil salinity effect on plant growth is tampering with water absorption. Even with sufficient soil moisture, crops wade and die due to the inability to take up enough water. At a global span, according to the report of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) of 2018:

about 190 million acres are completely lost;

150 million acres are damaged;

2.5 billion acres are impacted by salinization.

What Causes Soil Salinization?

Soil salinization occurs when soluble salts are retained in the earth. It happens either naturally or because of improper anthropogenic activities, particularly farming practices. Besides, some earths are initially saline due to low salt dissolution and removal. Soil salinization causes include:

dry climates and low precipitations when excessive salts are not flushed from the earth;

high evaporation rate, which adds salts to the ground surface;

poor drainage or waterlogging when salts are not washed due to a lack of water transportation;

irrigation with salt-rich water, which amplifies salt content in earths;

removal of deep-rooted vegetation and a raised water table as a consequence;

leakage from geological deposits and penetration into groundwater;

sea-level rise when sea salts seep into lower lands;

breezes in the coastal areas that blow salty air masses to the nearby territories;

seawater submergence followed by salt evaporation;

inappropriate application of fertilizers when excess nitrification accelerates soil salinization.

Indicators Of Soil Salinity

Salinization can be noticed visually by analyzing the soil surface, speed of water infiltration, and vegetation state. As salinization proceeds, signs get more severe. For example, slight whitening on the surface changes into distinct salt crystals. Apart from visual changes, there are indirect indicators of extra salt concentration. These are poorer water quality or animal behavior when livestock refuses to drink water due to its salty taste.

Surface Changes Because Of Salinization

damp areas and waterlogging;

ground whitening at early stages and salt crystals at late ones;

increased water level in furrows;

bare soils (where plants fail to grow due to salinization);

deterioration of roads, buildings, etc.;

white or dark circles around water bodies.

Salinization-Related Indicators In Vegetation

plant withering;

crop loss;

reduction of biodiversity;

appearance of salt-tolerant plants in the area and their further dominance.

Soil Salinity Measurement

Apart from visual estimation, there are more reliable methods to measure soil salinity, e.g., to assess the earth's electric conductivity with specific devices. With a rise of salt concentration in the solution, its conductivity rises, too. Other types of soil salinity tests find out the exchangeable sodium percentage or sodium absorption ratio.

Besides laboratory tests, salinization is estimated on farmlands or remotely. Salinity sensors are used for monitoring surface soil salinity in the field. Satellites retrieve data with SWIR and NIR bands for remote sensing analytics of water absorption and its possible correlation with salinity.

Adverse Effects Of Salinization

Soil salinization consequences are far from positive, covering multiple aspects of ecology and human life. It affects crop production and water supply industries, induces the risk of floods and soil erosion, and decreases biodiversity.

Agricultural Production

Water saturation in plants depends on the level of salts in groundwater and the plant itself. Water is absorbed in the process of osmosis and flows from less salt-concentrated areas to more concentrated ones. When the salt concentration is too high, it means that the soil's osmotic potential is essentially negative. Plants suffer from osmotic stress when they fail to take up water, even when it is present in the soil. Basically, the process is similar to drought stress due to a lack of moisture in the ground. As a result, vegetation dies. Salinization tampers with nitrogen uptake too, which slows plant development and causes a yield loss.

Another soil salinity effect on agriculture is ionic stress due to harmful ions in soil salts, e.g., chloride or sodium. Apart from their toxic impact as such, these positively charged ions impede the acquisition of other positively charged ions vital for crop growth (particularly potassium and calcium). The result is the same as with osmotic stress due to salinization - vegetation dies.

EOSDA Crop Monitoring

Fields analytics based on high-resolution satellite images to track all the changes on-the-spot!

Water Quality

The problem with salinization is that salts not only accumulate in earths but penetrate to initially fresh water bodies as well, leading to their salinization. It deteriorates drinking and irrigation water and adds to further salinization of drylands.

The Colorado River basin is one of the most affected areas in the world. The river salinity grew twice during the last 60 years in Colorado, Arizona, Utah, California, Wyoming, and New Mexico. The impact is multifold:

contaminates farmlands;

deprives river species of their natural habitats;

spoils the taste of drinking water for humans and domestic animals;

reduces access to fresh water for grazing cattle;

deteriorates adjusting constructions (concrete, wood, metal, etc.).

Biodiversity

While non-saline soils do not affect crops, strongly saline ones are suitable only for salt-tolerant species and halophytes. Thus, salinization reduces ecosystem varieties and threatens their normal conditions to exist. A reduction of flora diversity inevitably causes a reduction of fauna as well by shortening food chains and areas of habitats. Salinization reduces biodiversity in rivers or fresh-water lakes, shortening aquatic populations solely to salt-tolerant species.

Soil salinization effects refer to crop diversity and, correspondingly, food variety as farmers are forced to produce plants that can survive in salty earths.

Soil Erosion

Soil salinization is a serious problem itself, but it rarely comes alone. Salinity causes continuous wetness of land surface and a lack of cover due to poor plant growing conditions. These make lands highly prone to erosion.

Flood Risk

Water table rise due to salinization reduces the earth's ability for water infiltration. With heavy rainfalls or river flooding, soils cannot cope with high amounts of water flows. Thus, insufficient absorption results in runoffs and floods. Strong water currents ruin constructions, damage farmlands, increase sedimentation, and contaminate aquatic bodies.

Soil Salinity Control And Prevention

The best way to deal with soil salinization is not to let it happen. In case it did, it is important to eradicate the problem - the sooner, the better, before the consequences get too severe. So, soil salinization solutions deal with prevention and management.

How To Prevent Soil Salinization?

Soil salinization prevention bases on avoiding excessive salt penetration. Even though plants require a certain amount of salts to develop, their needs are small compared to the content in salt-affected soils. Here are some typical methods to prevent soil salinization:

Optimize irrigation (reduce salty water usage, implement drip irrigation, use desalinated, recycled, rain-harvested water, and don't overirrigate).

Add organic matter and manure to keep moisture and reduce irrigation.

Restrain from deep tillage/heavy machinery not to transfer soil salts to the root zone area, which induces salinization.

Use cover crops or mulch to protect the ground surface.

As a preventative measure, EOSDA Crop Monitoring allows tracking the vegetation state in the field and identifying areas with sparse vegetation or bare ground surface. Timely scouting of such zones enables farmers to understand and eradicate the root cause, tackling the issue before it gets too severe.

How To Reduce Soil Salinity?

There are several techniques to tackle salinization and improve agricultural productivity:

Increase drainage for better flushing (to remove salts from the ground surface).

Plant salt-tolerant crops to manage economic risks and to ensure land cover.

Remove salt crystals from the surface mechanically.

Restore the balance via chemical amendmentsSalinity amendments. Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California. (e.g., gypsum or sulfuric acid).

Pre-treat seeds with NaCl to promote seed germinationCao, Yiqin et al. "Pretreatment with NaCl Promotes the Seed Germination of White Clover by Affecting Endogenous Phytohormones, Metabolic Regulation, and Dehydrin-Encoded Genes Expression under Water Stress." International journal of molecular sciences vol. 19,11 3570. 12 Nov. 2018, doi:10.3390/ijms19113570 .

Reduce evaporation with mulch or crop residue.

Grow crops that can absorb moisture properly to avoid prolonged wetness of lands.

Apply fertilizers rationally, as an overuse of certain chemicals promote salinization.

EOSDA Crop Monitoring may assist the process of reducing soil salinity. Shallow-rooted plants may not reach subsoil moisture, and extra subsoil moisture may induce salinity. EOSDA Crop Monitoring provides reports on surface soil moisture and root-zone moisture, facilitating the choice of crops for planting in the exact areas.

Differentiated fertilization thanks to the zoning feature on EOSDA Crop Monitoring mitigates the risks of salinization due to excessive chemicals application. It assists in applying chemicals in the amounts a separate field area requires: no more, no less. Smart zoning calculates vegetation maps and productivity maps.

Vegetation maps show the current difference in vegetation health dividing the field by zones. Detecting insufficient crop growth, farmers can distribute fertilizer application depending on the area's need, putting more where vegetation is low and less where vegetation is high. This way, they avoid excessive fertilization and reduce costs.

Productivity maps analyze the historical field productivity in the selected period of time and help to make necessary amendments with potassium and phosphorus, taking into account vegetation needs in each particular zone.

EOSDA Crop Monitoring is useful during the plant choice at the sowing stage, fertilizer distribution, and through-season vegetation cover monitoring, thus contributing to soil salinity management in agriculture. EOSDA Crop Monitoring performs big data analytics to assess crop health at different stages of plant growth, keeping a keen eye on the fields and alerting farmers to dangers. Agribusiness with precision farming software gets easier.

1. Salinity amendments. Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California.

2. Cao, Yiqin et al. "Pretreatment with NaCl Promotes the Seed Germination of White Clover by Affecting Endogenous Phytohormones, Metabolic Regulation, and Dehydrin-Encoded Genes Expression under Water Stress." International journal of molecular sciences vol. 19,11 3570. 12 Nov. 2018, doi:10.3390/ijms19113570Google Scholar Article

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Soil Salinization: How To Prevent And Manage Its Effects

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Salinization of soil negatively impacts plant development and induces land degradation. Saline earths show lower agricultural productivity, worsen farmers' wellbeing, and the economic situation in the region. Managing soil salinity at early stages helps to reverse it. However, heavy contamination leads to complete loss of farmlands and desertification due to the negative effect of salinity on soil properties.

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What are the physical parameters of the Tuvalu Watershed?

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What are the physical parameters of the Tuvalu Watershed?

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According to pacificwater.org, Tuvalu has a land mass of about 26km^2 spread out over roughly 1.2m km^2 of the Pacific Ocean. The islands of Tuvalu exist in a tropical and humid climate. With most of its rainfall occurring between November and February, the islands average about 100-125 inches of rain every year. Throughout the year, temperatures on the islands also remain high and consistent staying within the 80's degrees fahrenheit.

Along with a hot and humid atmosphere, there is also a small amount of potable water. None of the Islands have rivers, and the groundwater they do have is limited. According to the Australian Bureau of Meteorology and CSIRO, air and sea temperatures have been rising since at least the 1950's and they are continued to do so. This will further exacerbate their lack of potable water. As temperatures rise, more water will evaporate and leave the ocean waters more salinated.

More salivation will become a problem in Tuvalu because many of their groundwater sources are already becoming polluted. This will also continue to harm to coral reefs that are central to not only the construction of the islands, but the local ecosystems as well.

If sea levels continue to rise, Tuvalu will soon become uninhabitable and may eventually disappear entirely.

Sources: https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/SubmissionsStaging/NationalReports/Documents/7190452_Tuvalu-NC2-1-Tuvalu%20%20SNC%20Final%20Report.pdf
http://www.pacificwater.org/userfiles/file/GEF%20IWRM%20Final%20Docs/SOPAC%20Diagnostic%20Report%20Tuvalu%2022_10_07.pdf
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/may/16/one-day-disappear-tuvalu-sinking-islands-rising-seas-climate-change

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As mentioned in the previous post, Tuvalu is made up of eight small islands in Oceana. The islands are made up of atolls and reef islands. Atolls have islets that circle a shallow lagoon. Reef islands are compact with a fringing reef. Fringing reefs, according to coral.org  "grow near the coastline around islands and continents. They are separated from the shore by narrow, shallow lagoons."

The islands are very low sitting in between 13-16 inches above sea level. There are also no rivers so, their access to freshwater is limited to rainfall and wells. Rainfall averages between 100-125 inches of rain each year. The average daily temperature reaches around 80-85 °F.

Soil on the islands is porous so agriculture is incredibly limited. They are able to grow coconut palms, bananas, breadfruit, and taro. They also farm and fish. However, as time goes on they rely more and more on imported goods.

As of 2020, the population of the islands is estimated to be about 10,400
people. Much of this population lives in extended family homes on the outer lying islands. They work on subsistence farms and rely on family living overseas for assistance. About one-third of the population lives on Funafuti, which is their center of commerce and government, and is also the only island with consistent electricity. Total population growth has been slowed due to family planning practices and the life expectancy is about 60 years. Last, about 10% of the population lives overseas.

Tuvalu's main trade partners include Japan, Fiji, Australia, and New Zealand. Seaplanes are occasionally used for travel between islands, and few people have access to vehicles. Vehicles that do exist are most commonly motorcycles.

Other details about Tuvalu include their use of Australian and their own currency. The first settlers of Tuvalu are likely Samoans, later they were colonized by the British. In 1978 Tuvalu gained its independence from Britain.

Sources: https://www.britannica.com/place/Tuvalu/History
https://www.britannica.com/place/Funafuti-Atoll

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Tuvalu: a tiny nation taking on Australia and the world to fight climate change | The World

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Tuvalu, formerly known as Ellice Islands, is located in the Pacific Ocean near Fiji and the Solomon Islands. Similarly to its neighbors, Tuvalu is comprised of many small islands. Tuvalu, is made up of nine small islands that span about 420 miles.

Sources: https://www.britannica.com/place/Tuvalu/History
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