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Amphibians are species that migrate to their nesting areas. In Switzerland, about 5 million amphibians migrate at the end of winter. The flow of amphibian is therefore quite massive. As discussed earlier, Switzerland’s plateau (400-1200m) is highly fragmented due to agriculture and urbanization. Therefore, amphibians must cross a considerable number of roads. In addition, the end of winter means returning outside. Therefore, the traffic is probably more intense in spring than in winter. Overall, this migration exposes amphibian species to death. “Ok, but why protecting amphibians?” Amphibians are well studied organisms, and todays research shows that these species are excellent environmental indicators. In addition, they are mesopredators (predators and prey). Therefore, this position in the food chain has an importance: the population of species, above or bottom in the food chain, are dependent of these mesopredators. A drastic change in amphibians might lead to irreversible changes in other species.

ProNatura is an organization built to protect Swiss biodiversity. It has projects within the entire country. One of them is the protection of amphibian migration. They focus efforts on building tunnels for amphibians to cross roads, but also monitor species at the same time. However, tunnels are not always easy to build with national authorities.

To avoid amphibians to cross the road, we install barriers for amphibians on the side of the roads. Thus, during migration, a high concentration of amphibians is found near the roads. Our volunteers goal is to pick up the amphibians into buckets, count them, identify the species, sex ratio and other features, then release them on the other side of the road. This is a simple task, consequently brining an interesting scientific approach as a volunteer. Knowledge about frog, toad, newts and salamander species is acquired during this volunteer work. We will attend school (awareness at the youngest age), college and universities, and the public for them to volunteer in this project. This broad spectrum of people with bring volunteers but also awareness about the herpetofauna and their value to biodiversity.

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In others work, the main focus is usually the aim of comparaison. In Some proposals, the work mainly focuses on a species or a habitat, to increase the number of individuals or the range of the specific area. Other projects propose a more broader proposition, similar to the one I submitted. These projects are aiming to protect more herpetofauna. Especially, they are trying to group a large aspect of people to aware them of the biodiversity problematic in climate change. Overall, my business plan joins others.

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Animal conservation is an important aspect in the future of biodiversity, therefore affecting directly humans’ future. It is necessary to consider all animals orders in animal conservation. Reptiles and amphibians are good indicators of climate change, being dependent of environmental abiotic factors. Thus, studying such species and understanding interspecific interactions is essential for conservation.

Madagascar is an important area in terms of anthropogenic culture and biodiversity. However, nowadays it is difficult to have a balance between both features. Therefore, we must join socialists, scientists, politicians and economists to create action plans for Madagascar’s biodiversity. By doing this, we will have an important pressure point on the government.

A proposed action plan would initiate with scientists worldwide studying different taxa of biodiversity in Madagascar, to have the ecological background of these species. After linking the interactions with their environment and other species, we must compute the changes with previous data, and describe the effects of anthropogenic factors and climate change on the variation of the features of interests. Now socialists and politicians join in by studying the impact of this variation of human welfare. To do so, they must see the interactions biodiversity has with human activity: contact with local population, biodiversity affecting animal and plant crops, disease transmission, etc. By comparing with previous data, we might also prove how anthropogenic factors and climate are indirectly affecting their wellbeing.

After building such a complexes framework, all must join with politicians to discuss legal modification and new propositions to the government. By doing this, the “top of the pyramid is controlled” and Madagascar’s biodiversity might see conservation arising in a promising and sustainable way. However, biodiversity is not only about maintaining the number of species of individuals high. We cannot do this without having a home for them. We must concentrate effort and finances in conserving habitats and their natural environment. After that, species might even establish by themselves without any human activity.

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Switzerland is well known for its mountains. Therefore, the landscape of Switzerland is mainly alpine areas and the plateau region. Tourism has brought considerable effort into building comfortable ski resorts through the Alps. Therefore, habitat fragmentation for certain alpine species such, as Vipera berus, Vipera apsis and Zootoca viviparus, leads to population segregation. The issue behind this is the loss of genetic diversity which is known to drive towards endangering species. Skiing is also fun to go out in the backcountry and using the natural environment to get nice sensations. However, this brings noise, pollution, encounters with wildlife which exposes them again to endangerment. Ski resorts are acknowledging this and are creating more closed areas within the ski resorts as “quite areas”. The purpose of these areas are to aware the public about biodiversity and trying to keep these species where they belong.

The plateau is the most complex situation. It is mainly exploited for agriculture use. Several lacs and streams flow through the plateau, leading to humid meadows and ponds within Central Switzerland. This is valid information maybe 50 years ago. With globalization, agriculture has become more intense leading to habitat fragmentation (ponds are isolated one from the other), habitat degradation (having the small reserve near urbanization brings pollution in these natural environments) and habitat loss (agriculture land for cattle establishing in wetlands). As discussed in the resources, the herpetofauna relies on these humid environments as niches. Displacing their niche might bring them to extinction. In the canton of Neuchâtel, only one swamp is known to have Vipera berus. The number of wetlands is drastically decreasing, leading to amphibian biodiversity endangerment.

Climate change is also observed by people in Switzerland, however the link between climate change and its effect on biodiversity is not always acknowledged. Today, climate change can be measured between the years as when the snow falls. Today, it has been displaced for about two weeks. Species must adapt to this change by finding enough resources until hibernation. This might disrupt the life cycle of animals, which might induce high level of stress and die.

More than 75% of Switzerland’s amphibians and reptiles are on Red List of Switzerland. Therefore, the government has established different strategies for conservation which is applied differently in each canton. In Neuchâtel, several strategies are known:

Monitoring of Vipera berus populations in mountain environments

Establishing bonds for Bombina variegate

Monitoring of Salamandra salamandra populations

Reintroduction of Emys orbicularis in the natural reserve of La Vieille Thielle

Monitoring spring migration of amphibian populations

Monitoring of Vipera aspis on the lac side (highly exposed to urbanization)

Source : www.karch.ch ; discussions with herpetologues

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In a way, threats to herpetofauna is kind of similar worldwide. The main threat to biodiversity remains human activity from which habitat degradation, loss and fragmentation ensue, but also climate change. The consequences are directly observe in species decline in biodiversity (genetic, species and habitat). Depending on the herpetoarea, the number of species is more or less higher. Therefore, the observed impact in correlated with the number of species present.
Now, if we account for conservation, we must consider primarily habitat conservation. This means protecting habitats that are undergo anthropogenic actions but also protecting more habitats (IUCN's Green List). However, we tend to forget one of the most important features in conservation : education. Without applying education, at any age, conservation wont be sustanible

Source : https://www.iucn.org/theme/protected-areas/our-work/iucn-green-list

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Within Europe, the distribution of reptile and amphibian species is quite homologous. These species are distributed in function of the climate. Their physiology is quite similar, and have adaptations that allow them to specific climates. Some species are found in the UK, in Switzerland and in the Mediterranean (Anguis fragilis). Therefore, some species have developed adaptations to survive in any environment. This might be due to the low climate pressure on selection, which allows species to adapte slowly to any new environments after migrating. With nowadays climate change, these species might be the "survivors".

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The diversity of reptiles and amphibians through Europe has been driven by glaciations and climate change. If we compare from Northern England to Switzerland/Germany, the diversity becomes more important. This might be induced by a shift in warmer environments from Northern Europe/Atlantic coast of Europe to Central/Eastern Europe. As described previously, there is a concentration of herpetofauna in the peninsulas of Europe (characterised by warm and temperate environments).

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The Yellow bellied toad (Bombina variegata) lives in Switzerland and has a distinct yellow sketchs on the blackish belly. Adultes measure about 5 cm. This species inhabits small ponds and streams with low vegetation, but usually dynamic waters. However, it can spend winter in the forest.
The ghouls are quite small. Therefore, females lay their eggs and must stay a couple of months in these ghouls. The water temperature also increases rapidly, therefore individuals and juveniles are tolerant (up to 36°C). In addition, females lay their eggs between April and August, and she lays her 200 eggs in different part of the ponds, ensuring offsprings. To cope with drought, adults live up to 15 years old, allowing theme to go through several reproduction events in case of drastic droughts.
This toad produces highly toxic venoms with acts as antibiotics but also allows to protect from predators. While threaten, the yellow-bellied toad lays on its back, showing off its belly, signalling a potential predator that it is venomous.
Worldwide, B. variegata is listed as LC. However, in Switzerland, it is EN.
Source : www.karch.ch ; www.iucnredlist.org ; Meyer, Andreas, et al. Les amphibiens et les reptiles de Suisse. Haupt, 2009

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The viviparous lizard (Zootoca viviparus) is a particular lizard. This lizard gets its name because it's viviparous (giving birth to to live young). Adultes reach 15cm length, the tail represents half of the total length. This species is usually observed in humide vegetated  environments.
The viviparous lizard can flatten its rib cage to maximise the body surface exposure to the sun. This adaptation might be the result of competition with another lizard, the common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis).
This species can be found in high altitudes. Therefore, the temperature can go negative, driving certain organs to freeze. It is believed that glucose concentration increase, reacting as an antifreeze agent. This characteristic might allow the viviparous lizard to survive cold seasons.
Worldwide, Z. viviparous is listed as LC. In Switzerland, as well.
Source : www.karch.ch ; www.iucnredlist.org ; Meyer, Andreas, et al. Les amphibiens et les reptiles de Suisse. Haupt, 2009

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Settlements are often built with walls. Between the blocks, small crevasses are found, which offers small refuges to reptiles such as lizards (Fig. A). With vegetation growing on these walls, shaded spots provide perfect habitats for small lizards. In Switzerland these habitats are found in every city (e.g. Geneva, Zurich, Bern, Basel). Therefore, in every city, the common wall-lizard (Podarcis muralis, Fig. B) is observed in everywhere within urban Switzerland. Thus, this reptile species is highly linked with urban habitats. It is quite easy to come across P. muralis during sunny days, just by looking closely at walls with some kind of vegetation.
However, urbanisation does not only mean cities, but also small villages where ponds and streams offer different niches than the ones described previously. In such areas, few amphibian species are also observed : the European common frog (Rana temporaria, Fig. C) and the European toad (Bufo Bufo, Fig. D).

Source : www.karch.ch ; Meyer, Andreas, et al. Les amphibiens et les reptiles de Suisse. Haupt, 2009.

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As discussed in the first course, Switzerland is highly covered by meadows and agriculture lands. In addition with frequent precipitation throughout the entier Switzerland, swamps and wet meadows are quite frequent (Fig. A). Such areas are mainly used for agriculture. Therefore, with lands usually filled with water, foret development is limited. Thus, the temperature is high, creating a humid microclimat. Swamps and ponds are not deep, creating ideal habitats for amphibians.
In Switzerland, several species are found in these habitats. Here is a list of different amphibians found in these habitats :

Palmate newt (Lissotrition helveticus, Fig. C)

Smooth newt (Lissotrition vulgaris)

Yellow-bellied toad (Bombina variegata)

European tree frog (Hyla arborea, Fig. B)

Agile frog (Rana dalmatina)

However, with seasonal temperature increasing and agriculture intensification, these habitats are becoming more and more rare, They get dried out, bushes and small trees find a suitable niche and these humid habitats tend to disappear.
Of course, predators of amphibians are birds, mammals but also reptiles. A well common reptile amphibian-predator is the grass snake (Natrix natrix, Fig. D). The species is also called the water snake. It feeds on amphibians, therefore it is frequently founds in amphibian habitats.

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Switzerland has a large forest cover. This complexe habitat captures humidity and sun rays, creating a temperature environment. In additions, leaves on the ground, moss, dead wood and rocky areas create a perfect habitat for reptiles and amphibians (Fig. A). In the forest we can find a beautiful species such as the aspic viper (Vipera aspis, Fig. B) and the fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra, Fig. C). Another species, the viviparous lizard (Zootoca viviparus, Fig. D) is a reptile commonly found in the forest. In Switzerland, it is commonly called the "lizard of the forest". This species is particular because, as said in its vernacular name, it is a viviparous lizard, meaning that it gives born to live young lizards.

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Palaephrynos (Fig. A) is a genus of amphibian fossil species, more commonly referred as toad species. This genus has ben found in Öhningen, Germany (Fig. B). It is literally situated on the border for Switzerland, by the lake of Constance. Not much is known about this amphibian.

Source : https://www.pim.uzh.ch/ ; www.wikipedia.org

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Evidence has shown that a reptile fossil, more specifically, a marine reptile fossil has been found in Tinzenhorn, in the canton au Graübunden (Fig. A). The fossil is a vertebra of the giant ichthyosaur (Fig. B).
The genus Ichthyosaurus, which basically means "fish-lizard", appeared between the late Triassic and the Jurassic period in Europe. Different species have been found, measuring between 3 and 20m long. With it's teeth, Ichthyosaurus was a predator of fish and squid. Fossils show that some species were even viviparous.

Source : https://www.pim.uzh.ch/ ; www.wikipedia.org

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For the amphibian fossil, Palaephrynos has no phylogeny information. But might certainly be listed in the Anura order.
For the ichthyosaurus, the species is listed as a reptile. However, the clade has been extinct, therefore in the recent phylogenetic tree, this clade does not appear. It is not clear if it's ancestor was a reptile or amphibian. The figure might help illustrating this.

Source : https://www.pim.uzh.ch/ ; www.wikipedia.org

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During the glaciations, the Alps were covered in ice, and neighbouring regions of the Alps were also affected by the glaciation. Therefore, Europe as we know today was mainly covered in ice and tundras (cold environments, Fig. white and grey areas). Only the areas around the Mediterranean were covered in forests and steppes (Fig. green and yellow areas); areas commonly known as the Iberian, Italian and Balkan peninsulas.
With glaciation, organisms must find refuges in order to survive. For animals, displacement is much easier than plants species. However, one cannot live without the other. Animals, wind, an other factors have displaced plant species, especially trees, to these peninsulas, to more warmer conditions. Of course, these plant species had to adapt and cope with these new environment. By displacing the natural range, animal species had to adapt as well for food.
Overall, animal and plant species had to find "glacial refuges" to adapt with glaciation. They moved to warmer environments to find food and nutriments. They also had to adapte with physiological changes to survive (evolution).

Source : www.reddit.com ; Petit, Rémy J., et al. "Glacial refugia: hotspots but not melting pots of genetic diversity." science 300.5625 (2003): 1563-1565.

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The common midwife toad (Alytes obstetricans) is in particularly interesting species because during the reproduction, males take care of the eggs.
These toads are pretty small, about 5cm length. It is green-greyish. It lives in ponds with a continuous fill in water. It lives in waters between 22° and 25° degrees. This provides a special niche for the midwife toad. The land habitats are mainly slopes near the ponds, provided with sunlight.
Reproduction is done on land, and eggs are not laid in the water, but males will put the eggs on their back and take care of them until hatching. Between March and August, females are attracted by the calls of the males. After collecting the eggs, the male will isolate itself in a hiding temperated and wet for 25 days until the eggs are ready to hatch.
During wintering, adultes can survive in icy waters. After 2-3 years, individuals become sexually mature, and can live up to 8 years. An interesting fact is that males and females have the same life span (uniqueness in anuras). This is induced by the males investment in reproduction.
The Red list listed this species as "Least Concern". In Switzerland, this species is listed as "Endangered". During these last 20 years, the population of A. obstetricans has decreased drastically. Different reasons has driven this loss : destruction of water ponds or diseases.
Source : www.karch.ch ; www.iucnredlist.org ; Meyer, Andreas, et al. Les amphibiens et les reptiles de Suisse. Haupt, 2009

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The European pond turtle (Emys orbicularis) is the only indigenous turtle in Switzerland. It is an aquatic turtle. This species can reach 16cm shell length in females. The shell is black-brownish. The head, neck, legs and tail are black with yellow dots. This species lives in aquatic environments (ponds or other calm waters).However, dry land is necessary for nesting.
E. orbicularis hibernates under water. After winter, couples mates between March and May, and eggs are laid during June-July. The young hach in September. Juveniles feed on invertebrates. Adultes feed on mussels, invertebrates, fish and other aquatic animals.

The Red List listed E. orbicularis as
"Near Threatened". In Switzerland, this species is listed as "Critically Endangered". In Switzerland, this species was present only in Geneva, before 2010. Studies have shown that the unique population was composed of very few strains. Afterwards, the government decided to grow the population in different cantons of Switzerland. Until today, individuals were released in the wild to bring genetic diversity.

Source : www.karch.ch ; www.iucnredlist.org ; Meyer, Andreas, et al. Les amphibiens et les reptiles de Suisse. Haupt, 2009