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Edwin Chadwick was a civil servant who became a member of the National Board of Health in 1848. In 1842 he published his report on working class living conditions and helped the establishment of the Public Health Act 1848. Nevertheless, he was not well liked due to his arrogant manner, thus finding it hard to get people on his side and the work of other individuals such as Bazalgette brought about a modernised sewer system. However, I believe Chadwick did play the most important role in improving public health systems as he set the foundations for future work.

In 1842 Chadwick wrote his Great Report on the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring population. He noted that people lived in dirty, overcrowded conditions which caused illness, ending in people becoming too sick to work and a higher tax expenditure on helping them. Due to this Chadwick introduced a set of solutions which would ultimately help improve public health, because he suggested that sewers should be improved, refuse should be removed, water provided should be clean and medical officers should be appointed to check each area. This helped because with an improved sewerage system human waste would not contaminate the water supply which would see a fall in cholera and other related diseases. Removing refuse would stem the increase in pest and the development of disease and the medical officers would check that all these reforms were being obeyed. His Great Report (with a mass of evidence supporting his theory) and reform ideas also helped the introduction of the Public Health Act in 1848 which set the foundations for an improvement in public health.

Nevertheless, there were some limitations to Chadwick's work. Due to his argumentative nature he found it difficult to find supporters for his reforms. This meant that he had to rely on the Cholera epidemic in 1848 to push the Public Health act through parliament as the government thought it was not there place to intervene in the work of local councils. Therefore, there is a possibility that the foundation of British public health reforms at the time may have never been laid without the intervention of a Cholera epidemic in 1848. Furthermore, his influence faded in the 1850s as his act of 1848 did not force the councils into reform which meant that public health systems would go largely unchanged until the act in 1875, which forced action. Therefore, in this respect there were some limitations to the work of Chadwick; however, I still believe that the 1848 act was a basis for health reformers to build upon.

In addition to the limitations of Chadwick's work, the influence of other individuals is not to be denied. William Farr's statistics built up in 1837 registered all births, deaths and marriages. From these results he built an accurate picture of where death rates were highest and what they died of. His statistics put pressure on the government; however, it did not lead directly to reform and his role was not as great in the act of 1848 as that of Chadwick. John Snow was a pioneer in public health. In 1849 he believed Cholera was spread through water. However this was dismissed until 1854 where he proved that people using the water pump at Broad Street were dying as a result of a leaching cesspool. This forced the removal of the pump; nevertheless, this did not force a Public health act, unlike Chadwick (1848 Public Health act), as many scientists clung to the idea that miasmas caused disease (Pasteur was still to publish Germ Theory 1861). John Bazalgette also played a role in the improvement of public health, especially the sewerage under London. He built 83 miles of main sewers and had a pumping station which moved the water away from the water supplies. This helped improve public health as it stopped the cross-contamination of water and sewage and made water safer to drink. However, his work was prompted by the Great Stink of 1858 and was influenced by Chadwick's idea that the sewerage and drainage system should be improved.

There were also some external factors influencing the improvement of public health systems in the 19 th century. The Cholera epidemic of 1848 proved useful to Chadwick as it forced the government to follow Chadwick's ideas for reform and passed the Public Health act 1848 to reduce the impact of Cholera. This epidemic helped the start of the reforms in Britain at the time. The Great Stink of 1858 was where levels of the Thames fell drastically and it became so hot that the stench stopped parliament meeting. It prompted Bazalgette's work on the new sewer network; nevertheless, it did not lead to the passing of a Public Health reform act like Chadwick's work had and improvements in the sewer system were mainly focused on London.

In conclusion, Chadwick's work played a very important role in the reform of public health as it set the foundations for future improvements such as Bazalgette's sewers as well as the passing of a Public Health act in 1848 which started the idea of modernised drainage and keeping a clean living and working environment. Although Chadwick's influence did fade after the 1850s his work still influenced other reformers and ultimately ended in the Public Health act of 1875 which made it compulsory for Councils to keep clean environments in their towns. Therefore, I believe that Chadwick played a very important role in public health improvements.

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How important was the role played by Edwin Chadwick in important public health services in towns in the nineteenth century?

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Edwin Chadwick was a civil servant who became a member of the National Board of Health in 1848. In 1842 he published his report on working class living conditions and helped the establishment of the Public Health Act 1848.

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In July 1842, the most important 19th Century publication on social reform was released, titled, 'Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring...

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This act covered building requirements, powers to repair drains and sewers, prevention of diseases and notification of diseases, attachment of street lamps to buildings, management of parks and pleasure-grounds, closing of parks and pleasure-grounds, boating pools and lakes
http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Eliz2/9-10/64/contents

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The Report was initially classified as a 'fever inquiry' as a result of frequent cholera epidemics suffered by the lower classes. The great innovation of the Report was the use of statistical information to counter-balance the mass of descriptive evidence highlighting the life expectancy variations caused by class or residence.
This helped improve public health as it stopped the cross contamination of water and sewage and made water safer to drink.
https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/livinglearning/coll-9-health1/health-02/1842-sanitary-report-leeds/

http://medblog.medlink-uk.net/spriest98/2014/03/30/how-important-was-the-role-played-by-edwin-chadwick-in-important-public-health-services-in-towns-in-the-nineteenth-century/

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Public Health Act, 1984 (Control of Disease) and Regulations, 1988 (Infectious Diseases)

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Public Health Act, 1984 (Control of Disease) and Regulations, 1988 (Infectious Diseases)

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An Act to consolidate certain enactments relating to the control of disease and to the establishment and functions of port health authorities, including enactments relating to burial and cremation and to the regulation of common lodging–houses and canal boats, with amendments to give effect to recommendations of the Law Commission.

Under this legislation, doctors in England and Wales have a statutory duty to notify a 'Proper Officer' of the local authority if they are aware that, or have cause to suspect that, a patient is suffering from one of the notifiable diseases. The doctor must complete a certificate stating:

the name, age and sex of the patient and the address of the premises where the patient is;

the notifiable condition from which the patient is, or is suspected to be, suffering;

the date, or approximate date, of the onset of the condition; and

if the premises are a hospital, the day on which the patient was admitted, the address of the premises from which he/she came there and whether or not, in the opinion of the person giving the certificate, the condition from which the patient is, or is suspected to be, suffering was contracted in hospital.

Links:
- The National Archives. Department of Health.

- Legislation.gov

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Compelled local areas to take responsibility for ensuring sewerage systems were in place, overcrowding in residences became illegal and local authorities were compelled (rather than just having powers) to remove nuisances to public health.

Under the act, every town had to have inspections assessing sanitary.

Government intervention, made sure that health hazards were removed. (Local authorities had failed to do this themselves)

https://navigator.health.org.uk/content/sanitary-act-1866-received-royal-assent

Public authorities given the power to improve or demolish slum housing.

John Simon was a key mover behind the Act

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An act to consolidate enactments relating to the control of the disease and to the establishment of port health authorities, including enactments relating to burial and cremation and to the regulation of common lodging–houses and canal boats, with amendments to give effect to recommendations of the Law Commission.

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The Public Health Act 1848 The reason for reform was the new cholera epidemic

The act’s goals were based on the findings made by Edwin Chadwick in his Report on the sanitary conditions of the labouring population of Great Britain.

The act created a General Board of Health, a body which would be responsible for advising on epidemics and disease prevention. The board had responsibility for local boards of health; however, it had no power to make them carry out the act.

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In July, 2007 the English government passed a new law making it illegal for anyone to smoke in an enclosed area e.g. within a public place and the workplace.
The aim for this legislation was to ensure that individuals were able to get on with their daily activities without consuming second hand smoke whilst potentially receiving any negative affects that it may cause them.
Under the act, there are many key points to be considered, including:
- No smoking on public vehicles which also covers vehicles that are provided for work purposes
- 'No smoking' signs should be placed appropriately and clearly within all smoke free premises as well as vehicles
- Smoking areas and smoking rooms are no longer permitted and within a place of work, workers should smoke on their breaks outside if they wish
- Owners/managers can ensure that all staff/visitors are aware of the smoking ban and can take reasonable steps to do so if otherwise

Links:
http://www.smokefreeengland.co.uk/
http://www.smokefreeengland.co.uk/what-do-i-do/quick-guide/

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The Food Safety Act 1990 is wide ranging legislation on food safety and consumer protection in relation to food throughout Great Britain.  The act covers the activities throughout the food distribution chain, from primary production through distribution to retail and catering. The act gives the Government power to make regulation on matters of detail.
The food safety act states that as business you must ensure that food is safe to eat, the same quality that you say it is, ensure that you do not mislead people by the way that the food is packaged and that you withdraw any food that is unsafe to eat and complete an incident report.
https://www.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/media/document/Food%20standards%20safety%20act%201990%20PDF.pdf
https://www.gov.uk/food-safety-your-responsibilities ​

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It was the first step to improved public health.   Edwin Chadwick was the first person to identify that the health of the UK was bad and identified the main aspects of the first Act. Also, he wanted to improve public health to prevent less people from seeking health advice and less people from dying
• improved drainage and provision of sewers
• the removal of all refuse from houses, streets and roads
• the provision of clean drinking water
• the appointment of a medical officer for each town

https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/towncountry/towns/tyne-and-wear-case-study/about-the-group/public-administration/the-1848-public-health-act/.

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A smoking ban in England, making it illegal to smoke in all enclosed work places in England, came into force on 1 July 2007 as a consequence of the Health Act 2006.

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The report was sponsored by the Poor Law Commission which sold over 30,000 copies but has not been made an official document due to the report being published in Chadwick's name.
Edwin Chadwick lead a team of people to investigate and record the lives of the poor.
The report was initially classified as a 'fever report' due to the recent outbreak of cholera.
The report pointed out the correlation between the lack of sanitation along side disease, high mortality rates and low life expectancy.
It highlighted overcrowding where disease and dirt were the greatest. The report noted that the houses were back to back houses and that they were filthy and the stench was caused by the filth.
He suggested that the government should intervene by providing clean water, improving drainage system and enabling councils to clear away rubbish from homes and streets.
Six years after the report the Public Health Act was passed.

However, the report was not precise enough to become a legislation, it was medically weak and it was initiated by the House of Lords meaning the Commons were not interested.

https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/livinglearning/coll-9-health1/health-02/1842-sanitary-report-leeds/

http://www.historyhome.co.uk/peel/p-health/sanrep.htm

https://navigator.health.org.uk/content/edwin-chadwicks-report-sanitary-conditions-labouring-population-great-britain-was-published

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Sets out responsibilities and regulations of businesses who produce, handle and sell food to ensure safety of consumer.
Regulations:
-Production and handling of food= adequate storage conditions, staff must have correct equipment and training for handling food.
-Standard of food = the nature, substance and quality of food.
-The presentation and standard of food= advertising must not be misleading or unlabelled, allergy info must be provided.

It is compulsory that businesses across the UK follow the regulations outlined in the Food Safety Act 1990. Failure to comply can result in heavy fines and even imprisonment.

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This post details the Food Safety Act 1990 with advice for both employers and professionals. Anyone involved in the food industry, including manufacturing, logistics, preparation and catering, needs to understand and work to this UK legislation in order to stay legally compliant.

What is the Food Safety Act 1990?

The Food Safety Act is UK law first passed in 1990 and since updated periodically, which sets out the responsibilities of businesses who produce, handle and sell food products to ensure the safety of the consumer.

Since 1990, the Food Safety Act has been partly superseded by the General

Food Law Regulation (Regulation (EC) 178/2002) which was adopted in the UK as part of their EU membership, and came into force in 2005. The new regulations were enshrined in UK law in the Food Safety Act 1990 (Amendment) Regulations 2004.

It is important to note that this article should not be considered legal advice, and for detailed information about the Act or related issues a registered legal professional should be consulted.

Who does the Act apply to?

The Act applies to all businesses, regardless of size, which are involved in the production, preparation, handling or sale of food. Under the Act, distribution of food without actual payment, for example free meals in a workplace canteen, is still defined as a "sale". The Act defines food as "any substance or product, whether processed, partially processed or unprocessed, intended to be, or reasonably expected to be ingested by humans."

What does it mean for businesses?

In summary, the Act consists of three main areas in which businesses must comply. In each of these areas the Act brought into law an associated offence which carries penalties and sanctions for those businesses who contravene these regulations.

i. Production and handling of food

Businesses are required to ensure that when producing and handling food, that they do not add or remove anything which could damage the health of the consumer, and that they do not store or treat food in such a way that it would become harmful to the consumer.

This area of the Act addresses issues including maintenance of correct food hygiene, ensuring adequate storage conditions such as refrigeration or freezing, avoiding physical or bacterial contamination of food and providing staff with the correct equipment and training to ensure these needs are met.

Contravention of these requirements constitutes the offence of "Rendering food injurious to health". An example would be a shop selling chicken sandwiches which have been contaminated with bacteria.

ii. The standard of food products

As well as addressing the most basic levels of safety, e.g. ensuring that the food they serve is not harmful to consumers, the Act also requires businesses to make sure that the standard of the food they serve meets the expectations of the consumer.

The required standards are laid out in the Act using the following terms:

" Nature " - For example, if a meat is sold is chicken, it must be chicken, not turkey.

" Substance " - For example, a bag of oats would not be expected to contain dead insects

" Quality " - For example, a packet of biscuits would be expected to be fresh, not stale

Contravention of these requirements constitutes the offence of "Selling food which is not of the nature or quality demanded." An example in this case would be a supermarket selling beef burgers which were made with mostly beef fat rather than meat.

iii. The presentation and advertising of food

The final key area in which the Act governs food businesses is in the accuracy and transparency of the way in which they describe, advertise and market the food they serve.

This is designed to combat incorrect or incomplete descriptions of food products which may mislead the consumer, or potentially be harmful or dangerous, for example in the case of food allergens being mislabelled, or quantities of unhealthy ingredients being inaccurate.

This area of the Act covers issues such as labelling, presentation, packaging and information about ingredients, nutrients and additives.

Contravention of these requirements constitutes the offence of "Falsely or misleadingly describing or presenting food." An example of this offence would be a cafe selling freshly squeezed orange juice that was actually made from orange concentrate.

Penalties and sanctions

As described in the section above, under the Food Safety Act 1990 there are three key offences:

Rendering food injurious to health

Selling food which is not of the nature or quality demanded

Falsely or misleadingly describing or presenting food

The punishment for committing one or a combination of more than one of these offences is described in the Act as follows:

Offences 1 and 2 attract a fine of up to £20,000 each time the offence is committed

Offence 3 attracts a fine of up to £5,000 for each time the offence is committed

For any of the offences, a sentence of up to 6 months imprisonment is also possible in addition to any fine

(The exception to the above is in Scotland, where the maximum punishment for any offence is up to a £10,000 fine and / or 12 months imprisonment)

Complying with the Act

In order to ensure that their business doesn't fall foul of any of the regulations described above, and avoids the resulting penalties and sanctions, there are a few key areas of compliance to consider.

Workplace environment and cleanliness

Any food preparation environment must prioritise hygiene and cleanliness, as well as safe storage environments for food, e.g. correct refrigeration temperatures, or stock rotation times. Keeping these standards high involves a continual process of monitoring, auditing and improving. There is no specific system defined in the law to manage this, but whatever system is used, it must address each of the seven HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point) principles which are laid out in the Act.

In summary, these are:

Conduct a hazard analysis (identify food safety hazards)

Identify critical control points (the stages at which a hazard can be prevented or eliminated)

Establish critical limits for each critical control point (the maximum and minimum level to which a hazard must be controlled)

Establish critical control monitoring requirements (the monitoring activities needed to ensure compliance with the procedure)

Establish corrective actions (actions to be taken when monitoring indicates non-compliance)

Establish procedures to ensure that the HACCP system works as intended (validate and periodically review points 1-6)

Establish record keeping procedures (keep a written plan on points 1-6, and record monitoring activities and their findings)

For more detailed information on these points, visit the Food Standards Agency website here: https://www.food.gov.uk/business-industry/food-hygiene/haccp

Staff training

Perhaps most importantly, employers are ultimately responsible for the conduct of their employees, so to ensure compliance with the Food Safety Act it is vital that employees are given the correct training. There is no formal requirement for which course is required, but the most widely regarded is the Chartered Institute of Environmental Health (CIEH) Food Handling qualification, which comes in three levels of varying complexity. Information on this course can be found here:
http://www.cieh.org/training/food_safety.html

Further reading

A good starting point for employers wanting to learn more about the Food Safety Act and its implications is the official page on the Food Standards Agency website, which includes a detailed PDF guide, and can be found here:
https://www.food.gov.uk/business-industry/guidancenotes/hygguid/fsactguide

More general advice on food safety can be found at the government's website here:
https://www.gov.uk/food-safety-your-responsibilities/food-safety

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Food Safety Act 1990 - Advice for Employers and Professionals

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This post details the Food Safety Act 1990 with advice for both employers and professionals. Anyone involved in the food industry, including manufacturing, logistics, preparation and catering, needs to understand and work to this UK legislation in order to stay legally compliant.

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Made local areas to take responsibility for ensuring sewerage systems were in place, overcrowding in residences became illegal and local authorities were compelled (rather than just having powers) to remove nuisances to public health. Under the act, every town was required to appoint sanitary inspectors

Sanitary inspectors were established by the Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Act 1855 to be employed by local authorities to enter into properties containing ‘nuisances’ and carry out inspections. Furthermore, the government was empowered to intervene and remove health hazards where local authorities failed to do so. The act established the definition of overcrowding and required all houses to be connected to a main sewer. This eventually helped to reduce the death toll caused by cholera and other water borne diseases.
https://prezi.com/stlp2ip63vxw/how-significant-were-the-1866-sanitary-act-and-the-1875-publ/
http://www.euro-info.org.uk/towards-economic-unity-transport-and-communications/the-sanitary-act-of-1866.php
https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transformingsociety/towncountry/towns/tyne-and-wear-case-study/about-the-group/public-administration/the-1848-public-health-act/

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Content of the legislation/regulation
How does it plan to improve public health?

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The government brought in a new law that made it an offence to smoke in a car in which children under 18 years of age were present.
Second hand smoke is found to have over 4000 chemicals in I, and smoking in a confined space e.g. a car is seen to concentrate these chemicals. Making their toxicity 11 times higher than in a bar.
Smoke can stay in the air for up to two and a half hours even with a window open.
Research indicates 300,000 children in the UK visit a GP each year because of the effects of second-hand smoke, with 9,500 going to hospital.

Both the driver and the smoker can be fined £50 on the spot -  if any adult smokes in a car when children under 18 years of age are present.
Conclusive evidence showing that second hand smoke causes:
1. Cot Death (Associated with maternal smoking during pregnancy)
2. Asthma
3.Impaired lung function.
There is substantial evidence to suggest that SHS causes:
1. Development of asthma
2. Worsening cystic fibrosis
There is suggestive evidence to suggest SHS causes:
1. Overall child cancers (maternal smoking)
2. Brain Cancers and lymphoma (paternal smoking)
3. Meningitis
4. Cancer in adulthood
5. Initiation and progression of cardiovascular disease.
https://www.ibblaw.co.uk/insights/blog/smoking-ban-cars-when-children-are-present-new-law-effective-1-october-2015
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-26133374