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POSITIVISM/STRUCTURALISM This form of studying society focuses on gathering quantitative data as they like to make generalizations and spot trends in society. They study large scale.

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POSITIVISM/STRUCTURALISM This form of studying society focuses on gathering quantitative data as they like to make generalizations and spot trends in society. They study large scale.

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The positivists (structuralists) believe that society controls our behaviour as individuals. They focus more on the group rather than the individual and believe the individual's actions are explain the working of that society. Eg: Emile Durkheim's study of suicide.

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A Level Sociology Theory and Methods | A Level Sociology Social Action Theory
A page of links to posts on the following topics: (1) Positivism and Interpretivism, (2) Is sociology a science?, (3) Sociology and value freedom, (4) Functionalism, (5) Marxism, (6) Feminism, (7) Social action theory, (8) Post and late modernism, (9) Sociology and social policy. Together these posts cover the 'theory' part of the Theory and Methods part of the AQA's A Level Syllabus, which are assessed as part of A level papers 1 and 3. It's gradually being populated should be completed by end of February 2017.
For links to posts about qualitative, quantitative, primary and secondary research methods - see the research methods page.

If you like this sort of thing, then you might like my ' theory and methods mind maps '...10 mind maps in PDF, PNG, and SMXX (Simple Mind mind mapping software) format - covering all of the topics below...

Social Theory At a Glance

An overview of theory and methods for second year A level sociology - a very brief overview covering the bare-bones of (1) Positivism and Interpretivism, (2) Is sociology a science?, (3) Sociology and value freedom, (4) Functionalism, (5) Marxism, (6) Feminism, (7) Social action theory, (8) Post and late modernism, (9) Sociology and social policy.

Positivism and Interpretivism

Positivism, Sociology and Social Research - detailed class notes on the relationship between The Enlightenment, industrialisation and positivist sociology

Positivism and Interpretivism - very brief summary revision notes covering the relationship between the scientific positivist world view and quantitative methods and the humanistic interpretivist worldview and qualitative methods.

Is Sociology A Science?

Is Sociology a Science? - a summary covering a Positivist view of sociology as a science contrasted to an Interpretivist view of sociology as a humanistic discipline; sociological criticisms of the objectivity of science (Latour and Kuhn's Paradigm Critique); Sayer's realist view of sociology, and postmodern views of science.

Sociology and Value Freedom

Sociology and Value Freedom - c lass notes, quite detailed

Functionalism

The Functionalist Perspective on Society - moderately detailed class notes covering Durkheim's ideas on social facts, anomie and mechanical and organic solidarity, and Parson's ideas on value consensus, the importanct of socialisation and evolution through structural differentiation.

Robert Merton's Internal Critique of Functionalism - class notes, quite detailed

The Functionalist Theory of Society Revision Notes - v ery brief revision notes covering Emile Durkhime's and Talcott Parson's Functionalist Theory, Robert Merton's internal critique of Functionalism, and some overall evaluations; also a very brief summary of Functionalist thought applied to the family, education, modernisation theory, crime and research methods.

Marxism

The Traditional Marxist Perspective on Society - class notes, quite detailed

Althusser's Scientific Marxism - class notes, quite detailed

Gramsci's Humanist Marxism - class notes, quite detailed

Eight Criticisms of Traditional Marxism - evaluative post, quite detailed

Eight Ways in Which Marxism is Still Relevant Today - class notes, quite detailed, covering such things as the continued exploitation of workers in the developing world and contemporary evidence of right-wing agenda setting in the mainstream media.

The Marxist Theory of Society Revision Notes - very brief revision notes covering the key ideas of Karl Marx, Antonio Gramsci and Louis Althusser.

Feminisms

Feminist Theory - A Summary for A-level Sociology - brief summary revision notes for liberal, radical, marxist and postmodern Feminist theory

Social Action Theory

Social Action Theory - A Summary - brief summary revision notes

Max Weber's Social Action Theory - fairly detailed class notes on some of the key ideas of Max Weber, the founding father of social action theory
A Summary of Erving Goffmans's Presentation of Self in Everyday Life
Outline and explain two reasons why Interpretivists prefer to use qualitative research methods (10) -

Post Modernism

Modernity, Postmodernity and Late Modernity - summary grids

From Modernity to Postmodernity - brief class notes, with pictures

Postmodernity and Postmodernism - more detailed class notes, summary of Pip Jones' 'Social Theory' book

Three Examples of Postmodern Thinkers - brief class notes

Postmodernity and the Point of Sociology - brief class notes

Criticisms of Postmodernism - brief class notes

Lash and Lury - The Global Culture Industry - Summary of a book which has something of the postmodern about it

Late Modernism

Critical Responses to Postmodernism - more detailed class notes (covering Beck and Giddens)

Anthony Giddens - Modernity and Self Identity - in 14 bullet points!

Anthony Giddens - Modernity and Self Identity, chapter one summary - very detailed class notes

Late Modernism and the Point of Sociology - brief summary notes

Post and late modern views on the family - brief summary notes

Post and late modern views of education - brief summary notes

Neoliberalism and the New Right
Neoliberalism and the New Right - An Introduction The Neoliberal Theory of Economic Development
Grenfell Tower - Profits Before Safety (2017) - the case study of Grenfell Tower seems to be a text book study in the downsides of neoliberal austerity policies - cut spending on public safety and poor people die.

Sociology and Social Policy

Perspectives on Social Policy - detailed class notes

Perspectives on Social Policy - brief summary notes

Applying Sociological Perspectives

Careers Guidance for Alternative Jobs - or how to avoid getting a proper job

Careers Advice for Teenagers - Sociological perspectives on why A levels are no longer enough to get you a job

Vanilla Vloggers - Insubstantial Selves? - What do Sociologists think of the Zoellas of the virtual world?

How many likes does it take? Social media and dissatisfaction

What is Sociology? A summary of Bauman and May's Thinking Sociologically, Chapter 1

Theory and Methods A Level Sociology Revision Bundle

If you like this sort of thing, then you might like my Theory and Methods Revision Bundle - specifically designed to get students through the theory and methods sections of A level sociology papers 1 and 3.
Contents include:

74 pages of revision notes

15 mind maps on various topics within theory and methods

Five theory and methods essays

'How to write methods in context essays'.

For better value I've bundled all of the above topics into six revision bundles, containing revision notes, mind maps, and exam question and answers, available for between £4.99 and £5.99 on Sellfy.

Best value is my A level sociology revision mega bundle - which contains the following:

1. over 200 pages of revision notes

2. 60 mind maps in pdf and png formats

3. 50 short answer exam practice questions and exemplar answers

4. Covers the entire A-level sociology syllabus, AQA focus.

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Here you can find all about A Level Sociology Theory and Methods! The topics are: Positivism and Interpretivism, Is sociology a science?, Sociology and value freedom, Functionalism, Marxism, Feminism, Social action theory, Post and late modernism, Sociology and social policy.

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'Consensus theory stresses what social groups have in common, while conflict theory stresses the fact that different groups in have widely varying access to power and wealth.'

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The Classroom | Empowering Students in Their College Journey

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In terms of understanding human behavior and its constraints, nothing can be more opposite than consensus and conflict theory. Consensus theory stresses what social groups have in common, while conflict theory stresses the fact that different groups in have widely varying access to power and wealth. In fact, their primary stress is on completely opposite forms of human action, making these forms the center of all human society.

History

Most social theory has historically been based in notions of consensus. Not until the 18th-century revolutionary tradition did the essential idea of conflict take center stage. Writers such as Plato and Rousseau had stressed means of avoiding conflict by creating the ingredients for consensus. Only when Marxist, anarchist and racialist theories began to develop in the middle of the 19th century did notions of conflict replace those of consensus in social theory. According to such radical ideas, consensus was impossible unless differences in power and wealth were eliminated.

Features

Consensus revolves around culture. Culture, in its most reductionist definition, is the norms by which the majority in a society have decided it is useful to operate. Defenders of culture hold that cultural norms exist because they have withstood the test of time and have proven themselves in the arena of history. Conflict theory attacks this approach by holding that culture itself is the creation of the privileged few.

Related Articles

Definitions

Consensus theory seeks to determine what all people in a society have in common. This commonality becomes the center of the public persona of the society. The consensus approach stresses the fact that the reality of the consensus, that single public persona, must predate the actual articulation of that consensus. In other words, it is both a social reality and a means of understanding that reality. Conflict theory, on the other hand, seeks to determine who, why and how those with power have imposed specific aspects of culture on a society. According to conflict theory, culture is the means by which the powerful, who are those with wealth or social status, impose their will on society. Ultimately, the powerful hope to make "culture" seem like consensus, while in reality, it is the creation of the elite.

Challenges

Both conflict and consensus theory have substantial difficulties. Conflict theory might be thought to lack an explanation for how consensus has been imposed on societies, and why it has been generally accepted sometimes for long periods. On the other hand, consensus writers can be accused of forgetting about how people in any given culture are divided from one another and have unequal access to the levers of power. The powerful have access to education, social prestige and wealth that gives them tremendous advantages in making sure their voice is heard above the rest.

Significance

Both consensus and conflict theories ultimately exist to promote a consensus. The real problem is what kind, and under what conditions. The conflict theorist, typically identified with some sort of socialism, believes in consensus as long as most people are equal. But it is also clear that only revolution and a revolutionary party can make this happen. Consensus theorists hold that history cannot be destroyed that easily, and that people's very identities derive from the traditional consensus that has existed for a long time. Revolution cannot change that.

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In terms of understanding human behavior and its constraints, nothing can be more opposite than consensus and conflict theory. Consensus theory stresses what social groups have in common, while conflict theory stresses the fact that different groups in have widely varying access to power and wealth. In fact, their ...

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INTERPRETIVISM - This way of studying society is focused on gathering qualitative data. They want to understand the meaning behind human behaviour. They are not interested in generalizations and believe every situation and person is different. They don't think you can predict human behaviour (trends) 

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INTERPRETIVISM - This way of studying society is focused on gathering qualitative data. They want to understand the meaning behind human behaviour. They are not interested in generalizations and believe every situation and person is different. They don't think you can predict human behaviour (trends) 

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The interpretivists strongly believe that the individuals in society make up the society. They form the basis for that society and individual behaviour can be used to analyse the 'health' of a society. Interpretivists believe our identities are not form by the larger society but rather by the interactions we have with others. Eg: Max Weber's social action theory

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Positivists believe society shapes the individual and use quantitative methods, intepretivists believe individuals shape society and use qualitative methods.

Positivism and Interpretivism are the two basic approaches to research methods in Sociology. Positivist prefer scientific quantitative methods, while Interpretivists prefer humanistic qualitative methods. This post provides a very brief overview of the two.

Positivism

Positivists prefer quantitative methods such as social surveys, structured questionnaires and official statistics because these have good reliability and representativeness.

Positivists see society as shaping the individual and believe that 'social facts' shape individual action.

The positivist tradition stresses the importance of doing quantitative research such as large scale surveys in order to get an overview of society as a whole and to uncover social trends, such as the relationship between educational achievement and social class. This type of sociology is more interested in trends and patterns rather than individuals.

Positivists also believe that sociology can and should use the same methods and approaches to study the social world that "natural" sciences such as biology and physics use to investigate the physical world. By adopting "scientific" techniques sociologists should be able, eventually, to uncover the laws that govern societies just as scientists have discovered the laws that govern the physical world.

In positivist research, sociologists tend to look for relationships, or 'correlations' between two or more variables. This is known as the comparative method.

Interpretivism

An Interpretivist approach to social research would be much more qualitative, using methods such as unstructured interviews or participant observation

Interpretivists, or anti-positivists argue that individuals are not just puppets who react to external social forces as Positivists believe.

According to Interpretivists individuals are intricate and complex and different people experience and understand the same 'objective reality' in very different ways and have their own, often very different, reasons for acting in the world, thus scientific methods are not appropriate.

Intepretivist research methods derive from 'social action theory'

Intereptivists actually criticise 'scientific sociology' (Positivism) because many of the statistics it relies on are themselves socially constructed.

Interpretivists argue that in order to understand human action we need to achieve 'Verstehen', or empathetic understanding - we need to see the world through the eyes of the actors doing the acting.

Positivism and Interpretivism Summary Grid

Theory and Methods A Level Sociology Revision Bundle

If you like this sort of thing, then you might like my Theory and Methods Revision Bundle - specifically designed to get students through the theory and methods sections of A level sociology papers 1 and 3.
Contents include:

74 pages of revision notes

15 mind maps on various topics within theory and methods

Five theory and methods essays

'How to write methods in context essays'.

Related Posts
Links to more detailed posts on Positivism and Social Action Theory are embedded in the text above. Other posts you might like include:
Positivism in Social Research Max Weber's Social Action Theory The Presentation of the Self in Everyday Life, A Summary
Links to all of my research methods posts can be found at my main research methods page.

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Positivism and Interpretivism in Social Research

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Positivists believe society shapes the individual and use quantitative methods, intepretivists believe individuals shape society and use qualitative methods. Positivism and Interpretivism are the two basic approaches to research methods in Sociology. Positivist prefer scientific quantitative methods, while Interpretivists prefer humanistic qualitative methods. This post provides a very brief overview of the two.

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Émile Durkheim on Suicide & Society: Crash Course Sociology #5

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ReviseSociology - A level sociology revision - education, families, research methods, crime and deviance and more!

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Verstehen and the Protestant Ethic are two things Weber is well-known for

Last Updated on December 10, 2022 by Karl Thompson

Max Weber (1864-1920) was one of the founding fathers of Sociology. Weber saw both structural and action approaches as necessary to developing a full understanding of society and social change.

For the purposes of A level Sociology we can reduce Weber's extensive contribution to Sociology to three things:

Max Weber: Three Key Points

Firstly he argued that 'Verstehen' or empathatic understanding is crucial to understanding human action and social change, a point which he emphasised in his classic study 'The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism';

secondly, he believed we could make generalisations about the basic types of motivation for human action (there are four basic types) and

thirdly, he still argued that structure shaped human action, because certain societies or groups encourage certain general types of motivation (but within these general types, there is a lot of variation possible).

This final point can be illustrated by a quote from one of his most important works 'Economy and Society', first published in the 1920s, in which he said 'Sociology is a science concerning itself with interpretive understanding of social action and thereby with a causal explanation of its course and consequences.'

Social Action and Verstehen

Weber argued that before the cause of an action could be ascertained you had to understand the meaning attached to it by the individual. He distinguished between two types of understanding.

First he referred to Aktuelles Verstehen - or direct observational understanding, where you just observe what people are doing. For example, it is possible to observe what people are doing - for example, you can observe someone chopping wood, or you can even ascertain (with reasonable certainty) someone's emotional state from their body language or facial expression. However, observational understanding alone is not sufficient to explain social action.

The second type of understanding is Eklarendes Verstehen - or Empathetic Understanding - in which sociologists must try to understand the meaning of an act in terms of the motives that have given rise to it. This type of understanding would require you to find out why someone is chopping wood - Are they doing it because they need the firewood, are they just clearing a forest as part of their job, are they working off anger, just doing it because they enjoy it? To achieve this Weber argued that you had to get into the shoes of people doing the activity.

The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

In this famous work, Weber argued that a set of religious ideas were responsible for the emergence of Capitalism in Northern Europe in the 16-17 th century. Weber argued that we need to understand these ideas and how they made people think about themselves in order to understand the emergence of Capitalism. (NB The emergence of Capitalism is one the most significant social changes in human history)

The video below, from the School of Life, offers a useful summary of Max Weber's ideas about the emergence of Capitalism

Weber's Four Types of Action (and types of society)

Max Weber didn't just believe that individuals shape society - societies encourage certain types of motive for action - for example, the religion of Calvinism encouraged people to save money, which eventually led to capitalism

Weber believes that there are four ideal types of social actions. Ideal types are used as a tool to look at real cases and compare them to the ideal types to see where they fall. No social action is purely just one of the four types.

1. Traditional Social Action: actions controlled by traditions, "the way it has always been done"

2. Affective Social Action: actions determined by one's specific affections and emotional state, you do not think about the consequences

3. Value Rational Social Action: actions that are determined by a conscious belief in the inherent value of a type of behavior (ex: religion)

4. Instrumental-Rational Social Action: actions that are carried out to achieve a certain goal, you do something because it leads to a result

To illustrate these different types of action consider someone "going to school" in terms of these four ideal types: Traditionally, one may attend college because her grandparents, parents, aunts, and uncles have as well. They wish to continue the family tradition and continue with college as well. When relating to affective, one may go to school just because they enjoy learning. They love going to college whether or not it will make them broke. With value rational, one may attend college because it's a part of his/her religion that everyone must receive the proper education. Therefore, this person attends college for that reason only. Finally, one may go to college because he/she may want an amazing job in the future and in order to get that job, he/she needs a college degree.
Max Weber was particularly interested in the later of these - he believed that modern societies encouraged 'Instrumental-Action' - that is we are encouraged to do things in the most efficient way (e.g. driving to work) rather than thinking about whether driving to work is the right thing to do (which would be value-rational action.

Weber believed that modern societies were obsessed with efficiency - modernizing and getting things done, such that questions of ethics, affection and tradition were brushed to one side - this has the consequence of making people miserable and leading to enormous social problems. Weber was actually very depressed about this and had a mental breakdown towards the end of his life.

Evaluations of Max Weber's Social Action Theory

- He recognized that we need to understand individual meanings to understand how societies change (unlike Marxism)

- The idea that individual motives can lead to huge structural level changes such as the emergence of Capitalism is especially interesting!

- Still too much focus on society shaping the individual - symbolic interactionism argues that individuals have more freedom to shape their identities.

Negative - there might well be more types of motivation than just four types

Negative - his theory of the emergence of capitalism has been criticized as there is evidence of some forms of capitalism existing BEFORE Protestantism.

Sign Posting

Max Weber's Action Theory is a key social theory usually studies as part of the theory and methods topic for second year sociology.

For an overview of Action theories more generally, including interactionism and labelling theory please see this post which summarises social action theories.

Max Weber's work is also the basis of the 'Interpretivism' part of Positivism versus Interpretivism.

Sources:

Haralambos and Holborne: Sociology Themes and Perspectives

Max Weber: Economy and Society.

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Max Weber's Social Action Theory - ReviseSociology

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Verstehen and the Protestant Ethic are two things Weber is well-known for

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Consensus theory seeks to determine what all people in a society have in common. This commonality becomes the center of the public persona of the society. The consensus approach stresses the fact that the reality of the consensus, that single public persona, must predate the actual articulation of that consensus. In other words, it is both a social reality and a means of understanding that reality.

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Conflict theory, on the other hand, seeks to determine who, why and how those with power have imposed specific aspects of culture on a society. According to conflict theory, culture is the means by which the powerful, who are those with wealth or social status, impose their will on society. Ultimately, the powerful hope to make “culture” seem like consensus, while in reality, it is the creation of the elite.