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Theme 1: WHAT IS INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION? - Moniviestin

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Humanistis-yhteiskuntatieteellinen tiedekunta /Viestintätieteiden laitos /Introduction to Intercultural Communication / Theme 1: WHAT IS INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION?

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1. Neutral versus emotional.

2. Achievement versus ascription.

3. Sequential time versus synchronous time.

4. Internal direction versus outer direction.

We'll look at each dimension in detail below.

You can use the model to better understand people from different cultural backgrounds, so that you can prevent misunderstandings and enjoy a better working relationship with them. This is especially useful if you do business with people from around the world, or if you manage a diverse group of people.

The model also highlights that one culture is not necessarily better or worse than another; people from different cultural backgrounds simply make different choices.

However, the model doesn't tell you how to measure people's preferences on each dimension. Therefore, it's best to use it as a general guide when dealing with people from different cultures.

How to Apply the Seven Dimensions

Let's look at each of the dimensions in detail, and explore some of the strategies that you can use with people who fit the characteristics highlighted in each dimension.

1. Universalism Versus Particularism (Rules Versus Relationships)

Typical universalist cultures include the U.S., Canada, the U.K, the Netherlands, Germany, Scandinavia, New Zealand, Australia, and Switzerland.

Typical particularistic cultures include Russia, Latin America, and China.

2. Individualism Versus Communitarianism (The Individual Versus The Group)

Typical individualist cultures include the U.S., Canada, the U.K, Scandinavia, New Zealand, Australia, and Switzerland.

Typical communitarian cultures include countries in Latin America, Africa, and Japan.

3. Specific Versus Diffuse (How Far People Get Involved)

Typical specific cultures include the U.S., the U.K., Switzerland, Germany, Scandinavia, and the Netherlands.

Typical diffuse cultures include Argentina, Spain, Russia, India, and China.

4. Neutral Versus Emotional (How People Express Emotions)

Typical neutral cultures include the U.K., Sweden, the Netherlands, Finland, and Germany.

Typical emotional cultures include Italy, France, Spain, and countries in Latin America.

5. Achievement Versus Ascription (How People View Status)

Typical achievement cultures include the U.S., Canada, Australia, and Scandinavia.

Typical ascription cultures include France, Italy, Japan, and Saudi Arabia.

6. Sequential Time Versus Synchronous Time (How People Manage Time)

Typical sequential-time cultures include Germany, the U.K., and the U.S.

Typical synchronous-time cultures include Japan, Argentina, and Mexico.

7. Internal Direction Versus Outer Direction (How People Relate to Their Environment)

Typical internal-direction cultures include Israel, the U.S., Australia, New Zealand, and the U.K.

Typical outer-direction cultures include China, Russia, and Saudi Arabia.

* From Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Diversity in Global Business, by Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner. Copyright © 1997, Intercultural Management Publishers NV, Nicholas Brealey Publishing and Mc-Graw Hill Education. Used by permission of Hodder & Stoughton and McGraw-Hill Education.

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The Seven Dimensions of Culture - Understanding and Managing Cultural Differences

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Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner's Seven Dimensions of Culture model helps you work better with people from different cultures.

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Target market cultures compared with ....

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Target market cultures compared with ....

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My culture: present the characteristics of your own national culture

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DEFINITIONS

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It's no secret that Google is one of the world's toughest companies to land a job at. It has also garnered a reputation worldwide as being one of the coolest companies to work for. Coincidence? I think not.

One of the reasons why so many people long to work for Google is because of its unique company culture. The corporate tech giant is famous for treating its employees like gold and providing them with innumerable perks in a laid-back, fun work environment. Unlimited free gourmet food and snacks; complementary massages; on-site daycares; and free fitness classes and gym memberships are just a few of the many benefits offered to Google employees-or "Googlers" as they are called.

Given such an enviable work culture, it's no wonder that people around the world vie for positions at Google. This leaves Google in the fortunate position of being able to pick and choose only the brightest minds. In a nutshell, its awesome company culture attracts top talent and leads to happy employees. Happy employees translate to higher productivity and less turnover. Which ultimately leads to higher profit and greater overall success for Google.

Moreover, Google leaders recognize that company culture is not about the mission statement or how much revenue was brought in in the past year. They understand that it's not even about that ping-pong table in the break room or the fancy nook areas sprinkled throughout the office.

It's about the values held dear by the company and its employees. It's about how friendly and fun the work environment is. Above all else, it's about how team members treat one another and how the management treats employees.

On that note, here are some things that every company can learn from Google's workplace culture.

1. Define Core Values

On their webpage, "Ten things we know to be true," Google lists its long-held values-which were written just a few years after the company was founded. My guess is that Googlers have hired, and continue to hire, individuals who share those same values.

First and foremost, spell out your company's core values to all employees to make sure that everyone is on the same page. This can help set some parameters to measure both individual and company success. Then when hiring, discuss your company's core values with candidates and ask questions that will help determine if the candidates share those values.

At SUCCESS agency, we discuss our core values on a regular basis. Team members are encouraged to bring up our core values in group discussion or chat, whenever relevant. One of our core values is always growing. One way that we ensure we are always growing is through what we call "intentional learning," in which each team member must devote one hour per week to learning something new. Then, each Thursday, we have what we call "Thirsty Thursday," where everyone can share something valuable that they learned that week with the rest of the team.

2. Hire Based on Character, Not Skill-Set

As of July 2015, it was reported that Google receives around three million job applications per year, on average, and only hires around 7,000 of those applicants. So what does this mega selective company look for in its candidates? In his book, Work Rules, Laszlo Bock explains that they search for people who are fun, intellectually humble, conscientious and comfortable dealing with the unknown. Of the many things that they look for, Google also looks for work ethic more than IQ level. Perhaps surprisingly, they do not really care about GPAs.

Remember that skills can be taught. Character, generally, cannot. So find employees that embody the characteristics and values that are most important to you and your company.

3. Don't Be a Copycat

Google allows its employees to bring their dogs to work. Is this normal for such a massive organization? Certainly not. But that doesn't mean it shouldn't be done.

A forward-thinking, innovative mentality is essential to business growth and longevity. So don't just copy what other companies do. Try things out. Determine what works best for your business and what type of culture will make your employees happiest.

4. Embrace Transparency

At Google, employees are encouraged to ask questions and speak their minds. According to one Googler, "My mentor created psychological safety for me on my first day when he said, "Don't be afraid to ask questions-you don't have to impress me. You already have, and that's why I hired you."

Strive to establish and maintain a culture of open and honest communication. Provide and seek constructive feedback on a regular basis. Instead of guessing, ask questions if you are unsure about something. Not happy with a colleague or a situation? Speak up. Make a big mistake? Instead of hiding the evidence or shifting the blame, own up to it.

Transparency from the top to the bottom is key to any successful business.

CEOs and leaders should not be afraid to admit when they are wrong-or if they don't know the answer to something. Being a great leader is, in large part, about honesty and humility. And the more honest a leader is, the more trust and loyalty employees will have in both the leader and the company. The trickle effect is also very powerful. If leaders of a company are transparent, more likely than not, their subordinates will be, as well.

5. Allow for Some Fun

Between Google's volleyball courts, basketball courts and bowling alleys, there is never a shortage of activities for employees to engage in outside of the office. But don't be fooled-there are ways to create a great company culture without spending a ton of money or supplying lots of cool gadgets.

If you're location-based, this could be designating one room as the "play room," filled with comfortable chairs, books, board games and the like. You could also hold monthly office competitions. Get your team outside of the office every now and then and go on a hike-or maybe hold a scavenger hunt downtown.

If you're a remote-based team, you will obviously have to find more intangible ways to have a good time. It could be as simple as taking some time out from a video meeting to discuss everyone's favorite TV shows or books. At SUCCESS agency, the messaging application, Slack, is our virtual office, where we will occasionally share photos of our daily lives and funny GIFs with one another throughout the day.

Another remote-based team, WAYGO, has mid-week "happy hours," where employees will get together via video chat and discuss things unrelated to work-often with a beverage in hand, of course!

The point is not what you do or where you do it-what matters is that team members get to know one another, and bond, outside of the office setting. The better that team members get along with one another, the happier and more productive they will be when they are at work.

6. Create Shared Leadership

Google is also known for its start-up mentality and flat organizational structure, which means that there are few or no levels of middle management. In other words, despite it's massive size, all employees have the opportunity to lead.

Create shared leadership at your company by letting each team member take initiative and be a leader, even if it's just once a month. In meetings, people in upper management roles should not be the only ones talking. Make sure that everyone has a chance to contribute.

Here at SUCCESS agency, we ensure shared leadership through what we call "Value Adds." Through a presentation given once a month, one designated team member shares something of value with the rest of the team.

7. Be Open to Change

The flat organizational structure that Google is renowned for encourages all employees to speak up and vocalize their points of view. This means that if a lower-level employee has an opinion about something, he or she can bypass middle management and go straight to the CEO.

Of course not every company has to adopt the same organizational structure. What matters is remaining open to change, however that may be. Once a company becomes set in its ways, it is much harder to make amendments and evolve down the line.

Allow your business to prosper by prioritizing the continual advancement of your company and employees. As a leader, this means not only being open to new ideas, but also encouraging them. It means examining the processes and procedures that are currently in place and wondering how they can be improved upon. And as an employee, this means not being afraid to make your voice heard.

Final Words

As Larry Page himself said, at the end of the day, "it's important that the company be a family, that people feel that they're part of the company, and that the company is like a family to them. When you treat people that way, you get better productivity." And success.

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What Every Company Can Learn from Google's Company Culture

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It's no secret that Google is one of the world's toughest companies to land a job at. It has also garnered a reputation worldwide as being one of the coolest companies to work for. Coincidence? I think not. One of the reasons why so many people long to work for Google is because of its unique company culture.

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National Culture

Professor Geert Hofstede conducted one of the most comprehensive studies of how values in the workplace are influenced by culture. He defines culture as "the collective programming of the mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from others".

The six dimensions of national culture are based on extensive research done by Professor Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov and their research teams.

The application of this research is used worldwide in both academic and professional management settings.

Dimensions of national culture:

The Hofstede model of national culture consists of six dimensions. The cultural dimensions represent independent preferences for one state of affairs over another that distinguish countries (rather than individuals) from each other.

The country scores on the dimensions are relative, in that we are all human and simultaneously we are all unique. In other words, culture can only be used meaningfully by comparison. The model consists of the following dimensions:

Power Distance Index (PDI)

This dimension expresses the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. The fundamental issue here is how a society handles inequalities among people.

People in societies exhibiting a large degree of Power Distance accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. In societies with low Power Distance, people strive to equalise the distribution of power and demand justification for inequalities of power.

Individualism versus Collectivism (IDV)

The high side of this dimension, called Individualism, can be defined as a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of only themselves and their immediate families.

Its opposite, Collectivism, represents a preference for a tightly-knit framework in society in which individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular ingroup to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. A society's position on this dimension is reflected in whether people's self-image is defined in terms of "I" or "we."

Masculinity versus Femininity (MAS)

The Masculinity side of this dimension represents a preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success. Society at large is more competitive. Its opposite, Femininity, stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and quality of life. Society at large is more consensus-oriented.

In the business context Masculinity versus Femininity is sometimes also related to as "tough versus tender" cultures.

Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)

The Uncertainty Avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. The fundamental issue here is how a society deals with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let it happen?

Countries exhibiting strong UAI maintain rigid codes of belief and behaviour, and are intolerant of unorthodox behaviour and ideas. Weak UAI societies maintain a more relaxed attitude in which practice counts more than principles.

Long Term Orientation versus Short Term Normative Orientation (LTO)

Every society has to maintain some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the present and the future. Societies prioritize these two existential goals differently.

Societies who score low on this dimension, for example, prefer to maintain time-honoured traditions and norms while viewing societal change with suspicion.

Those with a culture which scores high, on the other hand, take a more pragmatic approach: they encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future.

In the business context, this dimension is referred to as "(short-term) normative versus (long-term) pragmatic" (PRA). In the academic environment, the terminology Monumentalism versus Flexhumility is sometimes also used.

Indulgence versus Restraint (IVR)

Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.

♦ Try our Country Comparison tool or compare your personal preferences to the scores of a country of your choice, with Culture Compass™ ♦

About the research

Professor Geert Hofstede conducted one of the most comprehensive studies of how values in the workplace are influenced by culture. He analysed a large database of employee value scores collected within IBM between 1967 and 1973.

The data covered more than 70 countries, from which Hofstede first used the 40 countries with the largest groups of respondents and afterwards extended the analysis to 50 countries and 3 regions.

Subsequent studies validating the earlier results include such respondent groups as commercial airline pilots and students in 23 countries, civil service managers in 14 countries, 'up-market' consumers in 15 countries, and 'elites' in 19 countries.

In the 2010 edition of the book, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind", scores on the dimensions are listed for 76 countries, partly based on replications and extensions of the IBM study on different international populations and by different scholars.

Start your Cultural journey today

Join a course for researchers organised by our partners, more information after the link.

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Professor Geert Hofstede conducted one of the most comprehensive studies of how values in the workplace are influenced by culture. He defines culture as "the collective programming of the mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from others".

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Organisational Culture

Organisational Culture is defined as the way in which members of an organisation relate to each other, their work and the outside world in comparison to other organisations. It can either enable or hinder an organisation's strategy.

Our Multi-Focus Model on Organisational Culture is a strategic tool aimed at helping organisations to become more effective by ensuring you get a detailed picture of:

1. How do employees really relate to their organisational culture - ensuring a matching picture between employee branding/recruitment texts and real life work environment.

2. How ready an organisation is for change - is there enough trust, not too much anxiety and are the relevant groups ready for change?

3. How is the actual way of working (actual culture) and the desired way of working (desired culture) aligned with the optimal culture (strategic choice on which way of working best supports the execution of a given strategy within the available resources and time)

4. How well management is able to use its behaviour to set the example (walk the talk)

5. How indirect change initiatives can assist in ensuring a better fit between the actual way of working and optimal way of working.

Info sheet The Hofstede Multi-focus Model
The dimensions of Organisational Culture

Hofstede's Multi-Focus Model consists of six autonomous dimensions or variables. This enables us to provide insights on the fit between the actual culture and any strategic direction you can think of. Different combinations of dimensions provide insights in various strategic fits and the results generate easy to understand visualisations such as following example:

Dimension 1: Means-oriented vs. Goal-oriented

This dimension is closely connected to the effectiveness of the organisation.

In a means-oriented culture the key feature is the way in which work has to be carried out; people identify with the "how".

In a goal-oriented culture employees are primarily out to achieve specific internal goals or results, even if these involve substantial risks; people identify with the "what".

In a highly means-oriented culture people perceive themselves as avoiding risks and making only a limited effort in their jobs, while each workday is pretty much the same.

However, in a very goal-oriented culture, the employees are primarily out to achieve specific internal goals or results, even if these involve substantial risks.

Dimension 2: Internally driven vs. Externally driven

In a highly internally driven culture employees perceive their task towards the outside world as a given, based on the idea that business ethics and honesty matters most and that they know best what is good for the customer and the world at large.

In a very externally driven culture the only emphasis is on meeting the customer's requirements; results are most important and a pragmatic rather than an ethical attitude prevails.

Dimension 3: Easygoing work discipline vs. Strict work discipline

This dimension refers to the amount of internal structuring, control, and discipline.

A very easygoing culture reveals a fluid internal structure, a lack of predictability, and little control and discipline; there is a lot of improvisation and surprises.

A very strict work discipline reveals the reverse. People are very cost-conscious, punctual and serious.

Dimension 4: Local vs. Professional

In a local company, employees identify with the boss and/or the unit in which one works.

In a professional organisation, the identity of an employee is determined by his profession and/or the content of the job.

In a very local culture, employees are very short-term directed, they are internally focused and there is strong social control to be like everybody else.

In a very professional culture it is the reverse.

Dimension 5: Open system vs. Closed system

This dimension relates to the accessibility of an organisation.

In a very open culture newcomers are made immediately welcome, one is open both to insiders and outsiders, and it is believed that almost anyone would fit in the organisation.

In a very closed organisation it is the reverse.

Dimension 6: Employee-oriented vs. Work-oriented

This aspect of organisational culture is most related to the management philosophy.

In very employee-oriented organisations, members of staff feel that personal problems are taken into account and that the organisation takes responsibility for the welfare of its employees, even if this is at the expense of the work.

In very work-oriented organisations, there is heavy pressure to perform the task even if this is at the expense of employees.

About the Research:

This is the only model based on extensive research. The model is the result of a study on organisational cultures in twenty units from ten different organisations

Conducted by Prof. Geert Hofstede and his research team in Denmark and the Netherlands. The research showed that a large part of the differences among the units could be explained by six factors related to concepts within the field of organisational sociology and the six dimensions were developed based on the literature.

Data was collected through:.

In-depth interviews of 2-3 hours with industry and academic leaders: total 180 interviews

Defining meaningful questions to identify as many differences among work practices as possible

Testing around 200 questions to assess whether they are well understood and whether the answers differentiate

Paper-pencil surveys using around 100 questions administered among a total of around 1500 respondents (25 managers, 25 professionals and 25 non managers per unit ad-randomly chosen)

Measure your organisational culture

To measure your organisation's company culture use our Organisation Culture Scan:

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Organisational Culture - Hofstede Insights

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Organisational Culture is defined as the way in which members of an organisation relate to each other, their work and the outside world in comparison to other organisations. It can either enable or hinder an organisation's strategy.

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When it comes to keeping employees happy and productive, companies such as Google lead the way. The brand is as famous for its staff perks - pool tables and bowling alleys, free food and gym memberships - as it is for its technology, and even employs a chief happiness officer whose sole job is to keep employees happy and maintain productivity.

Now other companies are catching on fast, boosting engagement and motivation by involving employees in creative activities and offering incentives that help them enjoy their jobs and feel good about themselves.

Workplaces all over the UK are creating breakout zones and gaming areas, where staff can chill out, chat, and stimulate their creative juices, or offering classes that equip staff with creative skills, such as languages, painting and drawing, and learning musical instruments.

Why? Because organisations that foster a workplace culture of creativity are likely to have happy, motivated employees who are more loyal and more productive.

Mark Rhodes, director of marketing at recruitment firm Reed, says: "All employers stand to gain by promoting creativity at work. The most successful businesses are those that engender creative thinking and develop environments where everyone generates ideas, has a voice, asks questions and challenges the norm. Some ideas will stick, some won't, but what's certain is you'll learn a lot from the process along the way."

Lateral thinking and the ability to communicate are crucial skills in any organisation

Some employers are actively encouraging creative collaborations between teams. Every year, Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU) runs an event called Engage Week, where staff host events for other members of staff who want to learn something new. These range from sporting events to craft activities, such as metalwork, sausage making, chocolate making, picture framing, and learning basic sign language.

"More than 100 events take place during Engage Week," says MMU organisation development and training officer Alison Laithwaite. "We also have an MMU Makers group, comprising members of staff who do a wide range of crafts in their spare time, selling some of them during Engage Week and at Christmas, and also hosting some of the Engage Week sessions."

Cognizant Business Consulting sees value in tapping into and learning about the creative talents of youngsters. The company holds regular Insight Days, and invites local school pupils to come in and learn about what a career in Stem (science, technology, engineering and maths) looks like.

They spend the morning taking part in interactive games around technology innovation, before facing four of Cognizant's senior members of staff in a Dragons' Den-style challenge involving different hi-tech products, such as wearable technology.

"If you set a group of year 9 pupils a challenge, it is striking how creative they can be," says vice-president Phil Dunmore. "In a brainstorm, it always impresses me how they are able to immediately think laterally and intuitively, pulling in reference points from their friends, family, their environment and their use of modern technologies like social media.

"Creativity, lateral thinking and the ability to communicate are crucial skills in progressing through the ranks in any organisation. It is easy to lose some of that natural creativity in our adult lives. Spending the day with secondary school students reminds us of this - it benefits us as much as it does them."

Employees can be entrepreneurially creative within the confines of their full-time role, injecting fresh ideas into the company, some of which are implemented and rewarded.

Virgin is famous for its culture of innovation and creativity, and some of the ideas that have been implemented at Virgin Management were originated by members of staff.

"When we moved to a new building we asked people for their ideas on what was hot, and what was not," says head of people operations Sharon Pommells. "The feedback ranged from ideas around the aesthetics, and what they wanted their workspace to look like, to the practical - someone suggested having hand driers installed because they are cool and environmentally friendly."

Ideas on a much larger scale, such as unlimited holidays, were also the product of employee innovation. The key to making employee innovation work lies with a management team that listens to all the ideas and commits to making the best ones work.

At Virgin Management, employee ideas are submitted via a forum, and only a small number, usually no more than three, are taken on and implemented every year.

"If you are open to the gathering of thoughts, people will respond," says Pommells. "When people feel more involved, they are happier, more engaged and more productive."

Boost creativity

Employees in companies that support healthy habits are eight times more dedicated, and three-and-a-half times more creative and innovative.

Leaving the office and interacting with your colleagues boosts creativity and engagement.

Six out of 10 employees said they would come up with more creative suggestions if they were rewarded for them.

Sources: World Economic Forum, The Energy Project and Harvard Business Review, HR Magazine Looking for a job? Browse Guardian Jobs or sign up to Guardian Careers for the latest job vacancies and career advice Topics

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Is Google's model of the creative workplace the future of the office?

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When it comes to keeping employees happy and productive, companies such as Google lead the way. The brand is as famous for its staff perks - pool tables and bowling alleys, free food and gym memberships - as it is for its technology, and even employs a chief happiness officer whose sole job is to keep employees happy and maintain productivity.

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Summary

Netflix is watch-worthy for more than a few reasons. Bingeable shows? Check. Huge business growth? Check. All-star culture? Check. In this article from Entrepreneur, Andrea Huspeni discusses the latter. Keep reading to find out the 6 core values Netflix abides by to keep its company culture strong.

Who Should Read This Article

Hey, C-suite marketers! Take a few tips from Netflix on how to build the culture you really want.

What You Will Learn

Peek behind the magic curtain and see what makes Netflix's company culture so strong. You'll learn all about the company's core values, such as:

No 'shiny-object' syndrome

Everyone's all in

Honesty is the best policy

...and more!
Take Away

In one of the outlined tips, Netflix CEO Reed Hastings says, "We don't have a nine-to-five policy." Is this a smart move for companies like Netflix? What about for your own company?

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Netflix's Tips for Building an Epic Company Culture | MarTechExec

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Netflix is watch-worthy for more than a few reasons. Bingeable shows? Check. Huge business growth? Check. All-star culture? Check. In this article from Entrepreneur, Andrea Huspeni discusses the latter. Keep reading to find out the 6 core values Netflix abides by to keep its company culture strong. Hey, C-suite marketers!

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Hall

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Explanations > Culture > Hall's cultural factors

Edward T. Hall was an anthropologist who made early discoveries of key cultural factors. In particular he is known for his high and low context cultural factors.

Context

High context

In a high-context culture, there are many contextual elements that help people to understand the rules. As a result, much is taken for granted.

This can be very confusing for person who does not understand the 'unwritten rules' of the culture.

Low context

In a low-context culture, very little is taken for granted. Whilst this means that more explanation is needed, it also means there is less chance of misunderstanding particularly when visitors are present.

Contrasting the two

French contracts tend to be short (in physical length, not time duration) as much of the information is available within the high-context French culture. American content, on the other hand, is low-context and so contracts tend to be longer in order to explain the detail.

Highly mobile environments where people come and go need lower-context culture. With a stable population, however, a higher context culture may develop.

Note the similarity with Trompenaars' Universalism (low context) and Particularism (high context).

Overtness of messages

Many covert and implicit messages, with use of metaphor and reading between the lines.

Many overt and explicit messages that are simple and clear.

Locus of control and attribution for failure

Inner locus of control and personal acceptance for
failure

Outer locus of control and blame of others for failure

Level of commitment to relationships

High commitment to long-term relationships.
Relationship more important than task.

Low commitment to relationship. Task more important than relationships.

Time is open and flexible.
Process is more important than product

Time is highly organized.
Product is more important than process

Time

Monochronic time

M-Time, as he called it, means doing one thing at a time. It assumes careful planning and scheduling and is a familiar Western approach that appears in disciplines such as 'time management'.

Monochronic people tend also to be low context.

Polychronic time

In Polychronic cultures, human interaction is valued over time and material things, leading to a lesser concern for 'getting things done' -- they do get done, but more in their own time.

Aboriginal and Native Americans have typical polychronic cultures, where 'talking stick' meetings can go on for as long as somebody has something to say.

Polychronic people tend also to be high context.

Contrasting the two

Western cultures vary in their focus on monochronic or polychronic time. Americans are strongly monochronic whilst the French have a much greater polychronic tendency -- thus a French person may turn up to a meeting late and think nothing of it (much to the annoyance of a German or American co-worker).

Note the similarity with Trompenaars' time as sequence (monochronic) and time as synchronization (polychronic).

Space

Hall was concerned about space and our relationships within it. He called the study of such space Proxemics.

We have concerns about space in many situations, from personal body space to space in the office, parking space, space at home.

The need for space

Some people need more space in all areas. People who encroach into that space are seen as a threat.

Personal space is an example of a mobile form of territory and people need less or greater distances between them and others. A Japanese person who needs less space thus will stand closer to an American, inadvertently making the American uncomfortable.

Some people need bigger homes, bigger cars, bigger offices and so on. This may be driven by cultural factors, for example the space in America needs to greater use of space, whilst Japanese need less space (partly as a result of limited useful space in Japan).

High territoriality

Some people are more territorial than others with greater concern for ownership. They seek to mark out the areas which are theirs and perhaps having boundary wars with neighbors.

This happens right down to desk-level, where co-workers may do battle over a piece of paper which overlaps from one person's area to another. At national level, many wars have been fought over boundaries.

Territoriality also extends to anything that is 'mine' and ownership concerns extend to material things. Security thus becomes a subject of great concern for people with a high need for ownership.

People high territoriality tend also to be low context.

Low territoriality

People with lower territoriality have less ownership of space and boundaries are less important to them. They will share territory and ownership with little thought.

They also have less concern for material ownership and their sense of 'stealing' is less developed (this is more important for highly territorial people).

People with low territoriality tend also to be high context.

Contrasting

Australian Aboriginal people will say that they belong to the land rather than the other way around. Before we scotch this, we should remember that they have thrived in harsh conditions for thousands of years. Western society, on the other hand has shown much barbarity over ownership of land.

When working across cultures, pay attention to high and low cultures through the actions of others. For example if people are late for meetings it may be because they are polychronic, not because they are disrespectful or lazy.

When you understand the personal, national or organizational culture, then you can seek to align with them and hence gain greater influence.

References

Hall, E.T. (1959). The Silent Language, New York: Doubleday

Hall, E.T. (1966). The Hidden Dimension, New York: Doubleday

Hall, E.T. (1976). Beyond Culture, New York: Doubleday

Hall, E.T. (1983). The Dance of Life, The Other Dimension of Time, New York: Doubleday

Hall, E.T. (1985). Hidden Differences: Studies in International Communication, Hamburg: Grunder and Jahr

Hall, E.T. (1990). Hidden Differences: Doing Business with the Japanese, Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/ Doubleday

Hall, E.T. (1990). Understanding Cultural Differences, Germans, French and Americans, Yarmouth: Intercultural Press

See also

The Managerial Grid, Trompenaars' and Hampden-Turner's cultural factors

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Edward T. Hall described high-context and low-context cultures -- here are details.