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Sand dunes form when wind blows sand grains into a sheltered area behind a barrier. As the grains of sand accumulate, dunes are created.

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Hoodoos are formed by frost wedging and weather (mostly rain). Frozen water expands and slowly enlarges cracks, making them wider. After that, rain further erodes and sculpts them.

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The sand in areas with pinnacles are composed of quartz and calcite. Rain dissolves and seeps calcite from the upper levels and precipitates calcite as cement in lower levels. At the base of the soil, a layer of calcrete forms isolating the lower portion of the dunes from the surface. It is then ruptured by plant roots, allowing the rain to dissolve calcite in specific areas, which become enriched in quartz sand. Later when the plants die and sand is blown away, these areas form the low spots between pinnacles.

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If a cave is formed in a headland (a slice of land that stretches from a coastline into the sea), eventually it may break through to the other side, creating an arch. Alternatively, arches can be formed over time when parallel fractures in surface rock erode creating "fins." Eventually the fins are completely worn through and arches are made

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Frost wedging causes "talus" (large piles of broken rock fragment) to break apart and accumulate at the foot of a mountain.

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Rivers and wind gradually erode the land between two slopes (usually mountains) over time and form valleys that appear to be in the shape of a "V."

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When moving water in a stream wears down the outer banks and widens the valley a meandering stream is formed. The inner part of the river has less energy and thus deposits silt to the outside.

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A meander will become very curved after a long period of time. The neck eventually becomes narrower. Then, during a flood, the water will cut through the neck and will form an Ox-Bow Lake.

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Soluble bedrock is exposed and gradually worn down over time, creating a sinkhole.

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Rainwater picks up carbon dioxide from the air and seeps through the soil turning it into a weak acid. This slowly dissolves the limestone along fractures, some of which become enlarged enough to form caves.

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Stalactites form when calcium bicarbonate from limestone rock dissolves into water. The water drips from the ceiling of a cave and as it comes in contact with the air, the calcium bicarbonate converts into limestone, which over time forms a stalactite.

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Stalagmites form when water from the end of a stalactite creates a pile on a cave floor. Eventually, this pile becomes a stalagmite. As a result, stalactites and stalagmites are found in groups

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Horns are formed when glaciers erode three or more arêtes, usually forming a sharp-edged peak.

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Glaciers push downhill usually through a path already cut by streams. Glaciers seep into stream channels, and bit by bit, the glacier eats away at the curves of the original valley, carving a wider, straighter valley. Once the glaciers melt, a u-shaped valley is revealed.

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Two glaciers erode parallel U-shaped valleys and form a narrow ridge of rocks called an Arête.

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Cirques are concave, circular basins carved by the bottom of a glacier as it wears down the surrounding landscape.

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Hanging valleys are formed when a main valley has been widened and deepened by glacial erosion. This cuts the side valley from the main valley below.

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A moraine is material-usually soil and rock- left behind by a glacier in motion. This eventually builds up into a moraine.

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When sediment rock expands, particles are lifted up at right angles to the slope. When the sediments shrink, due to heating/cooling, the particles fall back down. Creeps are created over a long span of time.

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Flows are a mixture of water, rock and sediment that move quickly downhill. Flows can block roads or bury villages. When volcanoes  that are covered with snow and ice erupt, melted snow and ice mixes with mud and volcanic ash and flows down mountains. This is called a volcanic flow or a "lahar"

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When gravity causes rock and/or soil to move down a slope a landslide occurs. Slow weathering of rocks as well as soil erosion, earthquakes and volcanic activity can all cause a landslide.

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The curved surface and rotation of material in a slump causes rock layers to be tilted backwards relative to rock layers beneath the slip surface. This can produce a dip that collects water and sediment. The material within a slump mass is not deformed, but rotated (distinguishes slides from flows).

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Rock fragments fall from the face of a cliff due to gravity. Freeze-thaw action loosens the rock. Water enters the joint, freezes and expands, cracking the rock. As a result, a slope of fallen rock is formed at the bottom of the cliff.