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i) Based on the groups' inputs, there is good evidence (local and global) to suggest that periods of social change or stress is correlated (not a cause of) increased crime rates.

ii) If we consider individuals motivations for criminal/offending behavior, most offenders will cite challenging circumstances they face in their bid to explain and/or justify their actions. Understanding these explanations/justification help us better appreciate the subjectivities of criminal behavior. On the same note, society do not condone these behaviors.

iii) On the same note, explaining crime rates from the perspective of individual motivation has limitations. How do we explain spikes in crime rates (of specific crimes) in societies where social change is (fairly) well managed. It is also overly deterministic to suggest that (dis)stress/burnout/mental health issues is a strong causal factor for crimes; majority of individuals who experience such states do not turn to crime.

iv) Crime rates and trends must be understood from a broader and macro public safety and security (PSS) perspective. What PSS elements are in place to deter criminal/offending behaviors? Do societies have a strong security culture?

v) In short, Durkheim's functionalist views provide a good initial platform to make sense of the need for PSS to protect both individual and societal interests. The need for PSS helps us better appreciate the workings of the CJS and not merely concluding that punishment is simply a tool/mechanism/system to deal with criminal behaviors.

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Changes to society such as population growth, excessive developments, inadequate growth of the next generation could be a great reason for the rise in the crime rates globally.

With the increase in global prices following the global pandemic and wars happening, the stress of not being able to provide for their families due to low income may be a reason for an increase in crime rates.

Periods of financial stress attribute to increased crime rates in the US

Wage issues on unskilled workforces/Increasing unemployments rates

Financial problems such as debt

Lack of stability [Durkheim’s Theory]

Increase in crime rates

The rise in the UN rate, engendered by the declining labour market conditions in urban areas, served to raise youth delinquency and urban crime rates

No:

We cannot always attribute increased crime rates to periods of social change or stress.

During the Covid-19 pandemic, a social change, which noted improvements in crime rates

In Japan, lockdown measures had led to positive improvements in mental health when proxied with suicide rates (suicide rates declined by 2.8%)

Society is thus stable [Durkheim’s Theory]

People would be more alert about potential criminals and take more precautions against crimes

Violent crimes and property crime victimisation would be reduced

Therefore, there would be a decrease in crime rates (specifically in the areas of violent crimes and property crime) during periods of social change such as the Covid-19 pandemic

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yes

- in times of normlessness, individuals may feel isolated which may lead to deviant behaviour.

- demographics of a country changes (i.e. age composition), the nature of the crime committed would thus also differ hence, may cause an increase in particular crimes committed

•no

- statement may be more applicable in the olden times, as generations today are more woke, we can voice our opinions instead of resorting to crime to show/vent frustration to societal changes

The statement, however needs to consider that the manner in which people adapt to changes differ and most will take a while to adapt. There maybe some who react negatively to stresses; adopt maladaptive behaviours or methods while others may remain on the fringes of society, while some may choose to deviant or antisocial behaviour to compensate, which may end up as criminal behaviour.

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Yes.

For social change, through the example of 9/11 incident it has showcase how terrorism, a major event that inflicted social change, has increased the amount of hate crimes towards a certain community. According to The Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) reported a 1,600% increase in anti-Muslim hate crime incidents in 2001.

On top of that, for stress, violent crimes have been affected by sports events consistently due to factors like gambling and drinking. According to statistics, domestic abuse has risen by 38% when the England men’s team loses a major football tournament.

This shows that crime rates directly correlate to periods of social change and stress.

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Periods of social change and stress can be attributed to increased crime rates. The increased amount of stress and isolation, being couped up in a confined household may have made people violent and prone to committing such criminal offences.

According to a Straits Time article updated on DEC 08, 2021, there was a 22% increase (monthly) in offences associated with domestic violence. Social service agencies in Singapore also reported a spike in calls to helplines related to domestic violence. For example, the Association of Women for Action and Research (AWARE) reported a 35% increase in calls to their helpline in April 2020, compared to the monthly average before the pandemic.

Stress, in extreme cases, can impair judgement, increase impulsivity and heighten aggression, all of which not only have a direct correlation with the likelihood of committing violent crimes, but also becoming a victim of them. (Crime Prevention Services UK, 2024.)

When there are changes to the social structures and the familiarity of space around them, people struggle to cope with the transition which makes them more vulnerable to feeling inadequate. It may also result to them hurting those around them as they are unable to control their stress well.

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Yes, we can attribute increased crime rates to periods of social change or stress.
For example, The Great Depression. There was mass unemployment and an increase of prices of products and goods. This led to many facing poverty which negatively affected the socio economy of many people. Many who need to survive chose crime acts. Based on the The National Bureau of Economic Research, FBI reported data on seven major crime categories during the great depression. The crimes were murder and nonnegligent manslaughter, rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny-theft, and motor vehicle theft.
Other factors include socioeconomic issues such as financial instability, food insecurity, housing insecurity where individuals may turn to crime as a means of survival or also resort to criminal behaviour due to frustration.

In such periods of social change and stress, previously held norms and values that were known to society arguably weaken and might even totally disintegrate, leading to a state of normless (anomie) amongst people. As such, people feel disconnected or pressured leading to increased crime rates and deviant behaviour. This shows that we can attribute increased crime rates to periods of social change and stress because people do not consider the repercussions and consequences of committing a crime.

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Yes, when there is a sudden or drastic change, people may be unable to cope with the change or become stressed in response to the change or the inability to cope.

For instance,

•⁠ ⁠Money Troubles: When times are tough and people can't find work, there is a period of retrenchments or economic disruptions, or when people feel that there are income inequalities in society, people might turn to stealing, cheating or ways to get quick cash to get by.

•⁠ ⁠Feeling Stressed: If people are worried, scared or feel insecure in various factors, they might act out more, commit crimes or become violent.

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We agree that Durkheim's idea of functionalism and collective conscious relate to crime/stability in society.

-Taking for instance of the current political unrest in Bangladesh which were started due to peaceful protest by students for the increase in quota for government jobs based on meritocracy instead of reasons such as majority of the quota been reserved for descendants of war veteran's relatives. Poor and outdated governance had led to mass riots over a month by students resulting in the former PM of Bangladesh to flee the country. Currently an incoming PM is preparing to guide an interim government in Dhaka as businesses are struggling with the unprecedented nature of recent events.

-Another instance is in Sg. During covid, many businesses suffer due to the mandate to stay at home which slowed the economy of the country. Many of these businesses had to relay on online platforms which however led to in a rise in scams due to more people staying at home and carrying out more monetary transactions online.

This relates to the functionalist theory by Durkheim. In an instance when one part of the system becomes dysfunctional, it will affect all other parts and create social problems which will prompt for social changes.

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Traffic Offenses

Infringe:
Traffic Offenses infringe upon society’s collective conscience as it can cause danger on the road. Not only for the driver itself, but other people on the road as well.

Types of Traffic Offenses:
1. Reckless driving
2. Exceeding Speed limit
3. Use of mobile phone while driving

With these offences, they can endanger the lives of others on the road. Which is why we need to abide by the rules and laws while driving. We believe that the society’s collective conscience will not be swayed and say it does not cause infringement knowing that reckless driving on the road will cost innocent lives due to the lack of awareness on the road.

House Breaking

Infringe:

Breaking into a person’s house can damage their property, induce theft, disrupt privacy and possibly cause harm to the person and their neighbours. House breaking can also cause fear and at times, leave victims in a traumatized state. Hence, leads to disorganization because it threatens the safety and security of the society.

Knowing this, especially in Singapore’s context, generally, people tend to view Singapore as a safe country. Once they know more cases of house breaking, they will have a different view about Singapore and question about the safety and security of the country.

Article reference: https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts-crime/we-don-t-lock-our-doors-residents-of-burglary-hit-estates-along-holland-road

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Yes, periods of social change and stress can lead to increase in certain crimes (depending on context of change)

- for eg. During financial crisis, the huge unemployment rate would mean that people are more susceptible to committing crimes such as theft and robbery for basic necessities

- another example more relevant to SG would be that during covid-19 lockdown, despite a decrease in physical crimes, we see an increase in family violence. This might be due to the environment (everyone to stay home except those working in essential services) coupled with financial uncertainty (covid-19) therefore leading to increased stress levels and for people to “vent” their anger at their families

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i) Online scams

Infringes

Eg. Impersonation of authorities

- threatens trust among people

-people become more cautious

-victims who have fallen for the scam, will feel stress and anxiety, influencing people around them

Do not infringe

Eg. Telegram scams

- though it is a crime, many still engage in them for the monetary benefits

ii) Housebreaking

Infringes

- invasion of a safe space inflicts fear onto individuals, that their property and their safety would be jeopardised

-sense of privacy is violated

-weakens trust between communities

-insecurities between communities will arise

- victims may suffer trauma and not be able to fully recover from daily exertions

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Infringes

Drink driving infringes upon the social consiousness when when common understanding about morals are infringed upon, for example, responsibility/consequences about your own actions

> causes distress/fear via domino effect ie harm's society's perception of safety on the roads

> loss of live(s) as its dangerous to both the victim and perpetrators

> loss of GDP due to one less productive citizen in society

Vaping

> infringes upon social sense of safety ie contains unregulated ingredients which are illegally sourced which could be harmful to society as a whole

> strain on medical and healthcare systems when more people are affected by health effects of vaping

> causes distress to family members -> addiction which leads to overspending on family finances in addition to the emotional harm and hurt caused by vaping

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Rioting
infringe:
rioting poses a danger as it leads to property destruction and harm to the public which are often perceptible.

this leads to economic impact, due to businesses being forced to close, cost of repairs can also be straining.

psychological effects is another factor as chaos and violence are often associated with riots, causing fear and trauma which can persist long after riots have ended

example: 1964 race riot

Shop Theft

infringe:

shop theft might be seen by a few to be "small crime", however, "low crime does not mean no crime".

Even though it does not cause harm/damage to the body per se, it causes the loss of property

Leading to:

1) economic loss of business owners, causing the price of products to be driven up

2) distrust between people - if people can get away will stealing, what is the point of paying?

Eventually, individuals will choose self-interest over social moralities, resulting in increase in crime rates. Therefore there is a need to enforce punishment for shop theft in order to protect society's collective conscience.

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Drink Driving:

-Society views such behaviour as being irresponsible and avoidable as not only are the perpetrators' lives at stake but also for for endangering others. Typically, such crimes infringe society's collective conscience which often leads to a trending outcry and harsh judgements to be made on social media if this crime has endangered others

Child abuse:

-Child abuse infringes upon society's collective conscience as basic principles such as moral and ethical norms are violated. Abuse in most societies is view as fundamentally intolerable and wrong. There have been instances where videos of child abuse in pre-schools have trended on social media where harsh comments were passed by netizens. Such incidents have sparked parents to call for more scrutiny and transparency on the practices at pre-school institutions.

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Traffic Offences (Infringes)
Traffic Offences Examples include
- Driving Under Influence
- Dangerous Driving
- Careless Driving

Traffic offences infringe upon society’s collective conscience because it contravenes a society's values of collective responsibility, which refers to the idea that everybody has a role to act in a way that does not endanger others. Accidents can lead to injuries and loss of lives which does not only affect the parties involved, but also affects loved ones. As such, when one commits traffic offences, especially behaviour which includes reckless driving or speeding that could potentially severely injure oneself and others, it clearly goes against the society’s values and norms and hence is criminal, according to Durkheim.

Voyeurism (Infringes)
Voyeurism infringe upon society’s collective conscience because it directly affects one’s personal privacy, disregarding the notion that personal boundaries must be respected.
We believe that voyeurism may cause psychological effects such as PTSD and diminish one’s expectation of privacy. With the rise of Voyeurism cases in Singapore, MRT has implied announcements warning against molestation and taking upskirt photos in all stations. As such, this similarly goes against society’s values and norms and hence is criminal, according to Durkheim.

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i)

Murder is a criminal offence under Section 300 of Penal Code 1871.

Murdering people on impulse or for retribution puts members of the public at risk of being a target, endangering them. In the aftermath of a murder, feelings of distrust, anxiousness and uncertainty are common among the public. When there is social unrest within society, tensions between people might increase.

Murder disrupts the maintained social order and safety especially if justice is delayed, thus infringing our society’s collective conscience.

x)

Under Section 16(2A) of the Tobacco (Control of Advertisements and Sale) Act, it is illegal to possess, purchase and use vaporizers in Singapore.

Vaping is highly hazardous and detrimental to one’s health as it contains several classes of hazardous substances. Vaping has thus been linked to increased risks of developing health issues like myocardial infarction, asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. (World Health Organisation, 2021.) The costs of these serious health issues could pose a heavy burden on both the healthcare sector and economy of Singapore.

As it becomes a rising issue to tackle, the effects of long-term vaping on people and the society are detrimental to its health, which infringes the society's collective conscience as more people are prone to cancer-related diseases.

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Yes. Social change such as unemployment or poverty would pressure a person to be involved in illegal activities or to act in defiance to make ends meet. It influences individuals’ behaviour, shaping their attitudes towards laws.

Stress can cause an individual to have cloudy judgement and be more impulsive in their actions as a way to resolve the tension that they are feeling. It can also lead to aggression and violence as they would consider it as a form of escapism.

An example would be the Great Depression, which led to massive unemployment, poverty and economic stability. This caused people who were in hardship to find other means to survive such as involving in illegal activities such as crimes.

An additional example would be UK’s recent civil unrest - the UK is currently facing social unrest involving riots against immigrants and muslims. Violence had broken out which included vandalising and damaging of a local mosque, breaking into and setting a hotel on fire, and the assault against the police officers.

Another example would be the COVID-19 pandemic which led to the implementation of circuit breaker in Singapore. More specifically, in 2021, between April to May, Singapore had recorded 476 reports filed that were closely related to family violence, a rise of 22% from before the circuit breaker started (Ian, 2021). The combination of stress, social isolation, economic downturn, as well as being restrained to four walls for a long period of time had heightened domestic violence, some of them including physical, emotional, spousal or child abuse.

Lastly when comparing Singapore to another country, the ranking of “Safest Countries in the World 2024” by  World’s Population Review indicated that Iceland ranked first. Their 2023 GPI (Global Peace Index) showed they have the lowest with 1.124 GPI. A reason as to why violent crime is so rare in Iceland is that there’s no labels that signifies any difference amongst the citizens.  For example, in a 2013 article by BBC, they do not distinguish themselves by economic class - upper, middle and lower class. This reduces social tension in Iceland, leading to a more peaceful country that has a low crime rate consistently.

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Online Scams

Infringe

1.⁠ ⁠The trust in digital platforms and transactions can be compromised by online scams, which creates a lack of trust in e-commerce, online banking, and even social media.

2.⁠ ⁠Victims of online scams often experience negative emotions- they might feel embarrassed, scared, cheated or even guilty for losing large amounts of money to scammers.

3.⁠ ⁠In extreme cases, it may also cause financial damage to individuals or smaller businesses as people may feel less confident about spending money due to fear of business legitimacy, making society’s or individuals’ economies less stable.

Do not infringe

1.⁠ ⁠On the other hand, education and awareness on online scams can help society become more vigilant and increase digital literacy. This increased awareness can help society create safer online platforms.

2.⁠ ⁠⁠Collectively, online scams can spur advances in technology from governing and regulatory bodies, making online platforms safer for society, young and old, by protecting people from scams and fraud.

Child Abuse

Infringe

1.⁠ ⁠There have been a number of reports of child abuse and neglect of children which report that the victim is known to the perpetrator or that the perpetrator was of someone who was entrusted to look after the victim. Comments from social media and response to these news reports have shown a collective disgust and distrust from society. When children are abused especially in places or by people known to them, it makes it hard for people to trust individuals and organisations responsible for taking care of them, like family members, schools, and social services.

2.⁠ ⁠Children who are abused often experience long-term emotional and mental distress, like feelings of anxiety, sadness, distrust, and may even have to deal with symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

3.⁠ ⁠In severe cases, the pain of child abuse can carry on to future generations if people struggle to regulate or process their past hurt. People who were abused may have a hard time being good parents- they may choose to not have children or if they do, they may not have had the proper modelling to learn how to be good parents and the cycle of abuse and neglect may continue.

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(i) Murder

Infringe:

Murder is a crime that most would believe to be unethical and morally wrong as it involves taking away someone’s life unlawfully. Murder infringes on society’s collective conscience as it would instil fear and distress in the community, causing people to feel unsafe and insecure. This may lead to distrust within the community, affecting social cohesion.

If a murder was committed and it goes unpunished, it can cause the public to wonder what is morally right and wrong. According to a study titled “Murder and Society: Why commit murder?” By Dr Peter Morrall, he referenced Sandra Bloom’s view that society propagates violence. Our values as a society, like towards violence, are usually influenced by the education system and media. So, when mainstream news companies report that a murderer is not convicted for their wrongful act, it will raise doubts about the justice system and shared understanding on what we can or cannot do as a society.

The unlawful killing of another person directly affects society as it causes a community to lose its safety and security, while simultaneously increasing paranoia and panic. One example could be school shootings. A study done by Pew Research Center (2018) concluded that teenagers have started to worry about going to school in fear that a shooting might occur. Majority of Americans have indicated feeling anxiety and stress, with 1 in 3 adults that have reported saying they have started to avoid particular locations and events (American, Psychological Association, 2019).

Thus, fear would be closely associated in cases when a murderer is on the loose within a society, or to envision being in the victim’s position. Additionally, there may be feelings of distrust in the society as most would think that anyone can commit such a horrifying crime behind a kind or friendly facade - that is masked with cruel intentions.

Do not Infringe:

Murder does not infringe on society’s collective conscience as some cases may have complex motivations for example a murder occurring due to self-defence as the person is being harmed in an immoral way such as rape. This may cause society to view the action as necessary and consider it as morally correct.

(ii) Shop Theft

Infringe:

Shop theft infringes upon society’s collective conscience because it raises moral concerns, taking something that does not belong to you is unethical. It would breach the trust and raise more suspicion within the community. For example, if a certain race were to commit multiple theft cases, there would be a stigma associated with the race, causing people to feel cautious around them.

Additionally, the dishonest act of stealing may result in victims facing personal losses that are valuable, whereas shops are left with financial losses. This will result in many to be more vigilant and conscious of their surroundings, eroding their trust and increasing one’s feelings of anxiety as they do one’s utmost to keep their possessions close within their reach.

Stealing is commonly known to be morally wrong hence to condone such acts - will lead the society into disorder as many would think that stealing is not that big of a crime. Increased crime of shop thefts will then result in a more strained relationship among the society and most living in fear as all are prone to have their valuables stolen at any time. Additionally, such thefts or robbery may involve violence to assert dominance against victims hence the vulnerability of a victim such as shop staff, makes one feel uneasy about their safety.

Do not infringe:

Shop theft may not directly infringe upon society’s collective conscience as the situation may occur due to the person stealing for personal or family survival needs. Thus, seeing theft as the only viable option. Society would view the action as for survival and the hardship an individual is facing. For example, a single mother steals milk powder for her baby as it is too expensive and does not have enough money for it.

In a nutshell, the crime is usually related to an individual’s personal reasoning like their financial status. It is the intention of stealing that can invoke empathy in our society.  For example, the famous story of an Oklahoma woman who bought groceries for her thief after he robbed her wallet. When the story went viral, it sparked mass sympathy on the internet for the thief. In fact, it made netizens question the cost of living in America. However, many shop theft cases are usually not reported as only big cases with brutal outcomes (like murder) are what is shared to the public - which is not often. Hence, shop theft needs to be associated with another crime to make it directly infringed with society’s collective conscience.

Lastly, theft is defined as intentionally and dishonestly moving a property or possession without the owner’s consent (Singapore Statutes Online, 2024). This shows shop theft only directly impacts shop owners, or big multi-national corporations. It does not directly impact society as a whole, as it causes shop owners to face financial losses, instead of emotional trauma or psychological stress as opposed to a heavy crime like murder.

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Yes, social change or stress can contribute to increased crime rates.

During social changes, it can affect a person’s ability to interact with others due to differing views. It can cause impaired judgement which can lead to rising tensions that could incite someone to perform unlawful actions. During social changes, a person might be unfamiliar to its environment as there might be uncertainties. They might act out of character as they are unsure how to adapt to this new change.

A person might be dealing with several challenges like financial problems, increase of mood swings/intense emotions when they are stressed. Stress can affect judgement, increased impulsivity which can lead to aggressive behaviours that can lead to the likelihood of a criminal conduct. People sometimes bear the brunt of stress due to their demands of their roles and responsibilities and might display atypical behaviours. This might erode the social glue that sticks the person to societal norms which may lead to the person to commit an action that may go against societal norms and laws.

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Rioting

Infringe with society’s collective conscience by creating a chaotic, violent environment that threatens public safety and disrupts social order. The use of weapons and property damage during riots leads to widespread fear, stress, and anxiety among the public. This atmosphere erodes social trust, damages community cohesion, and fosters distrust among individuals. The resultant breakdown in social unity and security can increase societal divisions and challenge the effectiveness of governance, leading to further unrest and instability.

Voyeurism

Infringe society’s collective conscience by invading individuals' privacy and personal space. This non-consensual act compromises victims' sense of security and safety, leading to psychological trauma and a persistent feeling of vulnerability. The effects extend beyond the immediate victims, causing others to feel unsafe and distrustful, impacting overall public safety and respect for privacy. This breach undermines the fundamental societal norm of respecting personal boundaries and can lead to increased wariness and fear in public spaces.