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Accommodations at School

At school, the assistive technology a student uses is captured in the Accommodations section of the student's 504 plan or IEP.
Figuring out which accommodations are helpful is a process that evolves over time.
Start slow. Choose one challenge at a time and look at different AT to address it.
As the student becomes comfortable with that AT, look at possible AT solutions for another challenge.

Allow time for learning new technology. Doing something fun or silly is a great way for students to learn how to use new AT. Its hard for students to learn new AT when under pressure to complete a test or an assignment. Get the technology toward the beginning of summer or over winter break so the student can practice and play with it.

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Website: Evidence Based Assessment in the Science of Reading

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Website: Evidence Based Assessment in the Science of Reading

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Written by Una Malcolm, M.A., OCT
Introduction: Why Assess

Assessment for learning plays a critical role in informing and driving literacy instruction. Nearly all students are capable of learning to read; while specific numbers vary, estimates indicate that approximately 95% of students are capable of learning to read (Fletcher & Vaughn, 2009). Rigorous, systematic, and explicit instruction that addresses the essential components of literacy including phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension (National Reading Panel, 2000), is key to allowing all children to reach their full potential. This instruction often referred to as structured literacy, must go hand-in-hand with a comprehensive assessment system to allow educators to adjust instruction to meet the specific needs of students (Spear-Swerling, 2018). Assessment is critical for students with learning disabilities (LDs) in terms of both the prevention of reading difficulties and intervention to remediate skill gaps.

Formative Assessment: Answering Questions

Assessment for learning plays a key role in meeting the needs of all students through the creation of equitable learning environments. Assessment for learning, "is used in making decisions that affect teaching and learning in the short-term future" (Growing Success, 2010, p. 30). Multiple research reviews and meta-analyses have identified that systematic formative assessment has consistent strong, positive effects on student learning (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986; Black & Wiliam, 2005; Hattie, 2009) across a variety of factors including student age, measurement frequency, and disability status. In essence, assessment for learning allows educators to identify where students are and inform plans to get students where they need to be.

Even within assessment for learning, multiple types of assessments exist. Growing Success (2010) distinguishes between formative and diagnostic assessments but emphasizes that "what matters is how the information is used" (p. 31). Assessment answers questions; different types of assessment tools answer different types of questions. In a Response to Intervention model, assessment purposes include universal screening, diagnostic assessments, and progress monitoring; all three of these purposes for assessment answer key questions about shaping instructional environments to meet students' needs.

1. Screening - Assessment for Learning

The development of skilled reading is a complex process that hinges on the development and the integration of cognitive and language skills. Many of these skills can be observed and measured well before children receive any formal reading instruction (Catts, 2015). With data indicating that reading trajectories are established early and are very stable (Juel, 1988), it is critical to identify reading difficulties early on in a student's academic career to inform support. Since reading remediation at an earlier age is more effective than later intervention (Lovett et al., 2017), screening plays an important role in preventing early reading difficulties from being exacerbated over time.

All students should be screened with universal screening measures three times per year (Good et al., 2011). These assessments are very brief, standardized measures that quickly and efficiently identify which children are at risk. Standardized assessments are tests that have specific procedures for administration and scoring, perhaps with scripted directions and specific scoring guidelines (Farrall, 2012). Students are assessed on several indicators of early literacy skills appropriate for their age and grade. For example, Kindergarten and grade one students may be screened on phonemic awareness, phonics, and decoding, while older students may be screened on oral reading fluency (ORF) and retell for comprehension.

Universal screening measures are widely available and very accessible. Many of the universal screeners currently available are either low-cost or free. Often there can be a fee for training or optional computer data analysis systems, but many of the testing materials are very accessible.

These assessments are technically reliable and valid, and scores are interpreted in relation to a benchmark criterion. Benchmark cutscores are not determined arbitrarily but instead are derived from research; researchers use longitudinal studies to determine what threshold a child must reach to have a strong chance of meeting future reading goals. This means a child's score allows educators to predict future reading performance with a reasonable degree of accuracy. Students who fall at or below the cutscore are at risk and will likely need additional support to allow them to meet future goals. For example, a benchmark cutscore on Acadience Reading assessments is the score needed for a child to have an 80 - 90% probability of meeting successive reading goals (Good et al., 2011). In interpreting a child's score in comparison to a benchmark score, educators can quickly and efficiently assess the level of risk of future reading achievement or difficulty before difficulties emerge or worsen.

Screening allows educators to quickly and easily catch students who are at risk. Screening does not, however, give teachers a full understanding of what the underlying cause of a problem is. Screening is akin to a blood pressure or temperature check at a doctor's office; these are simple, efficient and cost-effective ways to find problems, but abnormalities on these screeners require additional diagnostic testing to decipher what exactly is wrong.

2. Diagnostic Assessment - Assessment for Learning

Diagnostic assessments allow educators to probe deeper into the learning profiles of students in question. For many students, universal screening three times per year provides all the assessment data necessary to ensure students are making sufficient progress. For students who are at risk, though, careful analysis of reading subskills must occur to differentiate instruction and plan intervention. These assessments allow educators to ascertain which specific skills or knowledge a student has mastered, and which skills or knowledge need to be taught.

If universal screeners are similar to a blood pressure or temperature check to identify problems in a brief and cost-effective manner, diagnostic assessments are similar to more comprehensive blood tests or diagnostic imaging to dig deeper into a problem. The information from these more investigative approaches directly informs treatment, similar to how diagnostic reading assessments allow teachers to differentiate classroom instruction or plan targeted interventions.

Diagnostic assessments are longer and more in-depth than screening assessments and are typically not standardized. While screeners are quick assessments of indicators of basic skills, diagnostic assessments can be thought of as inventories of skills that directly inform instruction. Can a child segment two, three, or four phoneme words? Can a child decode words with short vowels or consonant digraphs? Diagnostic assessments allow teachers to differentiate classroom instruction and plan intervention if necessary.

Diagnostic assessments should be selected strategically. The Simple View of Reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986) indicates that reading comprehension, the end goal of reading, is a product of two sets of subskills, word recognition and language comprehension. When selecting diagnostic assessments, teachers can probe both areas of this model to clarify a student's specific patterns of strengths and needs. When weaknesses exist in reading comprehension, is this due to difficulties with word recognition, with language comprehension, or with both?

3. Progress Monitoring - Assessment for Learning

With screening and diagnostic data in hand, teachers can differentiate core instruction and/or provide targeted intervention through intervention supports. Progress monitoring assessments allow educators to quickly measure a student's response to instruction. Instead of waiting until the next benchmark assessment several months in the future, progress monitoring allows for more rapid adjustment of instruction. While universal screening measures students' skill level with grade-level material, progress monitoring is at an individual child's instructional level to directly measure response to instruction. A grade four child reading at a grade one level would be screened at the beginning, middle, and end of the year with grade four assessments. Progress monitoring assessment, though, would be at a grade one level in order to measure the child's response to intervention.

Many universal screeners also supply progress monitoring materials. These materials are often very similar to universal screening measures in that they are brief and standardized. When selecting an assessment for progress monitoring, it is important to consider practice effects. Progress monitoring assessments typically have multiple forms so students are not tested with the same material. Progress monitoring data are usually graphed so student growth can be compared visually to an aimline, or the line between a child's current score and the benchmark goal.

Progress monitoring assessments are purposefully brief. Depending on student age and needs, this assessment may take between one and three minutes. Struggling students need to catch up quickly; Torgesen (2004) describes the "devastating downward spiral" that occurs when students do not receive timely, evidence-based intervention. Struggling readers do not have time for a "wait and see" approach. Weekly or biweekly progress monitoring allows for enough data to quickly and clearly establish patterns. Educators can quickly judge if a child's rate of progress is strong enough to meet the goal. If not, there are several options that can be considered to intensify instruction:

Increasing frequency or length of support

Decreasing group size

Making groups more homogeneous

Increasing level of explicitness

Increasing opportunities for practice

To see an example of how the Thunder Bay Catholic DSB uses tier 1, 2 and 3 reading interventions, click here to view the LD@school video The Tiered Approach

In addition to informing instruction, progress monitoring data allow for insight into students learning profiles. Research indicates that data from a child's response to intervention can give important insight into whether a child may have a learning disability. Patterns of inadequate response to evidence-based instruction, established through progress monitoring data, are key factors to consider when evaluating for a learning disability (Miciak & Fletcher, 2020; Catts & Petscher, 2021).

4. Outcome Evaluation - Assessment of Learning

Outcome assessments measure student achievement. While progress monitoring assessments show if instruction is working, outcome assessments are assessments of learning and identify if instruction worked.

These assessments are typically comprehensive assessments that measure student mastery of provincial curriculum expectations or the specific learning goals outlined. Outcome assessments often occur at the end of a period of learning, including a unit of study, a term, or a school year, for example.
Evidence-Based Assessment in the Science of Reading: Cheat sheet - Comparing and Contrasting Assessment Purposes Click here to view and download the Evidence-Based Assessment in the Science of Reading: Cheat sheet
Assessment Data and Differentiating Tier 1 Instruction

Patterns in universal screening data can support teachers in differentiating classroom instruction. Instead of using student reading levels from a running record to group students for small group instruction, universal screening data allows educators to use reading skills to more specifically build homogeneous groups of students for instruction. A grade 2 teacher, for example, could split students into several groups based on their universal screening data:

Fluent and accurate readers needing continued content and vocabulary instruction to build comprehension

Students who read accurately but need fluency instruction

Students in need of word-level decoding and phonics instruction.

Data from screeners as well as diagnostic testing for deeper probing allows for more sophisticated and specific differentiation for intervention, instruction, or enrichment since it focuses on specific skills instead of generic reading levels.

Student vs. System Analysis to Strengthen Universal Instruction

One of the strengths of universal screening is it allows educators to analyze not only individual students' growth but also the strength of classroom core instruction. If more than 20% of students are below the benchmark on universal screening, it is a clear indication that efforts to strengthen core instruction should be made. Prioritizing intervention when a large proportion of the class is at risk misses out on a valuable opportunity to strengthen the universal tier of classroom instruction. With class-wide screening data, teachers are able to better differentiate instruction and potentially implement class-wide interventions, such as Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (McMaster & Fuchs, 2016). For example, a grade 3 teacher could implement a paired repeated reading instructional routine (Stevens et al., 2017) in response to weak fluency screening data. Instead of just problem-solving at individual student levels, teachers have the data necessary to develop action plans to strengthen core instruction for all students.

To learn more about Peer Assisted Learning, click here to access LD@school's article and video Peer-Mediated Learning Approaches.

Oral Reading Fluency and Running Records: Frequently Confused

Oral Reading Fluency assessments are commonly used in both screening and progress monitoring for developing readers. While individual assessments vary, generally Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) measures involve timed passage oral reading for one minute. Accuracy rates and words correct per minute scores are calculated and interpreted in relation to a benchmark score. ORF assessments are highly correlated with reading comprehension (Fuchs et al., 2001) and serve as a proxy for this critical outcome skill.

ORF assessments are often confused with running record assessments that are commonly used in literacy programs. While both assessments do involve the reading of connected passages, running records differ in that a text "level" is often indicated as a student's instructional or independent level based on the accuracy percentage. Fluency is typically assessed through teacher observation or rubrics. Running records do not meet desired characteristics for the selection of a screener. They do not act as brief, reliable and valid indicators of key early literacy skills, and they do not allow for interpretation of scores in relation to a benchmark criterion derived from predictive probabilities. In fact, Parker et al. (2015) found that a commonly used running record assessment had a .54 correlation with a district-provided criterion reading test. These data indicate that running records were only 54% accurate in predicting student reading performance, in comparison to the established technical validity and reliability of ORF measures.

Assessment for Learning: A Case Study
The following case study provides an example of how reading assessment can be used in the classroom to identify at-risk students, pinpoint the skills these students struggle with, and determine the appropriate intervention to get students back on track.
Maya is in grade two. As a part of the beginning-of-year screening process, her teacher administers a brief screening assessment that yields this data about Maya's reading:
Nonsense Word Fluency: Oral Reading Fluency:

Accuracy (passage reading accuracy): Below Benchmark

Words Correct (passage reading fluency): Well Below Benchmark

Maya's teacher, Ms. Kaur, recognizes that Maya is struggling and is not on track to meet future reading goals. Ms. Kaur realizes that Maya is having difficulty reading the ORF passage accurately and smoothly since she is not an accurate and fluent word reader. Based on these screening data, she decides to dig deeper with some diagnostic assessments to help her differentiate instruction. She decides to give Maya a decoding assessment to understand which specific phonics patterns she has mastered, and which patterns she needs to be taught. She learns that Maya hasn't yet mastered short vowel sounds. She also uses a phonemic awareness assessment to check her blending and segmenting, which shows skill gaps as well. Ms. Kaur realizes that Maya is having difficulty with word recognition skills. To check on her oral language skills, Ms. Kaur reads a story to Maya and asks her oral comprehension questions. Maya is easily able to answer questions about what she hears, indicating to Ms. Kaur that Maya's reading difficulties appear to be stemming from decoding and word recognition difficulties and not language comprehension difficulties.

Armed with this information, Ms. Kaur builds her small reading groups. Instead of using reading levels to group students, Ms. Kaur uses reading skills. She groups Maya with other students needing phonemic awareness and short vowel instruction.

As Ms. Kaur uses this screening and diagnostic data to plan her groups and instruction, she also continues to monitor Maya's progress using weekly Nonsense Word Fluency assessments. Since these progress monitoring assessments are one minute each, Ms. Kaur knows that this is a quick and efficient way to make sure Maya is responding to her instruction without having to wait until the mid-year screening time. If Maya is not making sufficient progress toward the benchmark score, she may need instruction to be intensified to allow her to reach the benchmark goal. Ms. Kaur graphs Maya's progress monitoring data, as well as the aimline which shows the path between Maya's current score and the benchmark. Ms. Kaur and her grade-level team can quickly and easily judge if Maya is progressing at a fast enough rate to close the gap.

About the author:

Una Malcolm is a doctoral student in Reading Science and also has a Master's degree in Child Study and Education. She is a member of the Ontario College of Teachers. Una has trained extensively in several evidence-based teaching methods, such as Direct Instruction, Phono-Graphix and Lindamood-Bell. She is an Acadience Reading K-6 (formerly DIBELS Next) Mentor.

References

Black, P. & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 5(1), 7 - 74. doi: 10.1080/0969595980050102

Catts, H.W., Nielsen, D. C., Bridges, M. S., Liu, Y. S., & Bontempo, D. E. (2015). Early identification of reading disabilities within an RTI framework. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 48(3), 281-297.

Catts, H.W., Petscher, Y. (2021). A cumulative risk and resilience model of dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, doi.org/10.1177/00222194211037062

Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH, DHHS. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read: Reports of the Subgroups. U.S. Government Printing Office.

Farrall, M. L. (2012). Reading assessment: Linking language, literacy, and cognition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118092668

Fuchs, L.S. & Fuchs, D. (1986). Effects of systematic formative evaluation: A meta-analysis. Exceptional Children, 53(3), 199 - 208.

Fuchs, L., Fuchs, D., Hosp, M. & Jenkins, J. (2001). Oral reading fluency as an indicator of reading competence. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5(3), 239 - 256.

Fletcher, J.M. & Vaughn, S. (2009). Response to intervention: Preventing and remediating academic difficulties. Child Development Perspectives, 3(1), 30 - 37. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-8606.2008.00072.x

Good, R.H., Kaminski, R.A., Cummings, K.D., Dufour-Martel, C., Petersen, K., Powell-Smith, K.A., Stollar, S. & Wallin, J. (2011). Acadience Reading K-6 Assessment Manual. Acadience Learning Inc.

Gough, P.B. & Tunmer, W.E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6 - 10. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193258600700104

Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning. Routledge.

Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of 54 children from first through fourth grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(4), 437 - 447. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.80.4.437

Lovett, M., Frijters, J.C., Wolf, M., Steinback, K.A., Sevcik, R.A., Morris, R.D. (2017). Early intervention for children at risk for reading disabilties: The impact of grade at intervention and individual differences on intervention outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(7), 889 - 914. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000181

McMaster, K. L., & Fuchs, D. (2016). Classwide intervention using peer-assisted learning strategies. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of multi-tiered systems of support (pp. 253-268). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-7568-3_15

Miciak, J. & Fletcher, J.M. (2020). The critical role of instructional response for identifying dyslexia and other learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 53(5), 343 - 353. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219420906801

Ontario Ministry of Education. ​​(2010). Growing Success: Assessment, evaluation and reporting in Ontario's schools: Covering grades 1 to 12. Ministry of Education.

Parker, D.C., Zaslofsky, A.F., Burns, M.K., Kanive, R., Hodgson, J., Scholin, S.E. & Klingbeil, D.A. (2015) A brief report of the diagnostic accuracy of oral reading fluency and reading inventory levels for reading failure risk among second and third grade students. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 31(1), 56 - 67. doi: 10.1080/10573569.2013.857970

Spear-Swerling, L. (2018). Structured literacy and typical literacy practices: Understanding differences to create instructional opportunities. Teaching Exceptional Children, 51(3), 201-211.

Stevens, E. A., Walker, M. A., & Vaughn, S. (2017). The effects of reading fluency interventions on the reading fluency and reading comprehension performance of elementary students with Learning Disabilities: A synthesis of the research from 2001 to 2014. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 50(5), 576-590. doi: 10.1177/0022219416638028

Torgesen, J.K. (2004). Avoiding the devastating downward spiral: The evidence that early intervention prevents reading failure. American Educator, 28, 6-19.

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Evidence-Based Assessment in the Science of Reading

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Written by Una Malcolm, M.A., OCT Introduction: Why Assess Assessment for learning plays a critical role in informing and driving literacy instruction. Nearly all students are capable of learning to read; while specific numbers vary, estimates indicate that approximately 95% of students are capable of learning to read (Fletcher & Vaughn, 2009).

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IDA Knowledge and Practice Standards for Teachers of Reading

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IDA Knowledge and Practice Standards for Teachers of Reading

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The Reading Brain | How We Learn To Read

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Introduction The Iowa Dyslexia Task Force submitted its findings and recommendations relating to dyslexia to the Iowa Legislature in 2019. The task force shared its vision for public education for all students, while attending to the needs of students with dyslexia/characteristics of dyslexia. The v…

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Website: How to Spot Early Signs of Dyslexia in Children

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Website: How to Spot Early Signs of Dyslexia in Children

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Dyslexia is a neural l disorder experienced by around 5 to 15 percent of people. It's a learning disorder that inhibits a person's ability to learn to read. It occurs when there is a problem with the way the brain processes graphic symbols. The main traits of dyslexia are mixing up words, spelling words out of order, low levels of trouble reading and comprehension.

Even though dyslexia is a neural condition, it's not linked to lower intelligence. Many people with a severe form of dyslexia can be extremely bright and intelligent.

Identifying symptoms and signs of dyslexia early can increase the odds of effective treatment. In this post, you'll learn how to spot early symptoms of dyslexia and find out what can be done to help those who might be affected.

Most common signs of dyslexia in kids

Dyslexia can be a tough disability to spot, especially in a child. Only when a child starts school can the parents find out if they are dyslexic or not. The teacher might be able to spot the first signs of dyslexia when they see that the child is struggling to spell, read, or write.

While dyslexia itself is a communication disability, but the symptoms associated with it keeps changing throughout the dyslexic person's life. Each child/adult with dyslexia might experience different symptoms or challenges and might find their unique strengths to deal with it.

Below are some of the most common signs of dyslexia in children. Keep in mind that symptoms of dyslexia differ depending on age. To make things more difficult, educational purposes, symptoms of dyslexia can vary widely from person to person.

If you're suspecting your child showing any of the following symptoms, you might first consider taking the online tests with dyslexia checklists to see if your child has any of the symptoms attributed to dyslexia. Then you should ask the school d to conduct proper testing to establish a proper diagnosis.

Difficulty learning nursery rhymes or remembering the letters of the alphabet.

Having trouble recognizing letters, read write

Difficulty reading or slow rate of reading

failure to understand what they read

Misspelling easy words that most children in their age group can spell

Struggle to follow simple instructions

Trouble writing

Messy handwriting that's hard to read

Misusing simple words

deficiency to remember or learn new words

Small glossary for their age

VIDEO: What are the Symptoms of Dyslexia?

Early signs of dyslexia

The first thing to consider when diagnosing dyslexia is a person's family history. The disorder is passed down genetically, meaning that a person is more likely to have it if their parents or grandparents had it.

It's important to note that dyslexia can skip generations. Since dyslexia wasn't well known it was often misdiagnosed. Thus, older adults who were afflicted were thought to have difficulty in reading rather than being dyslexic. Making it hard to determine the number of people suffering from dyslexia in previous generations.

Below are general signs that are usually seen in each age group:

Preschoolers

· Find it difficult to learn the alphabets
· Don't understand rhyming patterns
· Mispronounce words a lot

Grade schoolers

· Read slower than their counterparts
· Can't separate between certain letters
· Struggle to read because of the deficiency to sound words
· Don't connect letters to their phonics
· Struggle to follow instructions
· Misspell easy words
· Write slowly

Older kids

· Have messy handwriting
· Take a longer time to finish their tests
· Write slowly
· Speak slowly
· Don't read out aloud
· Use wrong words (dictionary) while reading or writing
· Use a lot of fillers (umm, uhh) while they talk

If you suffered from these early signs and symptoms of dyslexia and had not suffered any loss of vision or hearing, then chances are that you might be suffering from dyslexia.

Below are more common symptoms of dyslexia found in children.

Child Dyslexia Symptoms, Causes, & Treatments

Trouble speaking and reading

There are many issues that can affect a person's ability to read or speak. However, keep in mind, just because someone has problems speaking or reading, it doesn't mean dyslexia is the reason. reading problems such as hearing loss or vision loss can also be to blame. Seek the kids help of professionals to make a proper assessment.

Delayed or slow speech is one of the common signs. A person suffering from dyslexia may swap the characters within lists (alphabet, numbers, etc.) as well as mixing the letters of words and names.

This difficulty extends to the diction of words with numerous syllables. Many of us have trouble with long words, but this is normal to a certain degree.

Difficulty pronouncing words with four or five syllables may be an early warning sign of dyslexia. Keep in mind that most kids at an early age will have trouble with these types of skills. If your child has these problems before the age of five, this might not signal dyslexia but simply mean a slower rate of language development in some children.

The combination of these difficulties should become more apparent when a child becomes more engaged in elementary school and high school work. If the child has dyslexia, difficulty reading age related texts and spelling common words will start to interfere with a child's academic development. At this point the presence of a learning disorder might become more obvious and medical professional assessment will be necessary and tests will need to be conducted by trained medical staff for proper diagnosis.

Want to learn more?

Often the symptoms and signs of people with dyslexia symptoms can be difficult to recognize. Paying close attention to your child development will help you determine if they are suffering from dyslexia or simply have trouble learning during the early stages of development that will disappear as they get older.

If you want to learn more about dyslexia take a look at our checklist for detecting signs of learning disability and take free online dyslexia tests to diagnose your symptoms

Early assessment and intervention is critical

Early assessment and intervention are critical for improving positive outcomes for children with dyslexia. Without early assessment and proper intervention, gaps for struggling readers and their peers will only continue to widen. Any method of intervention must be specifically tailored to each child's specific learning deficit in order to be the most effective.

If you suspect your kids with dyslexia , it's important to learn as much as possible and to take action as soon as you become aware of the signs.

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How To Spot ‌‌Early‌ ‌Signs‌ ‌of‌ ‌Dyslexia in Children

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Identifying symptoms and signs of dyslexia early can increase the odds of effective treatment. In this post you'll learn to identify early symptoms.

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You are welcome to print copies for non-commercial use, or a limited number for educational purposes, as long as credit is given to Reading Rockets and the author(s). For commercial use, please contact the author or publisher listed.

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Dyslexia is a language-based disability that affects both oral and written language. With help, children with dyslexia can become successful readers. Find out the warning signs for dyslexia that preschool and elementary school children might display.

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The signs of dyslexia can appear as early as preschool. Whether you're a parent or teacher- or think you might have dyslexia yourself-here's what to look for, starting in the earliest years through adulthood.

The Preschool Years

Trouble learning common nursery rhymes, such as "Jack and Jill"

Difficulty learning (and remembering) the names of letters in the alphabet

Seems unable to recognize letters in his/her own name

Mispronounces familiar words; persistent "baby talk"

Doesn't recognize rhyming patterns like cat, bat, rat

A family history of reading and/or spelling difficulties (dyslexia often runs in families)

© Sally Shaywitz, Overcoming Dyslexia, p. 122

Kindergarten & First Grade

Difficulties

Reading errors that show no connection to the sounds of the letters on the page-will say "puppy" instead of the written word "dog" on an illustrated page with a picture of a dog

Does not understand that words come apart

Complains about how hard reading is; "disappears" when it is time to read

A history of reading problems in parents or siblings

Cannot sound out even simple words like cat, map, nap

Does not associate letters with sounds, such as the letter b with the "b" sound

Strengths

Curiosity

Great imagination

Ability to figure things out; gets the gist of things

Eager embrace of new ideas

A good understanding of new concepts

Surprising maturity

A larger vocabulary than typical for age group

Enjoys solving puzzles

Talent for building models

Excellent comprehension of stories read or told to him

© Sally Shaywitz, Overcoming Dyslexia, pp. 122 - 123

Second Grade through High School

Reading

Very slow in acquiring reading skills. Reading is slow and awkward

Trouble reading unfamiliar words, often making wild guesses because he cannot sound out the word

Doesn't seem to have a strategy for reading new words

Avoids reading out loud

Speaking

Searches for a specific word and ends up using vague language, such as "stuff" or "thing," without naming the object

Pauses, hesitates, and/or uses lots of "um's" when speaking

Confuses words that sound alike, such as saying "tornado" for "volcano," substituting "lotion" for "ocean"

Mispronunciation of long, unfamiliar or complicated words

Seems to need extra time to respond to questions

School and Life

Trouble remembering dates, names, telephone numbers, random lists

Struggles to finish tests on time

Extreme difficulty learning a foreign language

Poor spelling

Messy handwriting

Low self-esteem that may not be immediately visible

Strengths

Excellent thinking skills: conceptualization, reasoning, imagination, abstraction

Learning that is accomplished best through meaning rather than rote memorization

Ability to get the "big picture"

A high level of understanding of what is read tohim

The ability to read and to understand at a high level overlearned (or highly practiced) words in a special area of interest; for example, if he or she loves cooking they may be able to read food magazines and cookbooks

Improvement as an area of interest becomes more specialized and focused-and a miniature vocabulary is developed that allows for reading in that subject area

A surprisingly sophisticated listening vocabulary

Excels in areas not dependent on reading, such as math, computers and visual arts, or in more conceptual (versus fact-driven) subjects, including philosophy, biology, social studies, neuroscience and creative writing

© Sally Shaywitz, Overcoming Dyslexia, pp. 123-125

Young Adults & Adults

Reading

A childhood history of reading and spelling difficulties

While reading skills have developed over time, reading still requires great effort and is done at a slow pace

Rarely reads for pleasure

Slow reading of most materials-books, manuals, subtitles in films

Avoids reading aloud

Speaking

Earlier oral language difficulties persist, including a lack of fluency and glibness; frequent use of "um's" and imprecise language; and general anxiety when speaking

Often pronounces the names of people and places incorrectly; trips over parts of words

Difficulty remembering names of people and places; confuses names that sound alike

Struggles to retrieve words; frequently has "It was on the tip of my tongue" moments

Rarely has a fast response in conversations; struggles when put on the spot

Spoken vocabulary is smaller than listening vocabulary

Avoids saying words that might be mispronounced

School & Life

Despite good grades, often says he's dumb or is concerned that peers think he's dumb

Penalized by multiple-choice tests

Frequently sacrifices social life for studying

Suffers extreme fatigue when reading

Performs rote clerical tasks poorly

Strengths

Maintains strengths noted during the school-age years

Has a high capacity to learn

Shows noticeable improvement when given additional time on multiple-choice examinations

Demonstrates excellence when focused on a highly specialized area, such as medicine, law, public policy, finance, architecture or basic science

Excellent writing skills if the focus is on content, not spelling

Highly articulate when expressing ideas and feelings

Exceptional empathy and warmth

Successful in areas not dependent on rote memory

A talent for high-level conceptualization and the ability to come up with original insights

Inclination to think outside of the box and see the big picture

Noticeably resilient and able to adapt

© Sally Shaywitz, Overcoming Dyslexia, pp. 125- 127

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Here's our 2021 snapshot of Passed Dyslexia Laws in the US. This is a rapidly changing time for dyslexia legislation, so please update us with corrections, changes, or newly passed laws. Huge thanks to the Dyslexic Advantage community, Decoding Dyslexia, and other leading dyslexia groups.

Just to clarify - dyslexia is formally recognized through out the US, but the overwhelming majority of states have also passed their own laws specifying requirements about dyslexia identification and teacher training. Unfortunately, there are still loopholes that seem to be developing and many requirements were postponed due to the COVID pandemic. There is a current practice of software companies trying to identify reading weaknesses and identifying those students as being at risk for dyslexia; the practice is not acceptable for identification. These students comprehensive issues are not identified, accommodations are not provided, qualification for free e-book and audiobook resources not provided, and specific remediation (including writing) not attended too. Get the facts if you have a student who you believe is dyslexic. Updated July 2021.

Only 3 states have no dyslexia-specific laws on the books. Some bills have been passed out of committee, but ultimately rejected.
NO Dyslexia-Specific Laws: Hawaii, Idaho, Vermont.

Remember even if your state doesn't have a specific Dyslexia law, federal law including the Department of Education formally recognizes Dyslexia for ALL states and has statement about dyslexia being mentioned specifically in IEPs and 504s.

It is important to mention dyslexia specifically by name as dyslexia is not simply a "reading disability". Dyslexia has a long scientific, clinical, and educational history and the better a student's educational needs are recognized, the more likely a student will have a well-suited educational program.

If you have any updates or corrections, please contact the team "at" dyslexicadvantage.org We would like to keep this list as current as possible. Addendum: Congratulations Alaska, Georgia, and Kansas for their new laws.

equires each school district to provide for students with learning disabilities).2020 Alabama - 2015: Dyslexia added to Alabama Administrative Code
Alaska - 2018: H.B. 64 Establishment of dyslexia task force (task force only - no requirements for teacher training or student screening).
Arizona- 2019: SB 1318 Dyslexia screening and training. HB2362 K-3 Reading, specialist training. 2017: H.B. 2202 State dyslexia handbook. 2015: S.B. 1461 Definition of Dyslexia, Continuing Education for Teachers, Dyslexia Exemption for 3rd Grade Retention Law
Arkansas- 2013: Act 1294 Meeting the Needs of Children with Dyslexia in Public Schools
California- 2015: A.B. 1369 Identification and assessment, program for to improve educational programs for dyslexia prepared.
Colorado - 2008: H.B.1223 Training and identification. HB 19-1134 Identification and Interventions for Students with Dyslexia
Connecticut- 2016. 2015. 2014. An Act Concerning Dyslexia. Assessment and Teaching / Reading Tutor Training. Public Act 16-92. Public Act 15-97. Public Act 14-39.
Delaware- 2015: An Act to Amend Title 14 of the Delaware Code Relating to the Education of Students with Disabilities. Severe dyslexic students can waive state assessments. Evidence-based interventions.
Florida- 2017: HB 7069. Evidence-based and systematic, sequential, and multi sensory strategies added to Florida Educator Practices. Teacher renewals must include "explicit, systematic, and sequential approaches to reading instruction, developing phonemic awareness, and implementing multisensory intervention strategies. Teachers, reading coaches, school administrators taught to recognize dyslexia. 2015. John McKay Scholarships for IEP or 504 student to a ttend a public school other than assigned or private school for students with learning disabilities. State Board of Education Rule 6A-6.03018. Reading First.
Georgia - 2019: S.B. 48 required dyslexia screening and special training methods for those with dyslexia.
Hawaii- NONE: 2010 bill related to providing technical assistance to those with dyslexia was repealed.
Idaho- NONE
Illinois- 2018: H.B. 4639 Established dyslexia handbook. 2014: HB. 3700. Assessment, professional development, intervention.
Indiana- 2018: S.B. 217 Requires trained reading specialists to identify and modify teaching students with dyslexia. 2015: H.B. 1108. Defines dyslexia and requires professional training programs.
Iowa - 2018: S.F. 2360 Dyslexia task force established. 2016: ARC 2586c. Change in the Iowa Administrative Code to require teachers to know about dyslexia and the structure of language. 2014: Senate File 2319.
Kansas - 2018: H.B. 2602 Dyslexia task force* established. 2008: H.B. 5015. Screening, best practices for instruction, teacher prep - unfortunately this bill failed. *Task force only; no requirements for teacher training or student screening.
Kentucky- 2018: H.B. 187 Definition of dyslexia and screening toolkit. 2012: H.B. 69. Includes dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalcaulia, phonemic awareness.
Louisiana- 2013: (R.S. 17:7:11) identification, assessment, intervention, accommodations.
Maine - 2015: LD 231. Definition, screening, consultant.
Maryland - 2015: H.B. 278 Dyslexia Task Force. Task Force only. No requirements for teacher training or student screening.
Massachusetts -2018: General Law Chapter 7 Section 57A Screening procedures and protocols. Massachusetts General Law Chapter 15A Section 30. No resident of the commonwealth of MA with a developmental disability (including dyslexia or other SLD) should be required to take a standardized college entrance exam for a public-funded higher education institution.
Michigan - 2019: In 2016, Governor signed the 3rd Grade reading retention law. Section 388.1635a. Up to 5% funds for literacy screening. Mentions dyslexia screening option.
Minnesota - Revised Dyslexia Definition. K-12 Bill.The department must employ a dyslexia specialist. Dyslexia screening tool.
Mississippi- 2017: H.B. 1046 expansion of the previous bill, scholarship eligibility raised to Grade 12. 2012. H.B. 1031. Scholarship to provide dyslexic students with school choice.
Missouri- 2016: H.B. 2379 Sscreening for dyslexia in all public schools including charters.
Montana-: 2019: S.B. 140 (require sscreening and assistance for students with dyslexia) Montana Office of Public Instruction did add dyslexia to their special education guide.
Nebraska- Dyslexia Assistance Document Dyslexia Definition Revised. Nevada- 2015: AB 341 and SB 391. Dyslexia screening and intervention.
New Hampshire- 2016: Passed HB 1644. AN ACT relative to screening and treatment for dyslexia and related disorders and establishing a reading specialist in the department of education. - 2014: PL2013 c 131, 105, 210. Dyslexia definition, minimum professional development, and screening for learning disabilities. Definition of dyslexia in administrative code. DOE Dyslexia handbook.
New Mexico- 2010: HB 2010. dyslexia definition, provide phonics-based tutoring as part of RTI.
New York- 2017: A08262. Guidance memorandum to all districts on dyslexia, dysgraphia, and dyscalculia.
North Carolina- 2017: S.B. 149 Dyslexia in the Education Code. Requires State Board to develop tools to ensure the identification of students with dyslexia and dyscalculia. Dyslexia Topic Brief.
North Dakota- NONE: 2019: H.B. 1461 pass and signed by governor 5/2019. Reading and dyslexia screening.
Ohio- 2011: Dyslexia training for k-4 teachers. Pilot project for intervention (year 3 finishes Oct 2015).
Oklahoma- 2017: H.B. 2008Dyslexia Task Force H.B. 1128 2019 Dyslexia awareness and teacher training
O regon - 2017: More dyslexia screening. Timeline changes to HB 2412. 2015. H.B. 2412. SB 612. Teacher training, dyslexia screening, dyslexia specialist.
Pennsylvania- 2014: A.B.69 Dyslexia screening and early literacy pilot program.
Rhode Island - 2016: H7052. Improve the performance of students with dyslexia in math, reading, and writing. 2012. H 7542. Definition and intervention.
South Carolina- 2013: South Carolina Task Force Report.
South Dakota- Unanimous approval H.B. 1175 H.B. 1133 awaiting Senate hearing (r Bill 1175 defining dyslexia introduced.
Tennessee- 2016: Say Dyslexia Law. Advisory committee, universal screening (through RTI or other), professional development. 2014. HB 1735 / SB 2002. Dyslexia is Real Bill.
Texas- 2018: Updated Dyslexia Handbook. 2009. 1995. Dyslexia Screening and Treatment, Licensed Therapists.
Utah- 2015: HB. 117 Pilot programs for professional development, literacy interventions K-5.
Vermont- In 2362.2.5, dyslexia is listed under special education. Eligibility for special education is specified. 2019. H406 Bill relating to screening for dyslexia introduced.
Virginia- 2016. HB 842. New teacher training in dyslexia. 2017. SB1516. Dyslexia advisor in every school district.
Washington- 2009: RCW 28A.300.530 Individuals with Dyslexia - identification and Instruction. Handbook.
West Virginia- 2014: Definition of Dyslexia Dyscalculia.
Wisconsin- 2016: Education Guidance Document. 2014. Foundations of Reading Guide. Teacher Tests for new licenses. 2019 Assembly Bill 110. Guidebook related to dyslexia.
Wyoming- H.B. 297 2019. Reading Intervention and Guidance. Wyoming Individual Reading Plan. 2012: S.B. Assessment and intervention.R

Thanks Martha Youman and Nancy Mather for their Update on Dyslexia Laws 2018.

[pdf-embedder url="https://www.dyslexicadvantage.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/2018-Youman-Mather.pdf" title="2018 Youman Mather"]

Download pdf HERE.

The paper is also available on Research Gate here.

Other Resources: Decoding Dyslexia MD Dyslegia [pdf-embedder url="https://www.dyslexicadvantage.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Decoding-Dyslexia-State-Laws.pdf"]

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Here's our 2021 snapshot of Passed Dyslexia Laws in the US. This is a rapidly changing time for dyslexia legislation, so please update us with corrections, changes, or newly passed laws. Huge thanks to the Dyslexic Advantage community, Decoding Dyslexia, and other leading dyslexia groups.

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Dyslexic Advantage - What You May Not Have Heard About Dyslexia

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Article: The Extraordinary Characteristics of Dyslexia

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Article: The Extraordinary Characteristics of Dyslexia

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Having dyslexia makes reading, and sometimes other skills, more difficult to acquire, but having dyslexia is not necessarily a barrier to success. In fact, many individuals with dyslexia have not only been successful, they have changed the world. Research has shown that wiring in the brains of people with dyslexia is different, and many believe that this different wiring of the brain causes people with dyslexia to see problems in different ways that can support innovation and success. Whether or not you consider dyslexia a gift, clearly dyslexia is no barrier to success. Here are just a few examples of men and women with dyslexia who have found success in their lives.

Jared Blank

Marathon runner Jared Blank was diagnosed with dyslexia when he was five years old. As he moved through school, he learned that, for him, academic success would be a matter of hard work and endurance. When working with tutors he discovered that tasks that took someone else one hour, might take him three. Today, Blank has a career in collegiate athletics and advanced degrees from two universities. Blank runs for IDA's TeamQuest to help raise awareness about dyslexia.

Fred Forsley

There's a good chance that you know who Fred Forsley is, even if you have never heard his name. He is the founder of Shipyard Brewing Company, the biggest craft beer brewer in Maine and a national leader in the industry. Established almost 25 years ago, Forsley's Shipyard Brewing Company was an early pioneer in the craft brewing movement. Some of Forsley's other accomplishments include being a successful real estate broker since the age of 19, and an avid runner and sponsor of road races through Shipyard. He is also dyslexic.

Cameron Herold

Cameron Herold is one of the most sought-after business minds in North America. He has built several million-dollar companies from the ground up, as well as being a mentor to top-rated CEOs in the business world. Throughout his career, Cameron has been instrumental in the successful sale, branding, and integration of a remarkable 500 business locations with three major companies. In 2014, Cameron was the recipient of the Pinnacle Award, which was created to recognize an individual with dyslexia who has publicly acknowledged his dyslexia, made significant achievements in his field of interest, is leading a successful life, and is a role model for others with dyslexia.

Lindsay Leavitt

At only age 13, Lindsay Leavitt knew she wanted to use her "Mitzvah" project to raise awareness around dyslexia. Lindsay, who has dyslexia, launched a campaign to increase dyslexia awareness and also set fundraising goals to raise money for the International Dyslexia Association. She soon exceeded her donations goals.

Anthony Raneri

When Anthony Raneri-lead singer, guitarist, and lyricist for the punk band Bayside-was doing a Facebook Live chat with some of the band's more than 200,000 followers on the social media site, he could finally, publicly, put a name to what used to undermine his confidence: He told his fans he has dyslexia.

Kendra Thomas

Kendra Thomas would tell herself, "I can't be a writer, I can't do this, I can't do that-I'll never be a straight-A student." She didn't think of herself as an intelligent person. But three published books and one play later, despite her struggles with dyslexia and ADD, Kendra is a successful principal at a school in Texas working on her dissertation and a fourth book.
Do you have a success story you would like to share? IDA would love to hear your story. Contact us at communications@DyslexiaIDA.org

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Success Stories - International Dyslexia Association

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Having dyslexia makes reading, and sometimes other skills, more difficult to acquire, but having dyslexia is not necessarily a barrier to success. In fact,

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Website: A day in the life of a child with Dyslexia

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Website: A day in the life of a child with Dyslexia

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Henry is good at math except for the word problems. They take forever to read. That makes it hard for him to remember the details and decide what to do with them. He often makes a simple mistake - like switching two numbers or mixing up the sequence of steps. So he gets the wrong answer even though he understands the concepts.

It's hard for Henry to relax during lunch. He's either cramming in homework or running around campus trying to meet up with teachers for extra help. Today he's looking over flashcards for his French vocabulary test. He drills and drills, but somehow it still feels like he's looking at these words for the first time. The same thing happens when he studies for other classes. Why won't these words "stick"?

Chorus is the one thing Henry likes about school. Sight-reading the music is tough, but he can learn the pieces by listening to them. And it feels awesome when people tell him what a great voice he has. But he worries that if he has to take another remedial class, he won't have room in his schedule for any electives. If he couldn't participate in chorus, school would be a total drag.

Texting is stressful. It takes Henry a long time to figure out which words his friends are abbreviating. His trouble with reading and spelling makes it hard for him to be part of the conversation.

Challenges related to dyslexia: Writing, spelling, proofreading

Henry's main way of "escaping" his dyslexia is by playing video games. It's late and he's tired. But he needs to unwind. Tomorrow will be another long day.

Challenges related to dyslexia: General stress about school

Kids don't outgrow dyslexia, and their trouble with reading can affect how they behave in school. They may act out to avoid reading out loud or to avoid admitting they don't know the answer to a question.

About the author

About the author

The Understood Team is made up of passionate writers and editors. Many of them have kids who learn and think differently.

Reviewed by

Reviewed by

Margie B. Gillis, EdD is the founder and president of Literacy How, which provides professional development for teachers on research-based reading practices in the classroom.

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A day in the life of a child with dyslexia

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What's it like to have dyslexia? See a day in the life of a kid with dyslexia to get a sense of the many ways dyslexia affects kids.

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Website: Accommodating Students with Dyslexia in All Classroom Settings

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Website: Accommodating Students with Dyslexia in All Classroom Settings

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You are welcome to print copies for non-commercial use, or a limited number for educational purposes, as long as credit is given to Reading Rockets and the author(s). For commercial use, please contact the author or publisher listed.

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Accommodating Students with Dyslexia in All Classroom Settings

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The International Dyslexia Association prepared this fact sheet describing reasonable accommodations involving materials, interactive instruction, and student performance to help children with learning problems in general education and special education classrooms.

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Fact Sheet: Accommodations for Students with Dyslexia

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Fact Sheet: Accommodations for Students with Dyslexia

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Dyslexia Conference Recording | Navigating IEPs for Students with Dyslexia

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Article: Applying the SOR in the Classroom

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Article: Applying the SOR in the Classroom

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eBook: The Reading League: Science of Reading

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eBook: The Reading League: Science of Reading

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It Takes a League

Join us as we reimagine the future of reading education together. Stay up to date with our programs, professional development opportunities, events, and resources tailored to guide you as you build your professional knowledge.

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The Reading League's new book, Science of Reading: Defining Guide, provides in-depth information on the science of reading and key instructional practices to help you make the shift in your practice.

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Fact Sheet: Infographic: Reading Problem Solutions

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Fact Sheet: Infographic: Reading Problem Solutions

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April 2016
by Carolyn Cowen

Carolyn D. Cowen, Ed.M., is the Social Media Editor/Strategist for the International Dyslexia Association's Examiner. She also serves on the Board of Trustees for the Newgrange School, Ann Robinowitz Education Center, and Laurel School and on the Board of Directors for the Research Institute for Learning and Development. Carolyn is especially interested in creative ways nonprofits and movements can "power the mission with the message." Follow her on Twitter .

More infographics!

How Widespread Is Dyslexia? (February 2016)
Copyright © 2016 International Dyslexia Association (IDA). We encourage sharing of Examiner articles. If portions are cited, please make appropriate reference. Articles may not be reprinted for the purpose of resale. Permission to republish this article is available from .

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Most Reading Difficulties Can Be Resolved or Diminished - International Dyslexia Association

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Video: Explicit Instruction with Anita Archer

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Video: Explicit Instruction with Anita Archer

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Website: Introduction to the Science of Reading

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Website: Introduction to the Science of Reading

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Become a catalyst for change in education. Dive into the Science of Reading with our FREE presentation and resources, co-created with 100+ dedicated educators like you.

Ready to put your learning into practice?

Keep scrolling and grab the resource bundles below to start transforming your classroom!

If you're looking for worksheets that you had previously accessed on the page, make sure to check out our new free Resource Bundles below.

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Become a catalyst for change in education. Dive into the Science of Reading with our FREE presentation and resources, co-created with 100+ dedicated educators like you. If you're looking for worksheets that you had previously accessed on the page, make sure to check out our new free Resource Bundles below.

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Article: Listening Comprehension, the Cinderella Skill

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Article: Listening Comprehension, the Cinderella Skill

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Article: When does SSD matter for literacy?

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Article: When does SSD matter for literacy?

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Article: The co-occurrence of neurodevelopmental problems in dyslexia

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Article: The co-occurrence of neurodevelopmental problems in dyslexia

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Article: Can you spell Dyslexia without SLI?

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Article: Can you spell Dyslexia without SLI?

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Fact Sheet: Social and Emotional Problems Related to Dyslexia

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Fact Sheet: Social and Emotional Problems Related to Dyslexia

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Fact Sheet: Oral Language Impairments & Dyslexia

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Fact Sheet: Oral Language Impairments & Dyslexia

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Types of Dyslexics: Combined Learning Differences (Test, Symptoms) | Dyspraxia, Autism, ADHD, ODD

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Power Summary: The Neuroscience of Dyslexia

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Power Summary: The Neuroscience of Dyslexia

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Article: Early and late diagnosed dyslexia in secondary school: Performance on literacy skills and cognitive correlates

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Article: Unstable Representation of Sound: A Biological Marker of Dyslexia

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Article: Unstable Representation of Sound: A Biological Marker of Dyslexia

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Fact Sheet: Working Memory - The Engine for Learning

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Fact Sheet: Working Memory - The Engine for Learning

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Slide Deck: History, Theory, Definition, and Neurobiological Origins of Dyslexia

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Slide Deck: History, Theory, Definition, and Neurobiological Origins of Dyslexia

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Numedahl - History, Theory, Definition, and Neurobiological Origins of Dyslexia

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Cadre Assignment Week 14

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I AM DYSLEXIC - Short Animated Student Film

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Slide Deck: Cognitive Linguistic Correlates

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Slide Deck: Cognitive Linguistic Correlates

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Slide Deck: Experiences of those with Dyslexia

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Slide Deck: Experiences of those with Dyslexia

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IDA: Instructional & Assistive Technology

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IDA: Instructional & Assistive Technology

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Power Summary: Co-occurring Disorders of Dyslexia

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Power Summary: Co-occurring Disorders of Dyslexia

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Accommodating Students with Dyslexia in All Classroom Settings

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Accommodating Students with Dyslexia in All Classroom Settings