# data[].attributes.headline
Myth #5: Schools should wait a certain amount of time before assessing an ELL for special education services.

# data[].attributes.subject
Myth #5: Schools should wait a certain amount of time before assessing an ELL for special education services.

# data[].attributes.body
Fact: Providing special education services to English language learners when they don’t need them focuses on overidentification. But the challenge of under identification is also widespread. That’s when schools don’t identify students as needing special education services when they do need them.

One of the most common reasons for underidentification is the use of subjective policies that determine when to test an ELL student for special education services. Many of these policies are put in place to avoid overidentification. But this can result in overcorrection, leading to students not getting the help they need in a timely manner.

# data[].attributes.headline
Myth #4: ELLs will get the kinds of support they need in special education classes. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Myth #4: ELLs will get the kinds of support they need in special education classes. 

# data[].attributes.body
Fact: A special education placement in and of itself is not an appropriate strategy to help English language learners succeed.

However, some schools may provide special education services to these students with the assumption that it will provide at least some help. This is often because special education services are designed to meet an individual student’s needs and provide supports that may not be available in the general education classroom. It can also happen because there are certain strategies that support both students who need specially designed instruction and English language learners.

ELLs have specific language, literacy, and academic needs. They need exposure to a rich language environment and scaffolded support that matches their level of language proficiency. Like all students, they also need access to the same rigorous curriculum as their peers. (Ideally, they will also have some level of academic support in their native language in order to tap into existing content knowledge and prior experiences.)

# data[].attributes.headline
Myth #3: Students who don’t understand spoken directions have a learning disability.

# data[].attributes.subject
Myth #3: Students who don’t understand spoken directions have a learning disability.

# data[].attributes.body
Fact: In many situations, students are actually succeeding, even though it doesn’t look like success to their teacher. Consider this scenario:

A kindergarten teacher is concerned that despite her engaging, rich use of literacy and language in the classroom, she has an English language learner who continues to struggle to tell the difference between initial consonant sounds.

The teacher asks a bilingual colleague to observe a lesson. When she asks students for words that begin with the /t/ sound, the native English-speaking students give examples like “tooth,” “treat,” and “tower.”

The student she’s concerned about raises his hand and says confidently, “maestra.” The teacher gently tells him that this word begins with the /m/ sound. He looks down at the carpet, confused.

After class, the bilingual colleague explains to the kindergarten teacher that “maestra” is the Spanish word for “teacher.”

This scenario is a clear example in which a student is succeeding, even though it doesn’t look like success to the teacher. At first, it looked as though the student was struggling with phonemic awareness, which can be a sign of a learning disability.

With the support of her colleague, the teacher was able to recognize that the student understood what was being asked of him, but didn’t know enough English yet to say all the words he understood.

# data[].attributes.headline
Myth #2: Students who rarely speak have a speech delay or auditory processing disorder. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Myth #2: Students who rarely speak have a speech delay or auditory processing disorder. 

# data[].attributes.body
Fact: Many students who are starting the process of learning a new language go through a nonverbal or “silent period.” It’s not unlike when toddlers and preschoolers first acquire language. They typically understand what they hear before they learn how to speak.

The length of the silent period when learning a new language depends on several factors. The richness of the student’s language instruction and interaction in the classroom both matter. Students’ confidence and whether they’re being encouraged to take risks are key, too.

Even students who understand much of what they hear may still speak in short phrases or remain silent if they are not specifically engaged or don’t feel welcome to participate in the classroom.

# data[].attributes.headline
Myth #1: The ability to speak English (or not) is a measure of intelligence. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Myth #1: The ability to speak English (or not) is a measure of intelligence. 

# data[].attributes.body
Fact: It can be easy to focus on what students can’t do instead of what they can do. But consider this: English language learners are not only on the path to learning English, they’re also on their way to becoming multilingual. It’s not as unusual as you may think. Research shows that 20 percent of school-age children in the United States are bilingual.

ELLs bring unique skills, gifts, and talents to the classroom. They often have rich background experiences, different perspectives, and the ability to navigate between multiple languages and cultures. They may also have sophisticated social-emotional skills (such as being tuned in to body language and tone of voice).

# data[].attributes.headline
5 Myths About English Language Learners (ELLs) and Special Education

# data[].attributes.subject
5 Myths About English Language Learners (ELLs) and Special Education

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
4.2 Myths and Misconceptions About English Language Learners and Special Education: IEPs from A to Z: Understanding Individualized Education Programs (PK-12)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
4.2 Myths and Misconceptions About English Language Learners and Special Education

# data[].attributes.body
Public schools have a big responsibility—they must identify, locate, and evaluate any kids who need special education. This is called “Child Find.” Looking for and finding these kids is an important first step toward getting them the help they need to thrive in school.

Each state is required by IDEA to identify, locate, and evaluate all children with disabilities in the state who need special education and related services. To do so, states conduct what are known as Child Find activities.

When a child is identified by Child Find as possibly having a disability and as needing special education, parents may be asked for permission to evaluate their child. Parents can also call the Child Find office and ask that their child be evaluated.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
At a glance

Under federal law, public schools must look for, find, and evaluate kids who need special education.

This is called Child Find, and it covers kids from birth through age 21.

It applies to all kids, including those who are homeschooled or in private schools, plus kids who are migrants or without homes.

Public schools have a big responsibility-they must identify, locate, and evaluate any kids who need special education. This is called "Child Find." Looking for and finding these kids is an important first step toward getting them the help they need to thrive in school.

When a school knows, or thinks a child could have a disability, it must evaluate the child. Child Find applies to kids from birth to age 21. It can cover kids with learning and thinking differences, developmental delays, and other conditions.

It's not enough for public schools to look only at current students. They must also seek out kids in migrant families and those without homes. You might be surprised to learn that they're even responsible for finding kids who are homeschooled or in private schools.

Child Find is part of the federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. The purpose of the law is to serve the education needs of kids with disabilities. Each state and its public schools must have policies and procedures for finding these kids. They must also develop practical methods to identify which kids qualify for special education and related services.

All public K-12 schools have evaluation systems. Also, all states have early intervention programs to serve infants and toddlers who haven't started school. There are also referrals for kids in in foster care or juvenile justice who may need help.

About the author

About the author

Andrew M.I. Lee, JD is an editor and attorney who strives to help people understand complex legal, education, and parenting issues.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Public schools are legally obligated to find and evaluate all kids who have disabilities and who need special education services. Find out what this means for you.

# data[].attributes.body
In classification based on the RTI identification methods, there are two core attributes in the underlying classification that are inclusionary; inadequate instructional response and low achievement. The core indicator of unexpected underachievement in inadequate instructional response, representing an attribute that can only be assessed in relation to efforts to teach the person.

# data[].attributes.body
Cognitive discrepancy hypotheses are more contemporary conceptions of LD that focus on unevenness in cognitive abilities. The most prominent of these hypotheses is the aptitude-achievement discrepancy hypothesis, commonly operationalized as a discrepancy between measured IQ and academic achievement.
Other cognitive discrepancy approaches represent interindividual difference methods that focus on patterns of strengths and weaknesses in cignitive skills as a core inclusionary attribute indicative of unexpected underachievement.

# data[].attributes.headline
Classification of learning disabilities (LD), intellectual disabilities (ID), and ADHD.

# data[].attributes.subject
Classification of learning disabilities (LD), intellectual disabilities (ID), and ADHD.

# data[].attributes.body
The diagram also shows major subgroups under LD (word-level reading disability [WLRD], specific reading comprehension disability [SRCD], math calculations [M-C], math problem solving [M-PS], and written expression [WE]; ID (mild, moderate, and severe levels); and ADHD (predominantly inattentive presentation [PI], predominantly hyperactive-impulsive presentation [PI], predominantly hyperactive-impulsive presentation [PH], and combined presentation [C])

Fletcher, J. M., Reid Lyon, G., Fuchs, L. S., & Barnes, M. A. (2018). Learning disabilities, second edition: From identification to intervention. Guilford Publications.

# data[].attributes.body
When you’re a kid who’s struggling to stay afloat, drawing attention to yourself can feel scary. If your child is reluctant to open up about their learning needs, doing a little groundwork at home can help get the conversation started.

Assess readiness: Some kids, especially younger ones, might not be ready to speak up, and that’s okay! You can model good advocacy skills by talking with your child (and letting her see you talk to others) about learning differences frankly and comfortably.

Ask and listen: If your child is uncomfortable talking to others about their learning issues, have a talk about what’s bothering them. They may be feeling embarrassed or ashamed of being “different.” Take this as an opportunity to reassure them and talk through their fears or doubts. They’ll feel better and you’ll have the information you need to support them emotionally, as well as academically.

For many kids who struggle with the stigma of learning differently, finding out that other kids they like and respect also struggle with learning issues boosts self-esteem and helps bust stigma.

Speak up about your learning issues. Do it loudly and often. Don’t be scared. You won’t be sorry.

As a parent though, you don’t need to be a time traveler to help your kids develop the confidence to advocate for themselves. Just pass the message on. You’ll be giving them the tools they need for a brighter, better future.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
"I learn differently."

Three small words that can make a world of difference for kids like me who grew up struggling with learning issues.

Sounds simple enough, right?

Wrong.

If your child has a learning disability, getting them help-working with the school to get an effective IEP -is the first thing on your mind. But helping them get comfortable talking about it is also important. And for a lot of kids, opening up isn't as easy as it sounds.

Without context, the symptoms of LD can look like laziness or disobedience, and, more often than not, that means kids find themselves being disciplined rather than helped.

I have ADHD and dyscalculia. As a kid I was dreamy, disorganized, and really (really) bad at math. I doodled during class and regularly missed homework assignments. On the other hand I was also smart, talkative, and good at writing. The discrepancy made my weaknesses seem willful.

"I was in trouble all the time," agrees Kaitlin, a 16-year-old high school student with ADHD and auditory processing issues. "I was afraid to tell them what was going on with me, so they just thought I was a bad student. It seemed like I didn't care about doing well, which wasn't true."

Kaitlin's mother was working with the school to get her the accommodations she needed, but Kaitlin was still uncomfortable talking about her learning disability.

"It took time for me to open up, but in my second semester of 9 th grade I started telling my teachers that I had learning difficulties and right away things got a lot better," she says. "For the first time, they saw that I really was trying, even if it didn't always seem that way, and I got the help I needed."

When you're a kid who's struggling to stay afloat, drawing attention to yourself can feel scary. If your child is reluctant to open up about their learning needs, doing a little groundwork at home can help get the conversation started.

Assess readiness: Some kids, especially younger ones, might not be ready to speak up, and that's okay! You can model good advocacy skills by talking with your child (and letting her see you talk to others) about learning differences frankly and comfortably.

Ask and listen: If your child is uncomfortable talking to others about their learning issues, have a talk about what's bothering them. They may be feeling embarrassed or ashamed of being "different." Take this as an opportunity to reassure them and talk through their fears or doubts. They'll feel better and you'll have the information you need to support them emotionally, as well as academically.

Once your child is feeling comfortable and you're confident they've got a strong understanding of their LD, help them get their message across clearly with these pointers:

Name your LD: Even though teachers should have the information, it's good for a child to get in the habit of naming of their learning difference-for example, "I have auditory processing disorder"-so there is no confusion.

Be specific: Not all kids with learning issues are the same, so encourage your child to spell out the ways their LD affects their personally: "It's hard for me to hear when there's a lot of background noise, so sometimes I miss parts of the lecture." Knowing what has worked for them in the past-and what hasn't-will give teachers a head start on providing the best support.

Talk about strengths, too: Encourage your child not to just recite a list of things they're "bad" at, but to talk about things they're good at, too, and their interests. This will not only boost their self-esteem, it will help the teacher place them in activities that allow them to demonstrate their strengths.

Express enthusiasm: Sometimes learning issues can make it hard for others to see how passionate kids are about succeeding in school. Expressing enthusiasm and interest in doing well will help your child turn their teachers into allies.

Tell on yourself: If your child has habits or strategies they use to manage their LD that don't necessarily look like what they are, encourage them to let the teacher know. For example: I pay attention best when my hands are occupied, so I used to draw all through class. I heard every word, but to my teachers I looked disinterested and bored. Once I learned to let teachers know why I was doodling, they knew I was paying attention, even if it didn't always look like it.

Test drive: When your child feels ready, go over what they're going to say a few times at home. This way you can be sure they're sharing useful information and give them a chance to practice in a safe, non-judgmental environment.

Provide back up: Talk to them about how they'll handle situations that are less than perfect. And if they're not getting the accommodations they are entitled to, agree that they'll tell you about it right away. This way you can provide comforting, positive feedback, and make a time to talk with the teacher and the administration if you need to.

Start small: If they're feeling nervous, encourage them to pick one person they feel comfortable with-a favorite teacher, camp counselor, or even a family friend, as a "test" candidate they can practice on.

"I didn't really learn to talk about my ADHD until college," says Lauren, who struggled with learning issues throughout middle and high school. Looking back, she feels strongly that finally having a community of LD/ADHD-friendly peers was what helped her to open up.

"I ended up at a school where other students had learning issues and talked about them!" she says. "For the first time I had friends who spoke openly about having LDs. Finding out I wasn't alone made me feel more comfortable talking about my ADHD. Now I'm more forthcoming. It's almost like a disclaimer: 'You'll have to be ok with this part of me if you want to be my friend.' "

For many kids who struggle with the stigma of learning differently, finding out that other kids they like and respect also struggle with learning issues boosts self-esteem and helps bust stigma. It was huge for me.

We all have, somewhere, a list of things we wish we could tell our younger selves. It's going to be okay. You don't have to change to fit in. Your hair looks great. I promise!

But if I had to pick just one thing to tell my past self it would be this:

Speak up about your learning issues. Do it loudly and often. Don't be scared. You won't be sorry.

As a parent though, you don't need to be a time traveler to help your kids develop the confidence to advocate for themselves. Just pass the message on. You'll be giving them the tools they need for a brighter, better future.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How to Help Kids Talk About Learning Disabilities - Child Mind Institute

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Sometimes opening up about learning differently is hard, but with practice, the rewards can be huge. How to talk to kids about learning disabilities.

# data[].attributes.body
Students with learning disorders often go to great lengths to avoid school situations that trigger anxiety or stress. Some signs of avoidance to watch for include:

Excessive absences

Staying home “sick” on days when there are tests or other important assignments

Refusal to participate in challenging activities

Making frequent trips to the bathroom or asking to go to the nurse when faced with stressful assignments or tests

Cutting class, or skipping school entirely

# data[].attributes.body
School can be an emotional minefield for students with learning disorders. From struggling to keep up with peers to falling behind on schoolwork, the opportunities to feel bad about themselves can be overwhelming.

Kids with learning disorders often struggle with feelings of shame, embarrassment, and low-self esteem. If a child often seems to be down on himself, depressed, or frustrated at school, an undiagnosed learning disorder could be a cause.

Kids with learning disorders may develop serious school-related anxiety. Especially before they are diagnosed, when they don’t understand why they keep up with their peers.

Additionally, kids with learning disorders often struggle with “self-regulation,” meaning they lack the tools to manage and process emotions and are easily overwhelmed — which can lead to outbursts. For example, a student who flies off the handle when he’s asked to stay in his seat, or is reduced to tears when asked to try a challenging assignment.

# data[].attributes.body
Most kids will have test anxiety now and then, but if a student seems to have more trouble than expected it can be a clue that he has a learning disorder. Some things to watch for:

A student who always ends up scrambling to finish the test on time — or routinely exceeds the time limit — regardless of reminders.

A child who’s always the last one still working on a timed assignment.

Very messy handwriting

Serious pre-test anxiety

A student who fails numerous tests despite having studied

# data[].attributes.body
Kids with learning disabilities often struggle with time management, transitions and organization. These timing troubles can cause problems both in school and at home. Tell-tale signs to watch for include:

A child who always seems to take ‘too long’ to complete tasks – from assignments to putting on his shoes after gym.

A student’s who’s parents report that it takes him hours to get through his homework at night.

A kid who’s chronically late to school (I missed the bus – again!) or always seems to be rushing from one class to another.

# data[].attributes.body
Students with learning disorders often struggle to get homework in on time – or at all. Homework troubles happen for a number of reasons.

A child may feel embarrassed to hand in work that is incorrect or unfinished.

Total wipe-out. Kids who struggle with memory and organization may have simply forgotten there was an assignment due at all.

Lost! Even when homework does get done, it still has to make it from home to school .

Every kid is bound to miss an assignment once in a while, but if a student routinely fails to turn in her homework it’s time to take a closer look at what’s going on.

# data[].attributes.body
It’s also important to remember that hiding doesn’t always look like what it is. In fact, for some kids it may look just the opposite. Where some students shrink down, hoping to go unnoticed, others act out, drawing attention away from deficits by becoming the class clown, being defiant, or pretending to be “too cool” to care how they’re doing in school.

# data[].attributes.body
Students with learning disorders often try conceal their struggles from teachers and peers. Even if they’re managing to keep up with school work, with extra effort, it may be taking a big toll on their self esteem. If a student comes across as excessively shy during class — hanging back during group projects, sitting in the back row, or doing everything in his power to avoid being called on during class — he may be trying to hide a learning issue.

# data[].attributes.body
If a student constantly has to be reminded what to do next, you might think he’s not paying attention, but it could be a sign that he’s having difficulty with what’s called “working memory” — holding, processing and building on new information. This is a common issue for kids with learning disorders.
Other signs to watch for include:

Difficulty following directions – especially if the student is hearing the information for the first time or there are several steps to remember

Daydreaming

Difficulty copying from the board

Trouble remembering assignments and doing them correctly

# data[].attributes.body
Kids who aren’t doing as well in school as expected may appear to be lazy or just not applying themselves, when in fact they may be struggling with a learning disorder. Kids who look like they’re not trying may actually be trying very hard, but failing, or trying to hide an embarrassing deficiency.

# data[].attributes.body
This is often described as a discrepancy between ability and aptitude i.e. a gap between what it seems a student should be able to do and what he’s actually able do.

Some examples of how this gap might appear in the classroom include:

A student who writes fantastic essays but has serious difficulty getting through basic math assignments, or vice versa.

A kid who’s great at answering questions in class but can’t get her point down on paper.

A student whose intelligence is obvious in person, but isn’t reflected on his report card.

# data[].attributes.headline
Tips for Recognizing Learning Disorders in the Classroom

# data[].attributes.subject
Tips for Recognizing Learning Disorders in the Classroom

# data[].attributes.body
Teachers are often the first to notice that a child has a learning disorder. Sometimes the signs are easy to spot, like a student who’s way behind in reading. Or a child who’s working hard but just keeps failing tests. But sometimes the signs are harder to see. And that can mean kids who need help don’t get it.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Teachers are often the first to notice that a child might have a learning disorder. Sometimes the signs are easy to spot - a student who just isn't making headway in reading, for example. Or a child who, despite obvious effort, can't seem to master the times tables. But the signs are not always as clear, and many children, embarrassed that they are struggling to do things that seem easy for other kids, go to pains to hide their difficulties.

Here are some less-obvious signs of learning disorders in children to watch for in the classroom.

If you notice that a student who seems as if he should be succeeding, but he isn't -either in one specific subject or in his overall school performance - it could be a sign that he has learning disorder.

This is often described as a discrepancy between ability and aptitude i.e. a gap between what it seems a student should be able to do and what he's actually able do.

Some examples of how this gap might appear in the classroom include:

A student who writes fantastic essays but has serious difficulty getting through basic math assignments, or vice versa.

A kid who's great at answering questions in class but can't get her point down on paper.

A student whose intelligence is obvious in person, but isn't reflected on his report card.

Kids who aren't doing as well in school as expected may appear to be lazy or just not applying themselves, when in fact they may be struggling with a learning disorder. Adults with learning issues recall being told repeatedly, before they were diagnosed, that they weren't trying hard enough. Kids who look like they're not trying may actually be trying very hard, but failing, or trying to hide an embarrassing deficiency.

If a student constantly has to be reminded what to do next, you might think he's not paying attention, but it could be a sign that he's having difficulty with what's called " working memory " - holding, processing and building on new information. This is a common issue for kids with learning disorders.

Other signs to watch for include:

Difficulty following directions - especially if the student is hearing the information for the first time or there are several steps to remember

Daydreaming

Difficulty copying from the board

Trouble remembering assignments and doing them correctly

Students with learning disorders often try conceal their struggles from teachers and peers. Even if they're managing to keep up with school work, with extra effort, it may be taking a big toll on their self esteem. If a student comes across as excessively shy during class - hanging back during group projects, sitting in the back row, or doing everything in his power to avoid being called on during class - he may be trying to hide a learning issue.

It's also important to remember that hiding doesn't always look like what it is. In fact, for some kids it may look just the opposite. Where some students shrink down, hoping to go unnoticed, others act out, drawing attention away from deficits by becoming the class clown, being defiant, or pretending to be "too cool" to care how they're doing in school.

Students with learning disorders often struggle to get homework in on time - or at all. Homework troubles happen for a number of reasons.

A child may feel embarrassed to hand in work that is incorrect or unfinished.

Total wipe-out. Kids who struggle with memory and organization may have simply forgotten there was an assignment due at all.

Lost! Even when homework does get done, it still has to make it from home to school .

Every kid is bound to miss an assignment once in a while, but if a student routinely fails to turn in her homework it's time to take a closer look at what's going on.

Kids with learning disabilities often struggle with time management, transitions and organization. These timing troubles can cause problems both in school and at home. Tell-tale signs to watch for include:

A child who always seems to take 'too long' to complete tasks - from assignments to putting on his shoes after gym.

A student's who's parents report that it takes him hours to get through his homework at night.

A kid who's chronically late to school (I missed the bus - again!) or always seems to be rushing from one class to another.

Most kids will have test anxiety now and then, but if a student seems to have more trouble than expected it can be a clue that he has a learning disorder. Some things to watch for:

A student who always ends up scrambling to finish the test on time - or routinely exceeds the time limit - regardless of reminders.

A child who's always the last one still working on a timed assignment.

Very messy handwriting

Serious pre-test anxiety

A student who fails numerous tests despite having studied

School can be an emotional minefield for students with learning disorders. From struggling to keep up with peers to falling behind on schoolwork, the opportunities to feel bad about themselves can be overwhelming.

Kids with learning disorders often struggle with feelings of shame, embarrassment, and low-self esteem. If a child often seems to be down on himself, depressed, or frustrated at school, an undiagnosed learning disorder could be a cause.

Kids with learning disorders may develop serious school-related anxiety. Especially before they are diagnosed, when they don't understand why they keep up with their peers.

Additionally, kids with learning disorders often struggle with "self-regulation," meaning they lack the tools to manage and process emotions and are easily overwhelmed - which can lead to outbursts. For example, a student who flies off the handle when he's asked to stay in his seat, or is reduced to tears when asked to try a challenging assignment.

Students with learning disorders often go to great lengths to avoid school situations that trigger anxiety or stress. Some signs of avoidance to watch for include:

Excessive absences

Staying home "sick" on days when there are tests or other important assignments

Refusal to participate in challenging activities

Making frequent trips to the bathroom or asking to go to the nurse when faced with stressful assignments or tests

Cutting class, or skipping school entirely

Helping students with learning disabilities get the attention and support they need to do better and feel better will benefit that child- both in school and out - for years to come.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Tips for Recognizing Learning Disorders in the Classroom - Child Mind Institute

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Learn how to identify learning disabilities in the classroom. Child Mind Institute offers tips for helping children with learning disabilities in school.

# data[].attributes.body
In a neurological model, people with LD are identified because of special signs presumed to indicate brain dysfunction:

1. Motor clumsiness

2. Perceptual difficulties

3. Confusion of right and left

4. Difficulty perceiving symbols written on finger tips

5. Specific language problems (e.g., slow naming speed)

# data[].attributes.body
In considering additional criteria for classifying and identifying LD, three overarching models have emerged over the past 125 or so years; Neurological, cognitive, and instructional. The earliest models were neurological because they attempted to identify special signs of brain dysfunction that indicated the presence of LD. These models began to recede in the 1970s and models based on some form of cognitive discrepancy gained prominence. More recently, instructional models based on the idea of using intervention response as an indicator of unexpected underachievement have emerged. The methods are tied to "Response to Intervention (RTI)" service delivery frameworks used by schools to accelerate academic and behavioral outcomes in all children. Thus, attributes of LD variously considered as indicators of unexpected underachievement include:

1. Neurological markers and signs.

2. Unevenness in cognitive functions.

3. An inability to respond to instruction that benefits most children.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Learning about Learning Disabilities, Fourth Edition continues to provide equal attention to the intellectual, conceptual, and practical aspects of learning disabilities. The Fourth Edition of this popular title presents 80% new material, keeping the chapters up to date in this fast-moving field.

# data[].attributes.headline
Statistics of Struggling Students and Specific Learning Disabilities Across The States

# data[].attributes.subject
Statistics of Struggling Students and Specific Learning Disabilities Across The States

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Identifying Struggling Students

Early and accurate identification of learning disabilities^ and ADHD^ in schools can set struggling students on a path for success. But identification can be influenced by many factors-and too often is not happening early enough.

"My husband and I were reluctant to have our son evaluated. We were well aware of the statistics about children of color in 'special ed.' But we forged ahead because we knew we needed more information to help Lorenzo be successful in school." -Rachel Vitti, parent advocate and former teacher in Florida

CHALLENGES

1. Not all children with learning and attention issues are identified in school as having a disability.

Students who are identified by schools as having a disability may qualify for one of two types of assistance. An Individualized Education Program^ (IEP) provides specially designed instruction, accommodations^, modifications^ and related services such as speech-language therapy to students who qualify for special education. A 504 plan^ provides accommodations and related services to general education students who are identified with a disability but who do not need special education.

Students with IEPs or 504 plans are protected from discrimination. Schools are also required to report certain data on students who are identified as having disabilities, such as how many repeat a grade, receive out-of-school suspensions or graduate on time.

But many of the 1 in 5 children with learning and attention issues are not formally identified with a disability. When these children receive the right interventions and informal supports, many can succeed in general education. Without enough support, however, children with unidentified disabilities may not reach their full potential and risk falling behind and having to repeat a grade. This could lead to other problems, including dislike of school, absenteeism and dropping out.

Some students who repeat a grade may eventually be identified with a disability after they have fallen far behind. Many others may slip through the cracks and leave school without ever being identified.

Why do some children's learning and attention issues remain undetected or unsupported in school? This table explores contributing factors.

Why Some Struggling Students Are Not Identified

Signs of learning and attention issues get overlooked or misinterpreted.

For example, in surveys only 28% of parents and 39% of classroom teachers recognized frequent refusal to go to school as a possible sign of learning and attention issues. ²

Some parents refuse to let schools "label" their child.

Educators who have recommended that children be evaluated for special education services said parents followed their recommendation only 56% of the time. ³

The response to intervention (RTI) process helps many students, but it is sometimes used incorrectly to delay or deny a timely evaluation for students suspected of having a disability.

In 2016 the U.S. Department of Education (USED) issued two letters reminding states that intervention strategies cannot be used to delay or deny evaluation of students suspected of having a disability. ⁴

Schools sometimes determine incorrectly that students who are gifted and have learning disabilities are not eligible for special education because they score too high.

For example, some students perform well in some content areas and not others, or they may score too high on assessments used to determine eligibility for special education. However, in 2015, USED reminded states that children with learning disabilities cannot be found ineligible for special education solely because they scored above a particular cut score established by state policy. ⁵ Without the right support, even exceptionally bright children will struggle academically. This can lead to low self-esteem, school aversion and lost potential.

Learning and attention issues that remain undetected or unaddressed can lead to lifelong difficulties that include low self-esteem, underemployment and increased risk of involvement with the justice system. For these reasons, it is imperative for researchers to help schools and families understand more about why some students with learning and attention issues are formally identified while others are not.

""

2. Fewer students are being identified with specific learning disabilities (SLD)-and it's unclear why.

The percentage of students in special education who were identified with SLD changed from 43% in the fall of 2008 to 39% in the fall of 2015, a 9.3% decrease. SLD includes students who have dyslexia^, dysgraphia^ and dyscalculia^ and is still by far the biggest of the 13 disability categories under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), accounting for more than 1 in 3 students receiving special education.

During the same period in which SLD identification has declined, however, the percentage of students in special education who were identified with other health impairments (OHI)-which covers ADHD-increased from 11% to 15%, a 36% change. OHI now accounts for about 1 in 7 students in special education.

Rates of SLD identification vary widely by state. Since 2008, ten states have experienced increases in SLD identification (CO, CT, GA, IA, KY, LA, NB, NM, NC, and WV) while nine states have experienced declines of more than 20% (DC, ID, KY, MA, MS, MT, RI, TX, and WI).

Understanding what is driving these changes at the state and national level requires further study. This is especially important because there is no evidence to suggest that there has been a corresponding decrease in the prevalence of dyslexia and other kinds of learning disabilities. There are several factors that experts have hypothesized as potential explanations for the decrease in SLD identification:

Students with SLD and another disability (such as autism) may be classified under that other disability category and still receive services for SLD.

New state laws and other efforts have increased focus on literacy education in recent years and may be helping struggling readers make progress in general education.

Increased use of response to intervention^ (RTI) and 504 plans may help some students with learning and attention issues succeed in the general education curriculum.

An increased federal investment into the Head Start program⁶ over the last decade and preschool development programs within the last few years may be offering early opportunities to identify and address challenges before special education services are needed.

3. It's hard to tell how many students with ADHD are identified by schools as having a disability.

Much like SLD, signs of ADHD can be evident from a young age. The American Academy of Pediatrics suggests ADHD evaluations should be conducted for children age 4 or older who demonstrate academic or behavioral challenges and show signs of inattention, impulsivity or hyperactivity.

However, unlike learning disabilities or autism, ADHD does not have a discrete disability category under IDEA. Federal guidance has made clear to states that when ADHD is the main reason students qualify for special education, they should be classified under Other Health Impaired (OHI). ⁷ Because studies indicate that ADHD accounts for the vast majority of OHI students, ⁸ this report uses OHI data as a rough proxy for students in special education who have ADHD.

But ADHD often co-occurs with other disorders, and IDEA does not track comorbidities. School teams must choose a primary disability so that each student is only counted once each year. An IEP may provide services and support for more than one type of disability, but this level of detail is not included in federal data. It is also difficult to tell how many students shift from one primary disability to another from year to year.

For these reasons, researchers have looked to parent surveys for insights on how many students in special education have ADHD. More research is needed to get a clearer picture of which students with ADHD are being identified in school and how well schools are meeting the needs of these students.

4. The early signs of learning and attention issues often go unnoticed.

Learning disabilities don't suddenly appear in third grade. Researchers have noted that the achievement gap between typical readers and those with dyslexia is evident as early as first grade. ⁹ In 2016, the U.S. Department of Education (USED) issued a memorandum making clear that evaluations should not be delayed or denied even for preschool-age children. ¹⁰ Yet many students struggle for years before they are identified with SLD.

As the graphic above shows, only 6.6% of students in special education were identified with SLD at age 6. By age 10, the percentage of students in special education who were identified with SLD had increased to 40.8%.

During these years, identification of developmental delays and speech/language impairments decreased. But even if all of those decreases were due to students being reclassified with SLD, those shifts still don't account for some 40,000 students who were identified with SLD at age 10.

Because many students with SLD struggle with reading, waiting to identify the issue in the upper elementary grades and beyond puts students at significant risk of experiencing academic difficulties in later grades. Students with SLD are likely to enter middle and high school settings without the essential literacy skills needed to meet rigorous academic standards.

"Each student is unique. While we can't predict how any student will respond to an intervention, we can help students make progress and prevent struggles from becoming stumbling blocks. We can identify at-risk students early. We can use evidence-based instruction until the student becomes successful. And we can prepare teachers to work effectively with students who struggle with learning to read, write or do math. We must do each of these if we're going to identify problems as early as possible and make a difference for students. Too often we aren't doing enough early enough."

Reading development expert and member of the International Dyslexia Association Council of Advisors

5. Learning and attention issues affect children from all income levels, but low-income children are more likely to be identified as having SLD.

People from all walks of life have learning and attention issues, but data indicates that children in poverty are identified at a higher rate. According to the National Survey of Children's Health, children living at or below the federal poverty level are more than twice as likely to be identified with SLD as children in households with income four times the poverty level. ¹¹

Research does not indicate a clear reason for this trend, but several factors likely contribute to the higher rate of SLD identification among low-income children. In particular, environmental factors may play a role:

Studies indicate that poverty increases the risk of low birthweight, exposure to lead and other risk factors associated with disabilities.¹²

Children living in poverty are more likely to have adverse childhood experiences (ACEs).¹³ ACEs can cause chronic stress that affects neurodevelopment in ways that make it harder to learn and control emotions. Students who experience four or more ACEs are 32 times more likely to be diagnosed with learning or behavioral challenges.¹⁴

Potential bias may also impact identification:

A recent study of special education in Massachusetts found that low-income students were much more likely to be identified with a disability if they attended school in a relatively high-income district than if they attended school in a relatively low-income district, suggesting that low-income students may be overidentified with disabilities.¹⁵

"Low-income students were identified in very high numbers. This may indicate that the failure to meet the needs of some of these children resides in general education. Assigning disability labels to children who are not disabled runs the risk of lowering expectations and, through segregated placements, restricting access to the general education classroom."

Harvard Graduate School of Education professor and former OSEP director

As researchers continue to investigate the influence that different factors, including poverty, have on SLD identification, educators and healthcare professionals need to ensure that students at all income levels who are suspected of having a disability are thoroughly evaluated. This can help schools effectively allocate resources and keep expectations high for all students.

6. Racial and ethnic disparities persist in SLD and OHI identification.

The term 'overrepresentation' is often used when the percentage of students from a racial or ethnic group identified for special education exceeds that group's percentage of total school enrollment.

'Underrepresentation' is used when the percentage of students identified for special education is smaller than that group's percentage of total school enrollment.

Disability identification rates are often disproportionate to the overall enrollment rates for students in different racial or ethnic groups. For example, African American students made up nearly 16% of public school students nationwide and 20% of students identified with SLD in 2013-2014. That year, Asian students made up nearly 5% of public school students, but only 1.5% of students with SLD. ¹⁶

The field is in agreement that no one race or ethnicity is more likely than another to have a learning or attention issue based on race or ethnicity alone. However, there are numerous factors that may influence the prevalence and identification of learning and attention issues, including adverse childhood experiences and bias.

Some studies have found that the effects of poverty amplify racial disparities, but do not solely explain the racial disproportionality among students in special education. ¹⁷ Many researchers point to data that indicates African American students are overidentified as needing special education services, with cultural bias likely playing a role in overidentification. ¹⁸

When students of color are misidentified as needing special education services, it can lead to fewer opportunities and lower expectations for those students. For example, research shows that minority students and English language learners are not only disproportionally labeled as needing special education services but are also more likely to be placed in more restrictive settings. ¹⁹

Students of color in special education spend less time in general education classrooms than white students in special education, ²⁰ which is troubling because studies have repeatedly shown that inclusion in general education classrooms has a positive effect on academic and social outcomes for students with disabilities-and particularly for students with learning disabilities. ²¹

These findings emphasize the importance of using comprehensive evaluation and identification procedures that are free from bias when identifying students in need of services, which can lead to the overrepresentation of some races in special education.

Disparities in ADHD Diagnosis

This table explores disparities in the rate of ADHD diagnoses, which rose 43% nationwide from 2003 to 2011. ²² The disparities among racial and ethnic groups, as well as by gender, income level and relative age, underscore the need for comprehensive evaluations to ensure an accurate diagnosis of ADHD. Thorough evaluations for attention issues should include nationally normed rating scales that ask the parent, child and teacher to compare the child's behavior to same-age peers.

Gender
Several studies have found that boys are more than twice as likely to have been diagnosed with ADHD as girls. The CDC reported that in 2011-2013, 13.3% of boys ages 4-17 had ever been diagnosed with ADHD compared to 5.6% of girls.

The reason for the gender difference in the prevalence of ADHD (and several other neurodevelopmental disorders) is not fully understood. Some but not all of the difference may be due to girls showing signs of ADHD that can appear different than in boys -and that are easier to overlook.

Sources: " Association Between Diagnosed ADHD and Selected Characteristics Among Children Aged 4-17 Years: United States, 2011-2013," CDC, NCHS Data Brief No. 201 (2015); Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Parent-Reported Diagnosis of ADHD: National Survey of Children's Health (2003, 2007, and 2011), Journal of Clinical Psychiatry (2016); The Prevalence of DSM-IV Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Meta-Analytic Review, Neurotherapeutics (2012); Influence of Relative Age on Diagnosis and Treatment of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Taiwanese Children, The Journal of Pediatrics, (2016)

More research is needed to better understand the relationship between factors such as race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, adverse childhood experiences, and the prevalence and identification of learning and attention issues.

Federal regulations that were finalized in 2016 aim to bring equity to IDEA by requiring schools to take action when there are disparities in identification, special education placement, or discipline. Discipline disparities are discussed in detail later in this report, as are disparities in high school graduation rates among different racial and ethnic groups.

7. English language learners with SLD are overidentified in some states and underidentified in others.

Nationwide, English language learners (ELLs) made up 9% of all public school students but 12% of students identified with SLD in 2013-2014. When ELLs struggle with academics, it is often very challenging to discern whether the difficulties are due to second-language acquisition, a learning disability or both.

Many states lack clear policies as well as professionals with expertise in this area. ²³ Inconsistent practices contribute to overidentification in some states and underidentification in others.

For example, in Utah ELLs comprised 14.4% of students with SLD but only 5.7% of the overall student population in 2013-2014. There were three other states that year (ID, MT and VA) where the percentage of students who were identified with SLD who were ELLs was more than twice as high as the percentage of ELLs among the overall student population. ELLs were overrepresented by at least 50% in a dozen other states. ²⁴

In contrast, in New Jersey the percentage of students with SLD who were ELLs (2.2%) was half the state's overall percentage of ELLs (4.5%). ²⁵

Overrepresentation suggests possible confusion between SLD and issues involving second-language acquisition. Underrepresentation may reflect a misunderstanding among educators that leads them to wait to identify students with SLD until after they no longer need English as a second language (ESL) services.

Clearer guidance is needed to help educators decide when to refer ELLs for special education evaluation and which services can address ELLs who also have SLD.

"There seems to be a mistaken belief that special education and ESL services should be thought of as 'either/or'-that once ELLs qualify for special education, they no longer qualify for language support services. An important principle to keep in mind is that ELLs with LD are entitled to a full range of seamless services designed to meet their individual language and learning needs."

-Janette Klingner, Ph.D., and Amy M. Eppolito, Ph.D.,
Coauthors of English Language Learners: Differentiating Between Language Acquisition and Learning Disabilities ²⁶

8. 504 plans have nearly doubled in recent years, but we don't know how well they are meeting students' needs.

As detailed in the graphic below, the percentage of students with 504 plans has nearly doubled since 2009. These plans have fewer reporting requirements-and fewer procedural safeguards for families-than IEPs.

Section 504 does not require schools to classify children with 504 plans by type of disability, and more research is needed to understand how many children with learning and attention issues are receiving accommodations and related services through these plans. For example, Texas requires schools to provide 504 plans to students whose only disability is dyslexia. ²⁷

Further study is also needed into how these determinations are made and how outcomes compare for students with IEPs and 504 plans.

OPPORTUNITIES

1. ESSA funding for multi-tier systems of supports (MTSS) may help improve early identification.

A multi-tier system of supports (MTSS) is defined in ESSA as "a comprehensive continuum of evidence-based, systemic practices to support a rapid response to students' needs, with regular observation to facilitate data-based instructional decision-making." ²⁸

In December 2015, the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) replaced No Child Left Behind as the federal law for K-12 education. Title II of ESSA, which provides states with funding for initiatives that will increase student achievement and the quality and effectiveness of teachers and school leaders, encourages states to develop programs such as a multi-tier system of supports^ (MTSS).

MTSS uses data from frequent progress monitoring to help educators quickly respond to students' needs and provide targeted instruction and support to prevent failure. The framework includes tiers of support that increase in intensity from one level to the next. RTI and positive behavioral interventions and supports^ (PBIS) are both examples of MTSS.

This table explores some common benefits and challenges for using these systems to help students with learning and attention issues.

How MTSS Can Help With Early Intervention and Identification

Universal screening aids teachers' observations by assessing the needs of every student, not just the ones who are demonstrating outward signs of struggle.

Even with the screening results, it may be hard for educators to differentiate between learning and attention issues and other reasons for underachievement.

Educators can intervene as soon as student struggle is recognized.

Schools need to provide ready access to specialists who typically only work with students who have IEPs or 504 plans.

Targeted instruction and support are provided before a referral for special education assessment is made.

Interventions must not delay or restrict a parent's right to request a formal evaluation to determine eligibility for special education services or other supports.

Decisions about instruction and support are based on actual classroom performance-in addition to test scores and subjective observations.

All school personnel need to develop expertise in collecting, interpreting and responding to student progress data.

Under ESSA, Title II funding may help more schools improve data collection, involve specialists when needed, and personalize students' instruction in ways that remove barriers to learning. Many schools have adopted multi-tiered systems, but studies indicate schools are struggling to effectively implement a continuum of supports. ²⁹

More research is needed to understand the role of MTSS in state identification rates. Some early adopters have shown an increase in SLD identification rates. For example, the percentage of students in special education who were identified with SLD in Colorado increased from 41.5% in the fall of 2008 to 46.3% in the fall of 2014, a nearly 12% change. Other early adopters have shown significant declines. Idaho's SLD identification rate decreased from 37.1% in 2008 to 25.1% in 2015, a 32% change.

To help educators follow best practices when making an SLD determination using an RTI-based approach, NCLD created a free toolkit and downloadable worksheet that were developed in partnership with the Council of Administrators of Special Education (CASE), the National Association of State Directors of Special Education (NASDSE) and the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP). Advocates are also exploring data-based individualization (DBI) for students in the most intensive tier of support. ³⁰

2. READ Act funding for dyslexia research may help improve early intervention and identification.

Signed into law in 2016, the Research Excellence and Advancements for Dyslexia Act (READ Act) requires the National Science Foundation (NSF) to spend at least $5 million per year on SLD research. Half of this funding must focus specifically on dyslexia. The law is aimed at producing new research that may lead to:

Identifying dyslexia earlier

Training educators to better understand and instruct students with SLD or dyslexia

Curriculum and educational tools for children with SLD and dyslexia

Implementing and scaling successful models of dyslexia intervention

3. Third-grade reading laws are expanding the use of early intervention in many states.

Children who don't read well in third grade are four times more likely to leave school without a regular diploma compared to proficient readers. ³¹

Up until third grade, students generally work on mastering basic reading skills. But after third grade, reading is needed to build skills and content knowledge in subjects like history or science. That's why third grade is often referred to as the pivotal year when students shift from learning to read to reading to learn.

This helps explain why 38 states have passed laws relating to third-grade reading proficiency. The laws are designed to ensure that students have the foundational reading skills needed to enter fourth grade, when the focus of the curriculum changes significantly.

Third-grade reading laws are leading many states to expand the use of early assessment, which provides professionals with tools to better understand and respond when a child is struggling to learn. Expanding early identification of reading challenges can help schools identify and address learning and attention issues before students fall far behind.

Most third-grade reading laws provide for frequent monitoring and intensive interventions to help students reach reading proficiency standards. Twenty-three states now require students to repeat third grade if they are not reading proficiently, but nearly all of these states allow for some exemptions.

NCLD and the Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA) have outlined best practices for evaluating and implementing third-grade reading laws. ³²

Third-Grade Reading Laws Vary From State to State

COMPONENT

WHAT SOME STATE LAWS DO

WHAT NCLD AND LDA RECOMMEND
Retention
A majority of laws allow or require students to be retained-or not promoted to fourth grade-if they have not demonstrated a certain level of proficiency by the end of third grade. Some laws allow promotion as long as the student participates in summer school or some other intervention. Some states limit retention to part of the curriculum rather than retaining a student in all areas, and require periodic reviews to determine if the student can rejoin the original grade cohort.

Given that repeating a grade increases the risk of dropping out and is associated with other negative outcomes, retention should remain a last resort. If retention is required, it must be coupled with intensive intervention and a change in instruction. States must make efforts to ensure that all teachers, especially third-grade teachers, are trained to provide reading instruction and can implement a full range of evidence-based strategies for struggling readers.

4. State dyslexia laws aim to improve early intervention and identification.

Over the past few years several states have passed laws related specifically to the early identification of and intervention for dyslexia. As of Nov. 1, 2016, 26 states had passed laws relating to dyslexia, and six have begun exploring the issue through pilot programs and task forces. Dyslexia laws vary from state to state but tend to include a few key components:

Definition of dyslexia: Most state laws establish a specific definition of dyslexia within the state's education code, often indicating that dyslexia is a type of learning disability that impacts reading.

Universal screening: Some state laws require schools to screen all students in certain grades to find children who struggle with certain literacy skills. Some laws call for universal screening annually from grades K-3. Some begin as early as Pre-K.

Evidence-based intervention: Many state laws require schools to provide evidence-based instruction for students who have been identified as displaying signs of dyslexia.

Professional development: Some laws provide for the development of resources and information to help teachers identify and address dyslexia. Different states approach this in different ways. Some call for appointing dyslexia specialists or coaches who can offer training and support to teachers. Other states have made changes to teacher preparation programs to include coursework or licensure requirements relating to literacy and dyslexia.

5. Kindergarten entry assessments are being used to identify students who may need further testing.

Many states have started using kindergarten entry assessments (KEA). These tests, which are sometimes called kindergarten readiness assessments, are administered to students who are entering kindergarten.

The purpose of these assessments is to help identify particular skills with which a student may be struggling, such as numeracy or literacy skills. These assessments are an important first step to identify potential challenges for students but should be followed by appropriate and effective intervention for students who are struggling.

More research is needed to assess the impact of KEAs. According to a survey of a nationally representative sample of U.S. public schools collected in 2010-2011, nearly all (93%) schools that administered KEAs reported using them to individualize instruction, two-thirds (65%) reported using them to identify students needing additional testing for learning issues and one-fourth (24%) used them to advise parents to delay kindergarten entry. ³³

6. Some states are starting to identify children ages 3-5 with SLD.

For at least a few students in a few states, educators appear to have identified SLD very early. In the 2015-2016 school year, 8,252 children ages 3-5 were identified with SLD. Three-fourths of these children were in four states: California, Iowa, New Jersey and New York. Further study is needed to understand the accuracy and impact of identifying very young children with SLD.
For a full discussion of how to address the challenges and opportunities discussed in this chapter, see NCLD's Recommended Policy Changes.
SPOTLIGHT

1. U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights (2016, October 28). 2013-2014 Civil Rights Data Collection: A First Look; U.S. Department of Education (2017, January 06). IDEA Section 618 Data Products: Static Tables.
2. Learning and Attention Issues (October 2014). Unpublished raw data from survey conducted by GfK.
3. Ibid.
4. Lhamon, C. (2016, July 26). Dear Colleague Letter and Resource Guide on Students with ADHD. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights; Ryder, R. (2016, April 29). A Response to Intervention Process Cannot Be Used to Delay-Deny an Evaluation for Preschool Special Education Services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services.
5. Musgrove, M. (2015, April 17). Letter to Delisle: Children with disabilities with high cognition. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services.
6. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2016). Head Start Program Facts Fiscal Year 2015; Committee for Education Funding (2016). Education Matters: Investing in America's Future: Fiscal Year 2017 Budget Analysis (pp. 100-101). Washington, DC.
7. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (2003, August). Identifying and Treating Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Resource for School and Home. Washington, DC.
8. Brock, S. E., Jimerson, S. R., & Hansen, R. L. (2009). Identifying, assessing, and treating ADHD at school. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 24-25.
9. Ferrer, E., Shaywitz, B. A., Holahan, J. M., Marchione, K. E., Michaels, R., Shaywitz, S. E. (2015) Achievement Gap in Reading Is Present as Early as First Grade and Persists through Adolescence. The Journal of Pediatrics, 167(5), 1121-1125.e2. doi: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2015.07.045.
10. Ryder, R. (2016, April 29). A Response to Intervention Process Cannot Be Used to Delay-Deny an Evaluation for Preschool Special Education Services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services.
11. Committee to Evaluate the Supplemental Security Income Disability Program for Children with Mental Disorders (2015). Mental Disorders and Disabilities Among Low-Income Children. Boat, T.F., & Wu, J.T. (Eds.). Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
12. Samuels, C. (2015, June 24). Minorities less likely to be identified for special education, study finds. Education Week.
13. Child Trends (2013, July). Adverse Experiences: Indicators on Children and Youth.
14. Burke, N. J., Hellman, J. K., Scott, B. G., Weems, C. F., & Carrion, V. G. (2011). The impact of adverse childhood experiences on an urban pediatric population. Child Abuse & Neglect, 35(6), 408-413. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.02.006.
15. Hehir, T., Schifter, L., Grindal, T., Ng, M., & Eidelman, H. (2014). Review of Special Education in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts: A Synthesis Report. Boston, MA.
16. U.S. Department of Education (2017, January 06). IDEA Section 618 Data Products: Static Tables; National Center for Education Statistics. Common Core of Data.
17. Skiba, R. J., Poloni-Staudinger, L., Simmons, A. B., Feggins-Azziz, L. R., & Chung, C. (2005). Unproven links: Can poverty explain ethnic disproportionality in special education? The Journal of Special Education, 39(3), 130-144.
18. Phippen, J. W. (2015, July 6). The racial imbalances of special education. The Atlantic.
19. De Valenzuela, J. S., Copeland, S. R., Qi, C. H., and Park, M. (2006). Examining educational equity: Revisiting the disproportional representation of minority students in special education. Exceptional Children, 72(4), 425-441.
20. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (2016, October). 38th Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (pp. 51). Washington, DC.
21. Cole, C. M., Waldron, N., & Majd, M. (2004). Academic progress of students across inclusive and traditional settings. Mental Retardation, 42(2), 136-144; Waldron, N. L., & McLeskey, J. (1998). The effects of an inclusive school program on students with mild and severe learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 64(3); Baker, E. T., Wang, M. C., & Walberg, H. J. (1994). The effects of inclusion on learning. Educational Leadership, 52(4), 33-35.
22. Collins, K. P., Cleary, S. D. (2016). Racial and ethnic disparities in parent-reported diagnosis of ADHD: National Survey of Children's Health (2003, 2007, and 2011), Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 77(1), 52-59. doi: 10.4088/JCP.14m09364.
23. Burr, E., Haas, E., & Ferriere, K. (2015). Identifying and supporting English learner students with learning disabilities: Key issues in the literature and state practice (REL 2015-086). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory West.
24. U.S. Department of Education (2017, January 06). IDEA Section 618 Data Products: Static Tables.
25. Ibid.
26. Klingner, J., & Eppolito, A. M., (2014). English Language Learners: Differentiating Between Language Acquisition and Learning Disabilities. Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.
27. Texas Education Agency (2014). The dyslexia handbook: Procedures concerning dyslexia and related disorders. Austin, TX.
28. The Every Student Succeeds Act, Public Law No: 114-95 (2015).
29. Balu, R., Pei Z., Doolittle, F., Schiller, E., Jenkins, J., & Gersten, R. (2015). Evaluation of response to intervention practices for elementary school reading (NCEE 2016-4000). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
30. For more information, visit the National Center on Intensive Intervention website at http://www.intensiveintervention.org.
31. Hernandez, D. J. (2012). Double jeopardy: How third-grade reading skills and poverty influence high school graduation. Baltimore, MD: The Annie E. Casey Foundation.
32. National Center for Learning Disabilities (2015). Third grade reading laws: Their impact on students with learning & attention issues.
33. Shields, K. A., Cook, K. D., & Greller, S. (2016). How kindergarten entry assessments are used in public schools and how they correlate with spring assessments (REL 2017-182). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Northeast & Islands.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Identifying Struggling Students Early and accurate identification of learning disabilities^ and ADHD^ in schools can set struggling students on a path for success. But identification can be influenced by many factors-and too often is not happening early enough.