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In the Dred Scott decision, the Supreme Court ruled that African Americans, whether enslaved or free, could not be American citizens and therefore had no standing to sue in federal court. This decision was a significant setback for civil rights, later overturned by the 14th Amendment, which established citizenship rights regardless of race.

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The 13th Amendment abolished slavery in the United States, marking a fundamental shift in the country's legal framework. This pivotal change laid the groundwork for future civil rights advancements and directly led to the 14th and 15th Amendments, aiming to grant equal protection and voting rights.

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The 14th Amendment granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including former enslaved people, and guaranteed all citizens "equal protection of the laws." This amendment significantly impacted U.S. civil rights, as it established a constitutional foundation for later rulings on equality and was critical in cases such as Brown v. Board of Education.

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The 15th Amendment was passed to grant African American men the right to vote, proclaiming that the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. It was a crucial milestone in the struggle for civil rights, leading directly to the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

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Jim Crow laws, established in the late 19th century following the end of Reconstruction in 1877, enforced racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans primarily in the Southern United States. These laws institutionalized a wide range of economic, educational, and social disadvantages for Black Americans, laying the groundwork for the Civil Rights Movement to combat racial inequality.

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In the ruling of Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court legitimized de jure segregation by establishing the doctrine of 'separate but equal,' paving the way for Jim Crow laws. This case's doctrine was eventually overturned by Brown v. Board of Education, marking a turning point in the fight against segregation.

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The 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution granted women the right to vote, symbolizing an enormous victory for the women's suffrage movement. This pivotal moment in civil rights history extended the democratic principles of the 14th and 15th Amendments, broadening the scope of who is considered equal under the law.

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Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka was a landmark Supreme Court decision that ruled state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students were unconstitutional, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson's 'separate but equal' doctrine. This case was a pivotal moment in the civil rights movement, effectively banning de jure segregation in schools and setting a precedent for desegregation.

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De jure segregation refers to racial separation enforced by law, prevalent in the United States primarily from the late 19th century until the mid-20th century, with the landmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision in 1954 marking its beginning of the end. This legal sanctioning of racial segregation, particularly through Jim Crow laws in the South, underscored systemic racial discrimination and its profound impact on civil rights and equality.

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Rosa Parks' refusal to give up her seat on a bus led to a 381-day boycott of the Montgomery bus system, demonstrating the power of peaceful protest and marking one of the first major campaigns against racial segregation.

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The integration of Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, occurred in September 1957, marking a pivotal moment in the American civil rights movement. This event, known for the "Little Rock Nine," underscored the federal government's commitment to enforcing school desegregation, challenging racial segregation, and highlighting the intense resistance to integration in the South.

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The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was landmark legislation that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, effectively ending de jure segregation in public places and banning employment discrimination. This act, building on the momentum of earlier Amendments and court decisions, marked a significant change in the protection of civil rights in the United States.

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De facto segregation refers to racial separation that occurs not by law, but as a result of voluntary associations and residential patterns, becoming particularly prominent in the United States following the end of legal segregation with the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Its importance lies in highlighting the persistent, systemic inequalities that exist without the need for legal enforcement, influencing areas such as education, housing, and employment.

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Affirmative action, initiated in the United States during the 1960s, particularly with President Lyndon B. Johnson's Executive Order 11246 in 1965, aims to address historical inequalities and discrimination by promoting opportunities for marginalized groups. Its significance lies in fostering diversity and redressing past and ongoing injustices in areas like education and employment.

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The Voting Rights Act of 1965 aimed to overcome legal barriers at the state and local levels that prevented African Americans from exercising their right to vote under the 15th Amendment. This act was a critical step forward in securing civil rights, ensuring that the right to vote could not be denied based on race or color.

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Loving v. Virginia was a significant Supreme Court case that struck down laws banning interracial marriage, citing the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause. This ruling not only provided a major victory for racial justice and civil rights but also set a precedent that would influence future decisions on marriage equality, such as Obergefell v. Hodges.

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Roe v. Wade was a groundbreaking Supreme Court ruling that established a woman's legal right to an abortion under the 14th Amendment's right to privacy. This decision significantly altered the landscape of women's rights and is linked to the broader struggle for individual rights under the Constitution.

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Bakke v. Regents of the University of California was a critical Supreme Court decision that upheld affirmative action, allowing race to be one of several factors in college admission policy. This case reaffirmed the principles of the 14th Amendment's equal protection clause and emphasized the importance of diversity in education.

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1990: The Americans with Disabilities Act

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1990: The Americans with Disabilities Act

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The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 is a civil rights law that prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in all areas of public life, including jobs, schools, transportation, and all public and private places that are open to the general public. The ADA's requirements reflect the principles of the 14th Amendment by ensuring equal protection and rights for all citizens, marking a significant advancement in civil rights for individuals with disabilities.

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Obergefell v. Hodges was a landmark Supreme Court decision that granted same-sex couples the right to marry, legally recognizing their marriages across the United States under the 14th Amendment's provisions for equal protection and due process. This pivotal decision further expanded the scope of civil rights, affirming the principle that all individuals are entitled to equal rights and protections under the law.